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GRADE 11/12 EARTH SCIENCE

MODULE 3: Rocks and Minerals

🎯YOUR GOALS:
After completing the learning activities for this lesson, you are expected to:
 identify common rock forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties;
 identify economically important minerals; and
 classify rocks as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

YOUR INITIAL TASK:

Cellphones have become part of our culture that it would be hard to live without them. They
are used for staying connected with their on-the-go access to the internet, make voice calls, send and
receive messages, listen to music and take pictures and videos. Most phones are made of 40% metals, 40%
plastics, and 20% ceramic materials and trace minerals. Different parts of your phone contain different
materials derived from minerals. This is just one example of how the utilization if minerals impact our daily
lives.
In the table below, enumerate five examples of minerals. Cite their uses and importance.

YOUR DISCUSSION TEXT:

Earth provides us with different resources, both material and energy resources. This could be one of
the reasons why life can be sustained in the planet. The geosphere, which is one of the four interacting
spheres that allow life to exist, refers to the solid earth which is made up of minerals that are used by nature
itself in building rocks.
These minerals when unearthed and extracted become useful as raw materials for the different products that
we use in our everyday life. Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Geologist defined mineral as naturally
occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal structure. Every
mineral is unique, but they exhibit general characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A MINERAL

 Naturally occurring – minerals exist naturally and

not man-made
 Inorganic – minerals exclude materials derived
from living organisms.
 Solid – all liquids and gases are not considered
minerals.
 Definite chemical composition – minerals should
express an exact chemical formula with the
elements and compounds in specific ratios.
 Ordered internal structure – atoms in minerals
are organized in a regular, repetitive geometric or
Figure 1. Ice formed in the glaciers is considered a
crystal structure. mineral, but water is not.

PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL
Minerals can be distinguished using their physical and chemical properties.

Physical Properties

1. Crystal Form and Habit

- Refers to the overall shape of crystal. Minerals
form a definite structure which crystallizes into a
specific crystal form. The outward appearance of
the mineral’s crystal for, on the other hand is its
habit. It can be granular, tabular, dendritic,
acicular, massive, reniform, drusy, or encrusting

2. Cleavage and Fracture

- The way a mineral break is dependent on its
molecular bonding and structure. Cleavage is the
tendency of a mineral to break along planes of
weakness. Minerals with excellent cleavage will
break into smooth, fat, parallel surfaces. A good
cleavage will result to small, smooth, step-like flat
surfaces. Minerals with poor cleavage will fracture
in an irregular manner or as conchoidal fracture. Figure 2. Types of cleavage directions

3. Luster
- The luster of a mineral describes the appearance of light as it is reflected off its surface, as
illustrated in Figure 3.

o Opaque/Metallic if light cannot pass through and you cannot see any object through it.

o Translucent/Non-Metallic if it allows some light to pass through and objects cannot be clearly
seen through it.

Figure 3. Pyrite has metallic luster. Garnet, Quartz, Sulphur and Graphite has non-metallic
luster.
 4. Color and Streak
- Although color is the most obvious mineral
property, it is not a reliable feature for identifying
minerals because it can be altered by chemical
impurities within its structure.

- Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered

form. It can be obtained by rubbing the mineral on
an abrasive ceramic tile called streak plate. Refer to Figure 4. The streak of a mineral can be identified
Figure 4. using a streak plate.

5. Hardness
- The hardness of a mineral is a measurement of the strength of the chemical bonds in its structure.
It can be measured by scratching it with another mineral or reference material with known
hardness.
- The Mohs Scale of Hardness is a relative measure of hardness using common materials and
standard minerals to represent a specific hardness value.

Table 1. Mohs
scale created in
1812 by German
mineralogist
Friedrich Mohs
(1773—1839).
Measuring
hardness using
the Mohs scale is
described using
10 mineral
indicators. A
mineral with a
higher index can
scratch those
below it.

6. Density
- Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a
mineral. It is the weight of a mineral
relative to the weight of an equal volume of
water.

Table 2. Specific
Gravity of some
minerals

Chemical Properties
In terms of chemical composition, minerals can be classified into several classes which are mainly composed of
elements that are abundant on Earth.

Table 4. Classification of minerals based on their chemical properties

ROCKS
A rock is a naturally occurring coherent
aggregate of minerals or solid materials such as
natural glass or organic matter. Rocks are found in
the lithosphere, which is derived from the Greek
word “lithos” meaning stone. The lithosphere is the
rigid, rocky, outermost part of the Earth, composed
of the crust and uppermost [art of the upper
mantle.

About 98% of Earth’s crust is composed of eight

elements. Most common rock forming minerals are
silicate composed of silicon and oxygen as shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Percentage of elements in the Earth’s crust
THE ROCK CYCLE
The rock cycle is a model that describes all the processes by which rocks a re formed, modified,
transported, decomposed, melted and reformed. These processes occur both on the Earths surface and
underneath. Essentially, it is a dynamic cycle of process and products.

When magma (molten rock beneath

the surface) is exposed to lower
temperature, minerals and amorphous
solids crystallize and solidify, forming
igneous rocks. These rocks may then be
brought to the surface through uplift,
where they are exposed to weathering
and erosion. The processes of
weathering and erosion break the rocks
into smaller pieces called sediments.
These particles may then undergo
transportation via agents such as wind,
water, rivers and oceans until they
settle in an area where they will
undertake deposition. As more
materials settle on top of each other,
temperature and pressure increase and
the sediments at the bottom may
Figure 6. The Rock undergo lithification. Lithification
Cycle
transforms sediments into sedimentary
rocks. As temperature and pressure increase due to continuous burial and tectonic activity, the sedimentary
rocks undergo the process of metamorphism, transforming them into metamorphic rocks. If the temperature
continues to increase and exceeds the melting point of rocks, the rocks will eventually undergo melting,
turning into magma.

The path of rocks may vary as seen in Figure 6. For example, igneous rocks may be transformed into
metamorphic rocks without initially becoming a sedimentary rock. Similarly, metamorphic rocks may be
weathered and eventually lithified into sedimentary rocks without passing through processes that produce
igneous rock.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Generally, rocks are classified base on their texture, composition and mode of formation.
 Igneous Rocks
- They are formed when magma (molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth) or lava (molten
rock material extruded to the surface of the earth) cools and solidifies.
- Usually hard and crystalline.
- Rate of cooling is one of the most important factors that control crystal size.
- Solidification (the process when a liquid or gas becomes solid) can occur along the surface of the earth
or beneath the surface.

Table 5. Classification of Igneous rock based on where they are formed

Intrusive or Plutonic Igneous  Igneous rocks formed from magma beneath the ground.
Rocks  Slow rate of crystallization. Because of temperature.
 Slow cooling forms large crystals a texture called
Phaneritic.

Extrusive or Volcanic  Igneous rocks formed from lava on the surface of the Earth.
Igneous Rocks  Fast rate of crystallization. Because of temp. on the surface.
 Fast cooling does not promote formation of large Crystals
 Common texture: aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular
 Figure 7. Examples of igneous rocks Figure 8. Igneous rock comparison of
colors based on chemical composition
Table 6. Classification of igneous rock based on Chemical Composition
Felsic  Over 65% silica
 Generally light colored
Andesitic/Interdmediate  Contain a mixture of both light and dark- colored minerals.
Mafic/Basalic  45-55% silica
 Usually dark in colored
Ultramafic  Below 45-55% silica
 Very dark-colored minerals such as olivine and pyroxene

Table 7. Classification of Igneous rock based on Texture

Phaneritic texture or Coarse-  Consists of large crystals that are clearly visible, with or
grained without a hand lens or microscope
Aphanitic texture or Fine-  Texture consists of small crystals that cannot be seen by the
grained naked eye
Porphyritic rocks  Consist of two minerals having a large difference in grain size.
 The larger grain is called phenocryst and the finer grain is
called groundmass or matrix
Vesicular  Voids created by fast cooling caused bubbles to be trapped
inside.
Glossy-textured  Non-crystalline and contain no mineral grains.

 Sedimentary Rocks
- usually formed at or near the surface of the Earth.
- are formed by the accumulation of sediment that is deposited over time.
- sediment is solid material that is moved and deposited in a new location. Sediment can consist of rocks
and minerals, as well as the remains of plants and animals. Pieces form other rocks.
- lithification is the process by which the sediments are transformed into solid sedimentary rocks.
o Compaction occurs when files of sediments accumulate and the materials below are
compacted by the weight of the overlying layers. As the grains are pressed, pore space is
greatly reduced; thus, the volume is reduced.
o Cementation occurs when the water that seeps through pore spaces between particles may
contain cementing materials. Through time, the cement settles into the sediment grains, fills
the open spaces, and then binds the particles together.

Table 7. Classification of Sedimentary rock based on their Sources

Clastic  Formed from lithification of rock and mineral fragments.
  The basis for grouping is the size of particles
Crystalline  Precipitate out of solution
 The basis for grouping is the chemical composition.
Bioclastic  Formed from the accumulation of organic material or biologic
activity
 May contain fossils

Figure 7. Examples of sedimentary clastic rocks

 Metamorphic Rocks
- They come from pre-existing rocks such as igneous, sedimentary, or even metamorphic rocks. The pre-existing
rocks are called parent rocks.
- Formed below the surface of the earth through the process of metamorphism (The process of transformation of
a parent rock into a texturally and mineralogically new rock.)
- The most important agent of metamorphism is heat & pressure.
- Heat may come from:
o magma rising from underneath. The parent rock is "baked" by the magma
o when the rocks formed at the surface of Earth are transported to greater depth
- Heat causes chemical reactions that result in recrystallization of existing minerals and/or formation of new
minerals

Table 8. Classification of metamorphic rock based on mode of formation

Foliated  The dominant agent of metamorphism is
pressure
 Layered appearance because of pressure
Non-foliated Crystalline  The dominant agent of metamorphism is heat
 Induces recrystallization of existing minerals
 Usually composed of only one type of mineral

Figure 8. Examples of metamorphic rocks

Sources:
 Felicita, Corazon N. Breaking Through Earth Science
 Olivar, Jose T, et. Al. Exploring Life Through Science: Earth Science

YOUR REINFORCEMENT TASKS:

Since we are already done with the discussion, lets now check your understanding by answering the following
tasks.

TASK 1: Complete the diagram

Directions: Complete the following diagram of a Rock Cycle. Write your answer in the boxes provided.
TASK 2:
Directions: Compare and contrast the following

1. Rocks and Minerals

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2. Extrusive and Intrusive Igneous Rock

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3. Compaction and Sedimentation

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4. Foliated and Non-foliated Metamorphic Rock

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YOUR ENRICHMENT TASK:

#1 REFLECTIVE WRITING
Does every rock go through the complete rock cycle, i.e. changing from igneous to sedimentary rock to
metamorphic rock then back to igneous rock? Explain. Make your answer brief and concise, express your
answer using 5-10 sentences only.