GENERAL MATHEMATICS

A function is a relation in which each element of the domain

corresponds to exactly one element of range.

A piecewise function or a compound function is a function defined

by multiple sub-functions, where each sub-function applies to a
certain interval of the main function’s domain.

1. Sum: (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x)

2. Difference: (f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x)
3. Product: (fg) (x) = f(x) ∙ g(x)
4. Quotient: (f/g) (x) = f(x) / g(x) where g(x)

The composition of the function f with g is denoted by f °g and

is defined by the equation: (f ∘ g) (x) = f(g(x))

Rational Functions:
A rational function is a function of the form f(x) = p(x) q(x), where p(x) and q(x)
are polynomials and q(x) is not equal to zero.

Rational Equation:
It is an equation involving rational expressions.

Rational Inequality:
It is an inequality involving rational expression.
Steps on Representing Real-Life Situations using Rational Functions
1. What is asked? (Determine what the problem requires you to do.)
2. What is given? (Identify the given data in the problem.)
3. What operation to be used? (Decide the operation to be used as required by the problem.)
4. Write a number sentence. (Represent the problem using a function notation. If possible,
simplify the function.)
Steps to solve rational equations.
I. Find the least common denominator (LCD).
II. Multiply each side of the equation by the LCD and simplify.
III. Solve the resulting equation.
IV. Check the solution(s) with the original equation.
Steps in solving rational inequality.
I. Rewrite the inequality as a single rational expression on one side of the inequality
symbol and 0 on the other side.
II. Find the critical numbers; these are the values of x which make the numerator and
the denominator equal to zero.
III. Partition the x-axis into intervals based on the critical numbers.
IV. Pick a test point in each interval, evaluate the numerator and the denominator, and
perform a sign analysis.
V. Write the solution set.
THE DOMAIN of a rational function f(x) is the set of all real numbers
except those for which the denominator is zero.
THE RANGE of a rational function is the set of all values that the
variable f(x) will take.
INTERCEPTS of a rational function is a point where the graph of
rational function crosses the x or y axis.
ZEROS of rational functions are the zeros of the numerator.
An ASYMPTOTE is a line that a curve approaches, as it heads
towards infinity.

The intercepts of the graph of a rational function are the points of

intersection of its graph and an axis.
The y-intercepts of the graph of a rational function r(x), if it exists occurs at
r(0), provided that r(x) is defined at x = 0.
The x-intercepts of the graph of a rational function r(x), if it exits, occurs at
the zeros of the numerator that are not zeros of the denominators.
An asymptote is a line that a curve approaches, as it heads towards
infinity.
 21st Century Literature

Philippine Literary History from Pre-colonial to the Contemporary

PRE-COLONIAL
 literature is the literature of a formative past by the various groups of people who inhabited the
archipelago.
 A literature of varying human interest, close to the religious and political organizations of the ancient
Filipinos.
 The verses were addressed to the ears rather than the eyes.
Literary forms of Pre-colonial literature
 RIDDLES - which means battle of wits among participants.
 PROVERBS - a phrase that gives advice and effectively embodies a commonplace truth based on
practical experience or common sense.
 FOLK SONGS - a traditional or composed song typically characterized by stanzaic form, refrain, and
simplicity of melody.
 CHANTS - used in witchcraft and/or enchantment.
 EPIC - a long poem, typically one derived from ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and
adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the history of a nation.
 LEGEND - is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions perceived or
believed both by teller and listeners to have taken place within human history.

Folk Tales (Mga Kwentong Bayan)

 stories of native Filipinos
 These deals their submission to a deity-usually Bathala- and how this deity is responsible for
the blessings and calamities.
Themes
 Ceremonies
 Animals
 Life and Death
 Gods and Goddesses
 Heroes and Heroines
 Supernatural Beings
Forms
 MYTHS - these tackle the natural to strange occurrences of the earth and how things were created
with an aim to give an explanation to things.
 LEGENDS - these are traditional story or group of stories about a particular person or place which are
not always true.
 FABLES - are short stories that cater the children of the native Filipinos and are usually bounded by
good manners and right conduct.
 EPIC - a long poem, typically one derived from ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and
adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the history of a nation.

SPANISH PERIOD
 It has two distinct classifications: religious and secular
 It introduced Spanish as the medium of communication.
Literary Forms
RELIGIOUS LITERARY - revolves around the life and the death of Jesus Christ
 PASYON - long narrative poem about the passion and death of Jesus Christ.
 SENAKULO - the dramatization of the Pasyon.
  KOMEDYA - is a colorful theatrical tradition in the Philippines that describes the conflicts between the
Muslims and the Christians.
SECULAR (NON-RELIGIOUS) LITERARY - revolves around tales of valiance and adventure.
 AWIT - is the tagalog word for song that have measures of twelve syllables (dodecasyllabic) and slowly
sung to the accompaniment of a guitar or banduria
 KORIDO - ay isang uri ng tulang pasalaysay na naglalaman ng mga pakikipagsapalaran ng mga
bayani.
 PROSE NARRATIVES - are easy to understand instructional materials that teaches Filipinos on proper
decorum. this form describes important events in life either real or imaginary.

NATIONALISTIC or PROPAGANDA and REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD

 Planted seeds of nationalism to Filipinos.
 The language was shifted from Spanish to Tagalog.
 The Propaganda Movement was a period of time when native Filipinos were calling for reforms.
PROPAGANDA TRINITY
 Dr. Jose Rizal - Noli Me Tangere, the novel that gave spirit to the propaganda movement and paved
the way to the revolution against Spain. El Fili, he exposed the evils in the Spanish-run government in
the Philippines.
 Marcelo H. Del Pilar - DASALAN AT TOCSOHAN, (1) similar to cathecism, but sarcastically done
against the parish priests, (2) done in admirable tone of supplication and excellent use of Tagalog.
 Graciano Lopez-Jaena - ANG FRAY BOTOD, He exposed how some of the Friars were greedy,
ambitious, and immoral. LA HIJA DEL FRAILE (everything is hambug), Jaena explains the tragedy
of marrying a Spaniard

AMERICAN COLONIZATION PERIOD

 The public-school system was introduced
 English language was introduced
 Most works in both prose and poetic forms exhibits literary themes and motifs related to the people’s
search and desire to gain autonomy and independence as well as relevant social concerns or political
issues
Features of Philippine Literature
 English language was later used
 Short-stories are most widespread
 The use of first-person point of view in writing started to be popular.
 The comparison of urban and rural living became the common focus of the text.

JAPANESE COLONIZATION PERIOD

 there was “no freedom of speech”
 The common theme of most poems during the Japanese occupation was nationalism, country, love and
life in the barrios, faith, religion and the arts.
Three types of poems
 HAIKU - is a three-line poem with seventeen syllables, written in a 5,7,5 syllable count.
 TANAGA - is a Filipino style of poetry with four-line stanzas with the syllable count of 7-7-7-7, and a
rhyme scheme of AABB.
 KARANIWANG ANYO

CONTEMPORARY/MODERNISM PERIOD
 tried to stop pornography or those writings giving bad influences on the morals of the people
 All school newspapers were temporarily stopped and so with school organizations.
Themes of most poems
 PATIENCE
  REGARD FOR NATIVE CULTURE
 CUSTOMS
 BEAUTIES OF NATURE AND SURROUNDINGS
Notable writers and their works
 Manuel Arguilla - “How my Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife?”
 Jose Garcia Villa - “Footnote to youth”
 F. Sionil Jose - “The pretenders”
 Alejandro Roces - “My Brothers Peculiar Chicken”

NOTABLE LITERATURE WRITERS AND THEIR WORKS FROM PASIG CITY

 LOPE K. SANTOS – (1) He was a fictionist, poet, revolutionary Governor of Rizal 1910-1913, (2) First
Filipino governor of Nueva Vizcaya 1918-1920 and; (3) Senator of the 12th district 1921-1922, (4) He
was director of the Institute of National Language and espoused the teaching of the national language.
(1941 to 1945), (5) His Balarila ng Wikang Pambansa of 1946 became the official textbook. (6) Poet,
Novelist, Essayist and Critic Santos authored 10 books of poetry and six novels. (7) He is best known
for his 1906 socialist novel, Banaag at Sikat.
 GREGORIO COCHING - Novelist and Translator, His many other novels include Baliya, Nita Ravinsky,
Okami San, Dama de Noche, Nanay Ko, and Babae ng Bayan.
 FEDERICO LICSI ESPINO, JR. - Poet, Short Story Writer and Playwright, e worked as editorial
assistant of Saturday Mirror Magazine. He became a freelance writer, writing in four languages:
English, Spanish, Tagalog, and Ilocano.
 DR. LUCIANO P.R SANTIAGO - Writer, Historian, and Psychiatrist, A physician at the Department of
Psychiatry of The Medical City Hospital in Pasig.
 BERNARDO DEL ROSARIO, JR. - Playwright and Novelist, Itim ang Kulay ng Paruparo – 1966
 BENIGNO R. JUAN - Writer/ Journalist

POETRY and HYPERPOETRY

Poetry

 It is a type of literature written in not so ordinary words that usually follows a set of rules like rhyme and
meter
 It is controlled and regulated. It has a sound and rhythm to aesthetically convey meaning. It call for a
specific emotion.
 considered the oldest form of arts
 the earliest poetry is believed to be recited or sung

Poet Forms

 Dramatic Poetry - This is an emotionally appealing drama written in verse that tells a story and is
intended to be recited or sung in front of the audience by a character speaking in poetry.
 Lyric Poetry - It is the most common type of poetry that focuses on expressing feelings rather than
telling a story.
 Narrative Poetry - This poetry tells a story and has the elements of a narrative such as characters,
setting, conflict, etc.

Elements of Poetry
  Speaker - is the voice in the poem that talks to the reader
 Senses and Images - are words or word phrased used by the writer to create an image that the reader
can see through his senses.
 Diction - It is the denotative and connotative meaning of word
 Theme - the meaning of the poem

Elements of Poetry that Makes Sound Play

 Alliteration – is the repetition of initial constant sounds of the same line or stanza.
 Repetition – is the repetition of entire lines or phrases.
 Onomatopoeia – a word that is written the way it sounds.

Stanza

 Monostich – 1
 Couplet – 2
 Tercet – 3
 Quatrain – 4
 Quintain or Cinquain – 5
 Sestet – 6
 Septet – 7
 Octave – 8

Hyperpoetry

 It involves lines of verse that appear with links to footnotes, poetry generators, sub-poems, or poetry
with images or movement.

Concrete Poetry

 is a poem written in which the meaning is conveyed partly by the shaped formed by the letters and
words.

FICTION and NON-FICTION

Fiction

 based on fabricated stories and characters.

 based on imagination

Elements of Fiction

 Characters - are the people or animals who do the action in the story
 Flat Character - the one that has only one or two more character traits
 Round Character - has many character traits and play important roles or the main character
 Dynamic Character - the character changes, the change may be small or large as the story progress
 Static Character - stays the same throughout the story
 Setting - is where and when the story happened.
 Plot - is the sequence of the events in the story
 Exposition – the introduction of the characters, setting, and the main conflict of the story.
 Rising Action – leading up to conflict, the intense is getting higher.
 Climax – turning point of the story, greatest intensity.
  Falling Action – the events that unfold the climax, the story begins to slow down.
 Denouement – resolution that provides the closure to the story.
 Conflict - defined as any struggle between two entities
 Point of View - the perspective from which an author tells a story.
 First Persons POV - when the story is told from an individual point of view describing something that is
happening to them
 Second Person - a narrative that is told from the reader’s point of view.
 Third Person - narrative perspective in which the narrator describes the events in the story without
being present themselves
 THIRD-PERSON OMNISCIENT – the narrator relates all the events and facts with the thoughts and
feelings of the character, revealing their nature
 THIRD-PERSON OBJECTIVE - a narrator who can see and hear everything going on in a scene but
has no insight into characters' feelings
 THIRD PERSON LIMITED - the perspective where the camera shows the facts and interprets the
events through a single character.

TEXTULA AND BLOG

Blog

 an online journal or informational website displaying information in the reverse chronological

order, with the latest posts appearing first.
 a platform where a writer or even a group of writers share their views on an individual subject

Blog Structure

 Header with the menu or navigation bar

 Main content area with highlighted or latest blog posts
 Sidebar with social profiles, favorite content, or call-to-action
 Footer with relevant links like a disclaimer, privacy policy, contact page, etc.

Textula

 poetry genre
 Text tula or Textula employs communication technology in the sharing of tanaga
 Practical Research 2

The Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 Objective - Quantitative research is objective. This means that the researcher is unbiased.
 Clearly defined Research Questions
 Structured Research Instruments
 Numerical Data - Normally, the data in the quantitative research is in the form of numbers and
statistics, and organized and presented using tables, charts, graphs, and figures that consolidate large
numbers of data to show trends, relationships or differences among variables.
 Large Sample sizes
 Replication - If quantitative research is reliable, usually, it can be replicated or repeated to verify and
confirm the results of such study in another setting.
 Future Outcomes.

The Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

Strengths

 Quantitative research is objective. Misinterpretation is very minimal in this type of research because
it provides numerical data.
 The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows the researcher to
comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics of data.
 The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing the statistically valid
random models, findings can be generalized to the population about which information is necessary.
 Quantitative studies are replicable, standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in different
areas or over time with the formulation of comprehensible findings.

Weaknesses

 Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the larger the sample
is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.
 Quantitative research is costly. Since there are more respondents compared to qualitative research,
the expenses will be greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing the questionnaires.
 The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually
ignored. Unlike qualitative research, quantitative research does not consider the distinct capacity of the
respondents to share and elaborate further information.
 Information is difficult to gather using structured research instruments specifically sensitive issues like
pre-marital sex, domestic violence, among others.
 Data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate if it is not done seriously and correctly.
Some respondents may be just guessing in answering the instrument.

Kinds of Quantitative Research

 Descriptive Research. This design is concerned with describing the nature, characteristics and
components of the population or a phenomenon.
 Correlational Research. It is a systematic investigation of the nature of relationship, or associations
between among variables without necessarily investigating into causal reasons underlying them.
  Evaluation Research. It aims to assess the effects and impacts or outcomes of practices, policies and
programs.
 Survey Research. It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying
samples chosen from population.
 Causal Comparative Research. It is also known as ex post facto (after the fact) research. This kind of
research derives conclusion from observations and manifestation that already occurred in the past and
now compared to some dependent variables.
 Experimental Research. This research utilizes scientific method to test cause and-effect relationships
under conditions controlled by the researcher. In this case an effort is made to determine and impose
control over all other variables except one.

Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

 Variables are changing qualities or characteristics of persons or things. (Suter 2013 in Baraceros 2016,
29). For example, a person's hairstyle is potential variable, which could be "straight" for one person and
"curly" for another.
 Qualitative. Qualitative variables take on values that are names or labels.
 Quantitative. Quantitative variables are numeric. They represent a measurable quantity.

Qualitative Variables

 Nominal Variable. A type of variable used to name, label, or categorize particular attributes that are
being measured without ordering of the categories.
 Ordinal Variable. A type of variable used to categorize particular attributes with an order or rank. This
can be with a numeric value or without numeric value.

Quantitative Variables

 Interval Variable. A type of variable used to define values measured along a scale, with each point
placed at an equal distance from one another.
 Ratio Variable. A numeric variable having a zero value. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division operations can be performed on the numerical values of this variable type.

Dependent and Independent Variables

 Independent variables (IV) are those that are suspected of being the cause in a causal relationship. If
we are asking a cause-and-effect question, our IV will be the variable (or variables if more than one)
that we suspect causes the effect.
 Active IV are interventions or conditions we apply to participants.
 Attribute IV are intrinsic characteristics of the participants that are suspected of causing a result.
 Dependent variables (DV) are those that are influenced by the IV.

Quantitative Research Problem

 A research topic or problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer in the form of scientific
inquiry. It is a general question about relation among variables that you need to undertake as a
researcher. (Birion et.al, 2005, p.7 in Faltado, et. al 2017)

Sources of Quantitative Research Problem

 Personal experiences and interests.

 Related studies and literature.
  Prevailing theories and philosophies. These are beliefs and ideas of the people around us which
may lead you to conduct a study.
 Funding agencies. Some research problems are suggestions of agencies of the government or any
non-government institutions.

Criteria of Good Quantitative Research Problem

 F - Feasible. You must have the ability to carry out the research. You need to be realistic about its
scope and scale.
 I - Interesting. You must be interested in the research problem with much willingness, dedication, and
commitment.
 N - Novel. The research problem does not simply copy questions investigated by other workers but
should have the scope to be investigated.
 E - Ethical. The research to be conducted must be approved by the appropriate authorities.
 R - Relevant. The question should be academic and intellectual interest to people in the field you have
chosen to study.

The Contents of Background of Research

 Research justification. This involves providing your reader critical background or contextual
information that introduces your topic area.
 Summary of the literature review. This part includes a review of the existing literature on the area of
your research, leading up to your topic.
 The research aim or objective. This is a concise statement at the close of the literature review
indicating the general aim or purpose of your research project.
 The summary of the research design. This explains how the research aims will be achieved.

Research Questions

 Research questions are the subparts of the main research problem which are also called sub problems.

Characteristics of the Research Questions

 Research questions must add up to the totality of the problem statement. This means that your
research questions must be established from the research situations which will lead to answer your
researchable research problem.
 Each research question should be a completely researchable unit in and of itself. This means
that each of your research question must be researchable as a separate study to become a part of the
whole.
 Interpretation of data should be apparent in a research question like that in a researchable
problem. There are times that people are mistaken with the procedural or process questions to be
research questions.

The Scope and Delimitations of the Study

 presents the topic and boundaries of the research problem you are going to investigate.
 Scope refers to the coverage at which the research area will be explored.
 Delimitation is the parameters or characteristics that limit the scope and set the boundaries of the
study.

The Problem and Its Background of the Research Paper

  Background of the Study. In this section, the researcher provides a brief account of the rationale of
choosing the research topic.
 Statement of the Problem/Statement of Purpose. This section presents the problem or the
objectives of the research work that needs to be resolved and that should be stated precisely,
accurately, and clearly.
 Significance of the Study. This section provides justification of your study.
 Scope and Delimitation of the Study. This section sets the boundaries of the study you are going to
conduct.

Guidelines in Presenting the Problem and Its Background

 It must be convincing.
 It must be strong enough to be justified.
 Your target is to communicate clearly, thus your language should be simple, clear and precise.
It must be straightforward, uncomplicated and is not literary production; and
 Your thoughts must be clearly organized.

RRL

 To know the different concepts, ideas, theories that are related to your study and learn from them
through connecting them with your own research paper.
 To have more basis in proving that your research topic is correct and relevant.
 To learn more terms, especially the unfamiliar ones, that are related to your study.
 To connect the past researches, thesis or dissertation to your current research study.
 To know the connectedness of your paper to the current situation of the country and of the world.

SELECTING RELEVANT LITERATURE

 Examine the title

 Screening for inclusion – This includes the applicability of the studies previously identified and
selecting or excluding them.
 Extracting data – This involves gathering applicable information from each primary study included in
the review.
 Analyzing and synthesizing data – This last step requires the authors to organize, compare, collate,
summarize, aggregate, or interpret the information previously extracted to suggest a new contribution to
the body of knowledge.

CITING RELATED LITERATURE USING STANDARD STYLES

 APA (American Psychological Association). (Author, date) Author (Date)

 MLA (Modern Language Association). (Author page), Author (page)
 AMA (American Medical Association) or Vancouver. The Vancouver system is mainly used in
medical and scientific papers.
 Chicago Manual of Style. It includes two systems for in-text citation such as author-date system and
notes-bibliography system.

Conceptual Framework

 The conceptual framework serves as the outline that you can follow in doing your research.
HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis is a prediction of what might be the answer to your research question/s and it typically
focused on the relationship of two different variables used in the study (Crossman 2019).