Chemistry reviewer

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological

contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from water.

Filtration is one of the effective ways of purifying water and when using the
right multimedia filters it’s effective in ridding water of the compounds. This
method uses chemical and physical processes to purify water and make it safe for
human consumption. Filtration eliminates both large compounds and small,
dangerous contaminants that cause diseases with a simple and quick filtration
process. Since filtration does not deplete all the mineral salts, water that has been
filtered is considered healthier compared to water purified using other methods.

10 Water Filtration Methods

1. Activated Carbon
Carbon removes contaminants by chemically bonding to the water that is poured
into the system. Some are only effective at removing chlorine, which only improves
taste and odor, while others remove more harmful contaminants, such as mercury
and lead. It is important to note that carbon filters do not have the ability to remove
inorganic pollutants such as nitrates, fluoride, and arsenic. Carbon filters are
usually sold in block or granulated form to consumers.

2. Distillation
Distillation is one of the oldest water purification methods. It vaporizes water by
heating it to exceptionally high temperatures. The vapor is then condensed back
into drinkable, liquid water. Distillation removes minerals, microorganisms, and
chemicals that have a high boiling point. These filters cannot remove chlorine and
many other volatile organic chemicals.

3. Deionization
Deionization filters promote ion exchange in your water in order to remove salts
and other electrically charged ions. If a contaminant lacks an electrical charge, it
will be removed by these filters. Living organisms, such as viruses and bacteria will
not be removed by these filters.

4. Ion Exchange
Ion exchange technology uses a resin to replace harmful ions with ones that are
less harmful. Ion exchange is often used to soften water since it has the ability to
replace calcium and magnesium with sodium. In order for these filters to work for
extended periods of time, the resin must be regularly “recharged” with harmless
replacement ions.

5. Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis works by moving water through a semi-permeable membrane in
order to stop larger, more harmful molecules from entering. Since this process can
only block molecules that are larger than water, contaminants with smaller
molecules, such as chlorine, cannot be removed. Reverse osmosis systems are able
to remove more contaminants than carbon, making them a popular choice for
many consumers. These filters consume far more water than they produce, so they
are best suited for domestic use.

6. Mechanical
Water Filtration Methods: How to Purify Your Drinking Water
Despite the fact that they cannot remove chemical contaminants, mechanical filters
are an excellent option for consumers hoping to rid their water of sediments and
cysts. Mechanical filters contain small holes that remove these contaminants, and
they are sometimes used alongside other filtration technologies. If your water
supply contains an undesirable amount of dirt and other particles, you may want
to consider purchasing a mechanical filter.

7. Ozone
Ozone is often employed alongside other technologies, and it is renowned for its
ability to effectively kill large numbers of microorganisms. Ozone filters do not
remove chemicals, but if you are worried about getting sick from your water, this
may be your best option.

8. Carbon Block
Carbon block filters are block-shaped filters that are composed of crushed carbon
particles. These filters tend to be more effective than other types of carbon-based
filters since they have a larger surface area. The rate at which water flows through
these filters has a direct impact on their level of effectiveness. Fibredyne carbon
block filters have a greater sediment-holding capacity than other types of block
filters.

9. Granulated Carbon
As the name suggests, these filters use small grains of carbon to filter your water.
Due to their rather small surface area, granulated carbon filters tend to be slightly
less effective than their block-shaped counterparts. Much like a carbon block filter,
their level of effectiveness is strongly influenced by water speed.

10. Water Softeners

Water softeners employ ion exchange technology in order to reduce the amount of
magnesium and calcium in the water. This is especially useful if your plumbing
fixtures are prone to accumulating mineral buildup. Since these harmful elements
are replaced with sodium, water treated with this process tends to contain high
levels of sodium. If you cannot consume large amounts of salt, it is best to avoid
softened water. It is also unwise to water plants with softened water since it
contains such high levels of sodium.

Sedimentation
Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called
a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with low water velocities, allowing floc
to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located close to the
flocculation basin so the transit between the two processes does not permit
settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular, where water
flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward.
Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of water
—that furthest from the sludge—exits.

Desalination – is a process by which saline water (generally sea water) is converted

to fresh water.

Dissolved oxygen in water

Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen present in water
or other liquids. It is an important parameter in assessing water quality because of
its influence on the organisms living within a body of water. In limnology (the study
of lakes), dissolved oxygen is an essential factor second only to water itself ¹. A
dissolved oxygen level that is too high or too low can harm aquatic life and affect
water quality.

Non-compound oxygen, or free oxygen (O2), is oxygen that is not bonded to any
other element. Dissolved oxygen is the presence of these free O2 molecules within
water.The bonded oxygen molecule in water (H2O) is in a compound and does not
count toward dissolved oxygen levels. One can imagine that free oxygen molecules
dissolve in water much the way salt or sugar does when it is stirred.

Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the process of measuring the amount of heat released or absorbed
during a chemical reaction. By knowing the change in heat, it can be determined
whether or not a reaction is exothermic (releases heat) or endothermic (absorbs
heat). Calorimetry also plays a large part of everyday life, controlling the metabolic
rates in humans and consequently maintaining such functions like body
temperature.

Sample 1. If 150 g of lead at 100°C were placed in a calorimeter with 50 g of water

at 28.8°C and the resulting temperature of the mixture was 22°C, what are the
values of Qlead, Qwater and Qcal? The specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g °C and
the specific heat of lead is 0.128 J/g °C.
Sample 2. A 28.2 gram sample of copper ( csp(Cu)=0.685J/gK ) is placed in a coffee
cup calorimeter containing 100 grams of water that just stopped boiling. After some
time the temperature of the water becomes constant at 92.3 oC. Assuming the
atmospheric pressure is 1 atmosphere, calculate the initial temperature of the
Copper block. Assume no heat is lost to the surroundings. cpH2O(l) is 4.18 J/g
oC)

Heat of combustion

Molar Heat of Combustion

Many chemical reactions are combustion reactions. It is often important to know
the energy produced in such a reaction so we can determine which fuel might be
the most efficient for a given purpose. The molar heat of combustion (He) is the
heat released when one mole of a substance is completely burned.

Typical combustion reactions involve the reaction of a carbon-containing material

with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water as products. If methanol is burned in
air, we have:

CH3OH+O2→CO2+2H2OHe=890kJ/mol
In this case, one mole of oxygen reacts with one mole of methanol to form one mole
of carbon dioxide and two moles of water.

It should be noted that inorganic substances can also undergo a form of

combustion reaction:

2Mg+O2→2MgO
In this case there is no water and no carbon dioxide formed. These reactions are
generally not what we would be talking about when we discuss combustion
reactions.
Sample 1. Heats of combustion are usually determined by burning a known
amount of the material in a bomb calorimeter with an excess of oxygen. By
measuring the temperature change, the heat of combustion can be determined.

A 1.55 gram sample of ethanol is burned and produced a temperature increase of

55oC in 200 grams of water. Calculate the molar heat of combustion.

Solution:

Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.

Known

Mass of ethanol = 1.55g

Molar mass of ethanol = 46.1g/mol
Mass of water = 200g
cp water = 4.18J/goC
Temperature increase = 55oC
Unknown = He of ethanol

Step 2: Solve.

Amount of ethanol used:

1.55g46.1g/mol=0.0336mol(17.14.3)
Energy generated:
4.184J/goC×200g×55oC=46024J=46.024kJ(17.14.4)
Molar heat of combustion:
46.024kJ0.0336mol=1369kJ/mol(17.14.5)
Step 3: Think about your result:

The burning of ethanol produces a significant amount of heat.

Metals and some aspects of corrosion

Corrosion is a process through which metals in manufactured states return to
their natural oxidation states. This process is a reduction-oxidation reaction in
which the metal is being oxidized by its surroundings, often the oxygen in air. This
reaction is both spontaneous and electrochemically favored. Corrosion is
essentially the creation of voltaic, or galvanic, cells where the metal in question acts
as an anode and generally deteriorates or loses functional stability.

How Corrosion Occurs

Corrosion can occur in two general ways; over the entire surface of the metal
(Generalized Corrosion), or in local spots or areas (Localized Corrosion).

Generalized Corrosion: Typically never happens, aside from in acidic conditions.

This uniform corrosion over the entire surface of the metal is rare and leads to
overall thinning which has little effect outside of fatigue and stress conditions.
Localized Corrosion: The most common, and most detrimental, form of localized
corrosion is pitting. Pitting is when the attack happens in one single location on the
surface and creates a pit, or small cavity, in the metal. This type of corrosion attack
is hard to prevent, engineer against, and often times difficult to detect before
structural failure is met due to cracking. Pipes are often compromised due to
pitting.
Understanding Corrosion as an Electrochemical Process
Corrosion happens through a series of reduction-oxidation reactions, similar to
those of a battery. The metal being corroded acts as the anode; the metal is
oxidized, forming metal ions and free electrons. The free electrons reduce the
oxygen, often times forming hydroxide, and providing a complimentary cathodic
reaction. The dissolution of the metal at the anode has two possible outcomes; the
metal ions can go into solution, becoming hydrated, or the metal ions can form a
solid compound that collects on the surface. In the former case, further oxidation of
the metal ions can occur and an open pit can form. In the latter case, a protective
barrier may be formed and the collection of solid metal ions will inhibit further
corrosion.