EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE

1st Quarter Reviewer ● Streak – is the color of the powdered

mineral produced when it dragged across a
surface.

Conditions for Life to Exist

● Color – is caused by the absorption or lack
thereof, of visible light by their crystalline
1. Temperature - It influences how quickly
structure.
atoms, molecules or organisms move.
2. Water - It is one of the important ingredients
● Hardness – is a mineral’s ability to resist
in the different biological processes.
scratching or abrasion.
3. Atmosphere - It provides significant
insulation or shielding from the sun and
● Cleavage – is the tendency of a mineral to
impact of small to medium size meteorites.
split or cleave along planes of weakness.
4. Energy - Earth has available energy- rich
sunlight to support life.
● Crystal Habit – refers to the overall shape or
5. Nutrients - It is an essential factor used to
growth pattern of the mineral.
build and maintain organism’s body
structure.
Classification of Rocks
Different rocks are found on Earth’s lithosphere. Rocks
Earth’s Subsystem
are constantly transformed, generated and destroyed
Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth
in a process called “Rock Cycle”. The rocks can be
as a system. It considers interaction between the
categorized depending on how they are formed.
Earth’s “sphere”

Rocks - naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or

● Hydrosphere – is the totality of Earth’s water,
more minerals.
including the permanently frozen parts
called cryosphere. Water can be in three
Petrology - scientific study of rocks.
phases: solid, liquid and gas. About 70% of
the Earth is covered with water and only
Igneous Rocks - Formed through the cooling of
2.75% of Earth’s water in fresh water.
magma or lava.

● Geosphere – considered the portion of the

1. Intrusive or Plutonic Rocks – formed
Earth that includes the Earth’s interior, rocks
underneath the surface of the Earth and
and minerals, landforms and processes that
from a slow cooling magma. It is
shape the Earth’s surface. Composed of
coarse-grained.
naturally-occurring rocks and loose particles
of rocks called regolith.
2. Extrusive or Volcanic Rocks – formed on the
surface and cools quickly. It is fine-grained.
● Atmosphere – is the mixture of gases that
surround the planet. Atmosphere is generally
Sedimentary Rocks - Accumulate in a process called
composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9%
deposition of soil and other materials. It is formed
argon and 0.1% is made of different gases.
from the products of weathering and erosion, and
organic materials. Those materials become solidified
● Biosphere – includes all life forms. Most life
into rock called lithification. Sedimentary rocks can
on Earth exists within a zone no wider that
be clastic, chemical or organic.
20km where the interaction between the
lithosphere and atmosphere. Biosphere is
Metamorphic Rocks - Formed through exposure of
evident in different subsystem of the Earth.
igneous or sedimentary rock to high pressure, high
temperature or both deep within the Earth’s surface.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals

Exogenic Processes
Minerals - are naturally-occurring, inorganic and
homogenous solids that has a definite crystalline
Weathering is the general term applied to the
structure and chemical composition.
combined action of all physical and chemical
processes that disintegrate and decomposes rocks.
Physical Properties of Minerals

Physical Weathering happens whenever rock are

● Luster - describes the appearance of
broken into smaller pieces without change in
minerals when light is reflected from it.
chemical composition.
 Geothermal gradient - is the rate of increasing
● Frost Wedging – refers to the alternate temperature with respect to increasing depth in the
freezing and thawing of water inside the Earth’s interior.
joints of the rock causing them to split. Convection current - happens in the outer core and
mantle is the continuous loop of sinking hot, soft rocks
● Abrasion – wearing away of rocks by caused by energy transfer in asthenosphere.
constant collision of loose particles.
Sources of heat:
● Biological Activity – when plants break up
rocks with roots or roots exudates. 1. Primordial heat – heat from the accretion
and bombardment of the Earth during the
Chemical weathering - weaking or disintegration of early stages of formation.
rocks and the formation of new compounds or new
substances caused by chemical reactions. 2. Radiogenic heat – involves the
disintegration of natural radioactive
● Dissolution – is the process in which some of elements inside the Earth.
the minerals in rocks are directly dissolved in
water.

● Hydration – is the result of absorption or

combination of water and a particular
substance on the rock, leading to a change
in shape.

● Carbonation – is the process involving the

formation of various type of carbonates in
rock.

● Oxidation – is the process where oxygen

reacts with the rock and changes its mineral
composition.

Mass wasting - refers to the downslope movement of

rock, regolith and soil because of gravity.

Erosion - is the separation and removal of weathered

rock due to different agents like water, wind and
glacier that causes transportation of the materials to
where they are deposited.

Deposition takes place when particles are carried

away by water, ice or wind and deposited it in certain
location adding to a landform or landmass.
Earth’s Internal Heat and Magmatism
Earth’s Structure
Figure A shows a convection cell, warm material rises
(up to the surface of the earth) and cool material
sinks. These cooled materials will eventually turn to
land formation. In mantle convection, the heat source
is the core.

Crust – the lightest and least dense layer of the Figure B shows the process of conduction on how air
geosphere. Consist of mostly solid rock with high molecules come in contact with the warmer surface
percentage of silicon and oxygen composed of the land or ocean, resulting to the increase of its
minerals. thermal energy through conduction.

Mantle – the largest layer of geosphere. Consist of Plutonism - is when magma from underneath the
mostly silicate rock with high percentages of earth tried to go up in the area with low pressure out
magnesium and iron compared to the crust. of the volcano.

Core – the heaviest portion of the geosphere. Mostly MAGMA

consist of iron and nickel alloy.
Magma - composed of semi-liquid hot molten rocks
located beneath the Earth, specifically in the melted
mantle rock and oceanic plate.
Magmatism - is a process by which mantle rocks are
subjected to heat enough to melt those quantities
that leads to the formation and movement of
magma. Magma and lava contain three components:
melt, solids and volatiles. Magma contains 46.6%
oxygen and 27.7% silicon.
The magma present in the lower crust and upper
mantle of the Earth is formed or generated through
the process of Partial Melting.
Metamorphism
Metamorphism - is the process of transforming rock
into another form. Metamorphic rock comes from
pre-existing rock called parent rock. Rock
transformed due to application of high temperature
and high pressure and water
Types of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism – occurs when magma
moves into a rock or when a rock is near a body of
magma. The changes are driven by the increasing
temperature.
Regional Metamorphism – occurs deep in the Earth’s
crust. These are rocks that are subjected to direct
pressure from tectonic activity
Igneous Rocks
The source of all rock is from the magma which are
molten materials inside the Earth. When this molten
materials solidify, igneous rocks are formed.
Two types of Igneous Rocks
1. Intrusive or Plutonic Rock – results when
magma solidifies and cools beneath the
Earth’s surface.
2. Extrusive or Volcanic Rock – formed when
magma flows onto the surface of the Earth
then cools and hardens.
Color of Igneous Rocks
● Ultramafic – very low content of silica and
very dark-colored.
● Mafic – dark-colored and rich in
magnesium and iron.
● Intermediate – intermediate between mafic
and felsic rock.
● Felsic – light-colored and contains large
amount of silica 65 to75%.
Movement of Plates, Folds and Faults
Plate tectonic is a model or theory explaining how
Earth works more specially the origin of continents
and oceans introduced by Albert Wegener.
Plates - segment of landmasses.
Stress - the force exerted per unit area.
The following are the types of stress:
A. Compressive stress – involves forces
pushing together
B. Tensional stress – involves forces pulling in
opposite direction
C. Shearing stress – involves forces sliding to
each other.
Strain - the physical change that result in respond to
the force.
Movement of Plates
1. Convergent plate boundary – when plates
are moving towards each other
(compressive stress)
2. Divergent plate boundary – when plates are
moving away from each other (tensional
stress)
3. Transform-fault boundary – when plates
are sliding past each other (shearing stress)
Folding or Folds - It occurs when rocks are pushed
towards each other from opposite side. The rock later
bend into folds.
1. Monocline – a step-like folds in which it has
two horizontal or nearly horizontal limb
connected to a shorter incline limb.
2. Anticline – is arch like that are
convex-upward in shape.
3. Syncline – is a trough like or U-shaped folds
that are concave downward.
Faulting or Faults
The fracturing and displacement of brittle rock strata
along a fault plane. Faults are fracture along the crust
in which displacement has occurred.
Dip-Slip Fault
 1. Normal fault – occurs when the crust is
being pulled apart in which overlying block
moves down. (Tensional stress)
2. Reverse fault – occurs when the crust is
being pulled apart in which overlying block
moves up. (Compressive stress)
3. Strike-slip fault – a kind of transform-fault
in which blocks move relatively to each
other. (Shearing stress)
Formation of Rock Layers, Relative and Absolute
Dating
Rock - is a solid material made of minerals. When
rocks break, minerals will also separate from the
composition.
Sediment - the small fragment of the breaking of the
rock.
The sediments result from weathering and erosion.
Lithification - the solidification of the sediments.
Sedimentary rock forms layer upon other layers. The
layers are known as Strata while the process of
layering is called Stratification.
Stratified Rocks - also known as derivatives rock,
may be fragmental or crystalline. These rocks are
products of sedimentary processes.
Stratigraphy - is a branch of geology that deals with
the description, correlation and interpretation of
stratified sediments which was introduced by
Nicholas Steno.
Relative Dating - is the process of determining if one
rock or geologic event is older or younger than
another, without knowing their specific ages.
Relative dates can be established by the following
principles.
● Principle of Superposition – states that the
layers form the bottom is older and the
successive higher layers are younger rocks.
● Principles of Original Horizontality – the
deposited sedimentary rocks form horizontal
or nearly horizontal layers. If layers are flat,
this means they were not disturbed by any
tectonic processes.
● Principle of Cross-cutting – the geologic
features like faults or igneous intrusions are
younger than the rock layers cut across.
● Principle of Inclusions – if the rock
fragments are included with another rock
layer, the rock fragments must be older than
the rock layer they are embedded.
Absolute Dating - Knowing the actual age of the rock
is known as absolute dating.
Isotopes - unstable element used by scientist to
determine the actual age of the rock. . Isotopes are
elements that have same number of proton but
different number of neutrons.
The unstable isotopes are called Radioactive
Isotopes or Parent Isotopes. When parent isotopes
undergo radioactive decay, it will form new isotopes
called Daughter Isotopes.
Radiometric Dating - is a method used to determine
the actual age of the rock using decay of radioactive
isotopes present in rocks and minerals. The decay of
the radioactive element over a long period of time is
called half-life.
Carbon Dating - is used to determine the age of
organic material. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730
years.
Uranium Dating - is used to determine the substance
of material and it mostly used in absolute dating.
Uranium-235 has a half-life of 705 million years.
Geologic Time Scale
The first basis of mapping and determining the
history of the Earth was by looking at the rock layers
using relative dating. Scientists began to give
numerical dates of the rock by using absolute dating.
Fossils - are the geological marker used by geologist
to identify which organisms lived in a certain period.
1. Eon – is the largest division that spans
hundreds to thousands of millions of years.
 ● Cenozoic Era – also known as the “modern
2. Era – the subdivisions of eons is the era. It life”. It is also known as the age of mammals.
spans from tens to hundreds of millions of Mammals dominated after the extinction of
years. dinosaurs.

3. Period – one of numerous subdivisions of

geologic time allowing cross-referencing of
rocks and geologic events.

4. Epoch – is a subdivision that is longer than

an age and shorter than a period.

Earth’s History
Geologic Hazards
Pre -Cambrian Era - the longest era which started
Hazard is any event that may pose danger or risk to a
about 4.5 billion years ago
certain population. Among these hazards are
geological hazards or those that occur and concern
A. Hadeon Eon - name after the Greek god and
the Earth’s crust.
rules, Hades which means hell and
considered as the chaotic eon. The Earth
A. Earthquake – a sudden release of energy along a
was bombarded with meteors and sever
fault in the Earth’s crust.
volcanic activities.

Hazards that caused by earthquake:

B. Archean Eon – at this eon, planet Earth was
warm. The atmosphere has no oxygen and
1. Ground Shaking – is the vibration of the
mostly methane content. Earth was covered
ground during an earthquake.
with ocean and continents started to rise.
2. Tsunami – are giant waves caused by
earthquake or volcanic eruptions under the
C. Proterozoic Eon – it is the longest time scale
sea.
that lasted almost half the age of the Earth.
3. Surface Faulting – a displacement that
Also known as the time for great change.
reaches the Earth’s surface during a slip
along a fault.
D. Phanerozoic Eon – plants and animals are
4. Landslide – movement of a mass or rock,
abundant in this geologic time scale. I
debris or landmass down a slope.
5. Liquefaction – the way in which the soil
● Paleozoic Era – marine organisms dominate
liquefies during ground shaking.
during this era. The fossil trilobites were so
common all over this time and has been
B. Volcanic Eruption – occurs when molten material
used in index fossils.
from the Earth’s interior is extruded to the surface.

Hazards caused by volcanic eruptions are:

1. Ash Fall – abrasive, making it an irritant to

2.
● Mesozoic Era – this era recovered from the
great dying but it took a million years ago.
Mesozoic means “middle life”, form 245
3.
million years to 65 million years ago.
4.
eyes and lungs. Ashfall can cause minor to
major damage to vehicles and buildings,
contaminate water supplies and kill
vegetation.
Poisonous Gases – gases released during a
volcanic eruption. 99% of gases emitted
during volcanic eruption are water vapor,
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
Pyroclastic Flow – a dense, fast-moving flow
of solidified lava pieces, volcanic ash and
hot gases.
Lahar – describes a hot or cold mixture of
water, ash and rock fragments that flows
down the slopes of volcano.
C. Landslide – is an occurrence in which soil, rocks
and vegetal debris are transported suddenly or slowly
down a slope due to insufficient stability.
Major causes of landslide are the following:
1. Overloading slopes
2. Mining which uses explosives
3. Excavation
4. Cutting trees or deforestation.
Hydrometeorological Hazards
It is a process or phenomena of atmospheric,
hydrological or oceanographic nature that may
cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts,
property damage, loss of livelihood and services.
1. Tropical Cyclone - It is a severe weather
disturbance characterized by strong winds
and heavy rains which revolve around a
central low-pressure area. In Western North
Pacific they called in typhoon, while in
Eastern North Pacific it is called hurricane.
2. Thunderstorm - A violent, short weather
disturbance that is almost always
associated with lightning, thunder, dense
clouds, heavy rain or hail, and strong winds.
3. Floods - is an abnormal progressive rise in
the water level of a stream that may result in
over-flowing by the water of the normal
confines of the stream. A flood can vary in
size, speed of water and duration.
4. Storm surge - A storm surge is a rise in sea
level that occurs during tropical cyclones,
intense storms also known as typhoons or
hurricanes. The storms produce strong winds
that push the water into shore, which can
lead to flooding.
Coastal Areas - refer to the land and sea areas
bordering the shoreline. It comprises the natural
boundary between the land and ocean which may
include beach, dunes, mangroves, estuary, delta or
lagoon. Coastal processes such as waves, tides, sea
level changes, crustal movement and storm surges
will result to coastal erosion, submersion and
saltwater intrusions.
Coastal Erosion - is the wearing down of the
coastlines by the movement of wind and water. It is
not a constant process instead depends to the rate of
erosions done by other events. We can prevent
further damage caused by coastal erosion by
maintaining the stability. There are three main
classifications of stabilizing the shoreline: hard
stabilization, soft stabilization, and retreat.
Coastal Hazards - are physical phenomena that
expose the marine environment to risk of property
damage, loss of life and ecological degradation
Saltwater Intrusion - It is a major concern commonly
found in coastal aquifers around the world.
Aquifer - is an underground layer of permeable rock,
gravel, sand or silt.
Submersion - It refers to the movement of coastal
sediments from the visible portion of a beach to the
submerged nearshore region of the coast.
Hard Stabilization - is done by building structures like
a sea wall that will slow down the erosion on areas
that are prone to erosion.
Coastal erosion - happens due to interaction of the
wind and waves on the shoreline.

5. Tornado - Locally known as Ipo-ipo, is a

narrow, violently rotating column of air that
extends from a thunderstorm to the ground.

6. Monsoon - A monsoon is a seasonal wind

and rain pattern, and the word "monsoon"
believed to be originated from Arabic word
"mawsim" translates to season.

Marine and Coastal Processes

Oceanography - The scientific field dealing with

these processes happening in our major oceans and
seas.