Universe- comprises all space and time Based on the data: Universe is 13.8-14 Billion 5.

illion 5. Hardness- the resistance of abrasion

Years Old of scratching based on molts and scale
and all matter and energy in it.
of hardness.
The Big Bang Timeline
 Made up of: 6. Fracture- the property of minerals to
4.6% Barynomic Matter  0-10 sec.- all mater and energy existed break irregularly when they do not
(Ordinary Matter) as hot dense and tiny state. It yield to cleavage/parting surface.
24% Cold dark matter underwent rapid, exponential 7. Crystal Habit- the visible shape
- Matter that has gravity but does inflation, only quarks, hadrons and exhibited by the materials
not emit light. leptons exist. 8. Streak- the color of the finely formed
powder produced by rubbing the
71.4% Dark Energy- source of anti-
gravity.
Rock- made up of substances called mineral against streak plate or
minerals. unglazed porcelain tile.
3 most abundant element in the universe:
Mineral Characteristics Molt’s Scale of Hardnes
1. Hydrogen
 Naturally Occurring 1. Tale 6. Feldspar *1 Softest
2. Helium
 Inorganic Substance 2. Gypsum 7. Quarts *10Hardest
3. Lithium
 Solid (at standard room-temp) 3. Calcite 8. Topaz
Stars- building block of galaxies born out of  Definite Chemical Composition(not a 4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
rebulae. mixture but a compound) 5. Apatite 10. Diamond
 Crystalline Structure
*Life of a Star* Classes of Minerals
Physical Characteristics
Stable Stage 1. Native Elements 6. Silicates
1. Luster- the general appearance of a 2. Carbonated 7. Sulfates
Stellar Nebula 3. Halides 8. Sulfides
mineral surface in reflected light.
First- Star the same as our system > Red 2. Cleavage- property of mineral to 4. Oxides
Giant> Planetary Nebula> White dwarf>Black break along definite plane surface. 5. Phospates
dwarf 3. Color- the color of a freshly broken
Rocks- The dry solid part of the Earth’s
surface
Second- Massive star>Red Super Giant> surface, or any large piece of this that
4. Magnetism- the property of being
Supernova>(Neutron star and Black Hole) sticks up out of the ground or the sea.
attracted to or repelled by a magnet
Types of Rocks -Compaction of accumulated - Rocks are made up of pieces of
sediments and fragments of pre-existing rocks.
1. Igneous Rocks
minerals, rocks, plant, and animal 2. Chemical
- Rocks of magmatic origin with
matter. - Formed by chemical precipitation
either coarse grains (due to rapid
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks 3. Biological
cooling at or near the surface) or
A. Conglomerate - Formed from once living
fine grains (due to slow cooling
- Contains grams of different sizes organisms
below the surface).
that have been cemented
 Process of formation Metamorphic Rock
together.
 Cooling and solidification of
B. Sandstone - Rock formed form the other types
melted rocks(magma/lava)
- Formed from grains of sand that of rocks that have been subjected
 Examples;
have been came together over a to intense temperature and
Granite, Basalt, Obsidian,
period of time. pressure through millions of
Andesite, Porphyry, Diorite
C. Mudstone and Shale years.
 Types of Igneous Rocks
- Formed from finer grains of  Process of Formation
a. Intrusive I.R
sediment deposited by calm water - Transformation of other rocks into
- Rocks formed from magma that
in the form of mud. denser small rocks, formation of
cools and solidifies within the
D. Siltstone new minerals from previous on es.
crusts.
- Has grains slightly larger than Example;
b. Extrusive I.R
those of mudstone. 1. Shales
- Formed on the surface of the
2. Marbles
Earth from Lava. Examples;
- Forms from limestone, under heat
2. Sedimentary Rocks
1. Limestone and pressure
- Rocks formed from sedimentation
- Formed from the remains of dead 3. Gneiss
at compaction of particles from
plants that are buried by the - Formed mainly as a result of great
other rocks.
other sediments. pressure on granite
- Usually layered
- Can contain fossils of ancient Classes of Sedimentary Rocks
organism
 Process of Formation 1. Clastic
 Turbine to Generator to Transmission - Stimulation technique
(kinetic-mechanical-electric energy)
ENERGY Advantage used of Fossil Fuels
2. Non-renewable Source of Energy - Very efficient use amount of
Two types of Source of Energy
 Fossil Fuels energy
1. Renewable Source of Energy  Coal
- Are energy that can be restored. - Dead plants Disadvantage
 Solar - Sedimentary - Not renewed easily
- (non-polluting) - Carbon; - Burned
- Nearly unlimited 1. Lignite- Brown Coal
- Comes from the heat of the sun 2. Sub-bituminous- Medium WATER CYCLE
- Solar Panel 3. Bituminous- Soft Coal - 1/3 underground water, rivers,
 Wind 4. Anthracite- Hard Coal lakes
- Nearly unlimited - Shiny excellent fuel, high heat - 2/3 is formed of salt water Ice
- Usually comes from air or wind content, low subline  Evaporation
- Wind Turbine  Crude Oil - The sun is the ultimate source of
 Geothermal 1. Petroleum energy
- Usually comes from volcano/ - Liquid type of fossil fuels - The sun most power of
earth - Comes from ancient marine plant evaporation most occurs on earth.
- Contributor air pollution, due to (Oil Rig) - Happens when water molecule
the release of hydrogen sulfide - Kerosene, gasoline out the surface gets excited and
sulfur dioxide - Half the carbon emission of U.S arise into air, those molecules
 Hydroelectric  Natural Gas with highest kinetic energy
- Hydro or water - Odorless hydro carbon - Kinetic energy accumulate the
- the power of water in motion - Cleaner type of Coal colorless boiling point of water
1. Conventional  Transpiration
- Dali Makita - Other name for evapotransp
- Found in rock beds extracted from - Happens when evaporation
through drilling. occurs through the leaves of
2. Unconventional
- Too difficult to extract
 plants contributes a large amount
of water.
 Sublimation
- Occurs when snow or ice charges
directly into water vapor without
becoming water
- Usually results of dry winds and
low humidity can be observed on
mountain peaks were air pressure
is quite low.
 Condensation
- Water vapor that accumulated in
the atmosphere eventually cools
down due to decrease
temperature found in high
amplitudes.
- Vapors then becomes tiny
droplets of water/ice.
- Eventually come together to form
our clouds.
 Precipitation
- Above zero degrees centigrade,
the vapor will have condensed
water droplets, however it cannot
condensed without dusts and
other impurities
 Hence
- Water vapor attached itself and
water particles when enough
droplets merge it falls out of
chords and onto the ground
below as rain fall.
- In particularly cold weather, the
water droplet freeze and call as
snow or hail.
 Infiltration
- Rain water gets absorbed into the
ground through this process, the
lead of absorption varies, on the
material the water has sipped.
 Run off
- If the water from the rainfall does
not infiltrate it follows gravity
often flowing down the sides of
mountains and hills eventually
forming or becomes river.
Why does the melting temperature of rocks
vary?
- It all depends on the melting point
of the minerals that make up the
rock.
Where are the specific sites of rock melting or
magma formation?
- Pacific Plate
1. Hotspot
2. Subduction zones
3. Mid ocean ridges
Titanium
- A strong but very light metal that
is used for teeth transplant
Gypsum
- A metal in plaster east used in
clearing and surgery.
Earth Science
Important Minerals in Society
Fluorite Mineral – toothpaste (fluoride)
Talc- Face Powder
Aluminum – a light and durable metal, and
stainless wares that contain mostly iron.
Chromium and Carbon.
(Silicon, Silver, and Gold)
 - Used as components of gadgets - Used by pharmaceutical industry
such as cellphones and manufacturers to keep as strong
computers. and healthy
ORE MINERALS Ore genesis
Coppers – mostly used as electrical wiring
 Mineral Deposits
because it is less expensive. - The process by which a deposit of
- Are aggregates of mineral present
in high concentration ore is created
Iron steel – a combination of Iron and Carbon
- Regardless whether it has high 3 Major types:
and Concrete that contains limestone lime,
economic value or none. 1. Internal processes
and chalk that make them strong and stand
 Ore deposit 2. Hydrothermal processes
against strong winds and earthquakes.
- When a mineral deposit is 3. Surficial processes
- Used in construction, sky crapes economically valuable  Internal Processes
that towers up two so stories - Include geologic activity such as
high. 4 Categories of Mineral Deposit when volcanoes bring one from
deep in the planet to the surface.
Uranium – a radioactive mineral/ used in 1. Energy resources
 Hydrothermal process
power plant as source of heat energy to run a 2. Metal Resources
- Happens when seawater
nuclear reactor. 3. Industrial Resources
circulates through cracks in
4. Essential resources
Coal – a mineral used in coal power plants to Earth’s crust and deposits
generate electricity. Ores minerals in the area around
hydrothermal vents.
(Nickel, Copper, Lithium) - Natural rocks or sediments that
- Hydrothermal vents are cracks on
hold me or more valuable mineral
- Minerals that are needs in the seafloor: where seawater
mostly metals, that can be mined,
batteries of electric cars. meets magma.
processed and sold to a greater
 Surficial Processes
(Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium) price.
- We can accumulate through
- Contained inside the Earth in a
- Minerals needed in NPK fertilizers processes that happen in the
limited quantity because, it’s
in agricultures. surface on Earth like erosion.
creation and deposition would
Lime – used to lowers two acidity of the soil. take millions of years.

(Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc)


 Aside from ORE GENESIS, Ore
Minerals can also be deposited to the
Earth because of meteorites that
enters Earth which contain huge
amount of iron ore where we could
extract metallic iron for industry and
infrastructure purposes.
 Ore – is a nonrenewable resources
 Mineral Exploration
- Searching for valuable one
- Most one deposits are found in
mixtures with minerals called
GANGUE MINERALS or minerals
that have no commercial values.
 Methods of MInings
Mining- the extraction of valuable
minerals from mineral deposits.
2 methods:
1. Surfacing mining
- Being used to extract one
minerals near the surface of
earth.
5 types;
A. Strip mining
B. Open-pit mining
C. Dredging
D. Mountain top removal mining
E. Highwall mining
2. Underground mining
- Used to extract the rocks,
minerals, and other precious
stones, that can be found deep
beneath
 Types;
a. Room and Pillar mining
b. Shrinkage Stopping
c. Vertical crates retreat (VCR)
ORE EXRACTION
- The one’s journey to become a
useable material is only just
beginning when the one leaves
the mine. Rocks are crushed so
that the valuable minerals can be
separated from the waste rock.
Then the minerals are separated
out of the ore.
Methods of Extracting Ore’s
1. Heap leaching
- The addition of chemicals, such as
cyanide or acid, to remove ore.
2. Flotation
- The addition of a compound that
attaches to the valuable mineral
and floats
3. Smelting
- Roasting rocks, causing it to
segregate into layers so the
mineral can be attracted.
To extract the metal from the one the
rock is melted at a temperature
greater than 900 Degree Celsius which
requires a lot of energy. Extracting
metal from rock is so energy intensive
that if you recycle just 40 aluminum
cans, you will save the energy
equivalent of one gallon of gasoline.
 Factors Affecting Mineral Availability
1. Geological Factors
- Geological origin of the aca,
pressure of absence of volcano
and age of geo structure.
2. Economic Factors
- Affect mineral resources
Mineral Processing
- The process of extracting minerals
from the ores, refining then and
preparing these minerals for use.
STEPS INVLOVED
1. Sampling and Analysis
 Sampling – the removal of a
portion which represents of a
whole needed for analysis of this
material.
 Analysis – important to evaluate
the variable components in an
ore. This includes chemical,
mineralogical and particle size
analysis.
2. Comminution
- The process where rock is created
or broken down to small pieces
3. Concentration
- The separation of the valuable
minerals from the raw materials
creating an end product called
CONCENTRATE.
4. Dewatering
- Uses the concentrates to convert
it to usable minerals. This involves
filtration and sedimentation of the
suspension and drying of the solid
material harvested from this
suspension.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
1. Improper mining cause flooding
erosion, subsidence, water, and air
pollution, damage to wildlife and
habitat.
 Measures to Prevent Mitigate the
harmful effects of Irresponsible
Mining
1. Topsoil replacements using
uncontaminated soil.
2. Reintroduction of flora de
facuna
3. Neutralizing acidic waters
4. Backfilling and sealing of
2 Categories of WATER USE
abandoned underground
mines.
5. Stabilizing the slope of
impacted area to reduce
erosion.
WATER ON EARTH
Stages of Water Cycle:
Human Impacts on Freshwater
1. Water Vapor
2. Liquid Waste
3. Ice
Fresh is found in 3 main places
1. Atmospheric water in the air as:
a. Solid (Hail, snow)
b. Liquid (fog, mist, rain)
c. Gas (invisible water vapour)
2. Surface water as run off and base flow
into and from the catchment areas
like lakes.
3. Ground water in the crack and spaces
of soil, sand and rocks underground,
generally adequate and of high quality
that does require treatment for
human use.
1. Direct- use of actual water in activities
like handwashing, drinking, looking,
bathing, cleaning and many more.
2. Indirect- virtual water used to
produce or process a commodity,
commercial goods or service.
1. Direct drivers are physical and
biological factors that include climate
change, land conversion, plant
 nutrient use, and the set of disease
and invasive species.
2. Indirect drivers are demographic,
economic, socio-political, cultural and
religious, scientific, and technological
factors.
GROUND WATER VS SURFACE WATER
Groundwater- exist in subterranean aquifers
that are situated underground.
- Obtained from snowmelt and
rainfall that gets into bedrock via
surrounding soil.
Surface Water- includes any fresh water that’s
send into wet lands, stream system and lakes.
EFFECTS of Human Activities on the
Interaction of groundwater and surface water
1. Agricultural Development
2. Urban and Industrial Development
3. Drainage System
4. Modification of River Valleys
Soil – is a material composed of 5 ingredients
1. Minerals
2. Soil Organic Matter
3. Living Organism
4. Gas
5. Water
Soil is also the Earth’s fragile skin that
anchors all life on Earth.
TYPES OF SOIL
1. Sandy Soil
- Has the largest particles among
the types of soil
- Dry and gritty to touch
- Can’t hold water
2. Silty Soil
- Has much smaller particles than
sandy soil.
- Smooth to touch
- When moisten, it’s soapy slick
when you roll it between your
finger, dirt is left in your skin
- Retains water longer, but can’t
hold on to as much nutrients.
3. Clay Soil – has the smallest
particles among the three
- Has good water storage qualities
- Sticky to touch when wet but
smooth when dry
- Slower to drain
- Rich in plant food for better
growth.
4. Peaty Soil – is dark brown or black
in color, soft, easily compressed
due to its high water content
-rich in organic matter
5. Saline Soil – blackish because of its high salt
content
- can cause damage to and stall plant growth,
impede germination and cause difficulties in
irrigation.
6. Loam Soil – gardeners love
- contains a balance of silt, sand, and clay plus
humus.
- dark color and is mealy-soft, dry, and
crumbly in your hands
SOIL EROSION – is a naturally occurring
process that affects humans.
IN AGRICULTURE
- It is the wearing a way of a fields
top soil by natural physical forces
of water and wind or by farming
activities.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECTS SOIL
1. Agricultural Depletion
2. Overgracing Animals
3. Deforestation
4. Mining Operations
5. Development Expansion
6. Recreational Activities
10 Ways to Converse Soil
- By Chris Rogers
1. Practice No-Fill Farming
2. Rice Terrace Farming
3. Practice Contour Farming
4. Reduce Imperious Surfaces
5. Plant a Rain Garden
6. Use a Rain Barrel
7. Plant Windbreaks
8. Restore Wetlands
9. Plant Buffer Strips Along Stream
Banks
10. Re-establish Forest.
Types of Waste
 Solid Waste
 Liquid Waste
 Gaseous Waste
 Solid Waste
- Are wastes that came from the
human society.
1. Agricultural Waste – refers to
waste generated from planning or
harvesting of crops.
- A type of solid waste (anything
that is discarded by humans)
2. Bulky Waste – Furnitures, cars
3. Hazardous Waste- refers to solid
waste or combination of solid
waste that causes herm or illness.
4. Industrial Waste – are waste
released by industrial plants
5. Mining waste- exploitation of
mineral resources
6. Biomedical – from hospitals and
other health care institutions.
7. Electronic Waste- comes from
appliances
 Liquid Waste
- Are waste generated from
washing flushing or
manufacturing process of
industries
 Gaseous Waste- waste released
from gases from automobiles,
factories or burning fossil fuels.
- Causes smug and acid rain
 Leachate – refers to the liquid
produce when waste undergo
decomposition.
 LGU – is responsible for collecting
garbage waste.
 Biodegradable – a material that is
able to breakdown or degrade
 Eutrophication – is characterized
by excessive plant and algae
growth.
SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH
1. Atmosphere
- 78% Nitrogen
- 21% Oxygen
- 1% (argon, carbon, dioxide,
carbon monoxide , ozone and
others)
2. Biosphere
- Called as the large ecosystem
- Is the very thin layer of the earth’s
surface.
3. Geosphere
- Includes the core , mantle, and
crust of the Earth’s surface
4. Hydrosphere
- Water part of the earth
- Oceans cover 71%
- Contains 97.5% of its water