9. Oxytocin is important during labor process.

What are the other functions of

oxytocin?
Answer:

The classical effects of oxytocin are stimulation of uterine contractility, particularly in

the later stages of pregnancy and the ejection of milk from the lactating mammary
gland in response to suckling. However, oxytocin receptors are very widely
distributed in the brain and in peripheral tissues and numerous other actions have been
described including anxiolytic effects, induction of maternal behavior, satiety,
stimulation of insulin and glucagon secretion, natriuresis, impairment of memory,
control of reproductive behavior, analgesia and central control of the cardiovascular
system.

10. The Islets of Langerhans perform endocrine functions of the pancreas. Give the
two
types of cells and differentiate them.
Answer:

The pancreatic islets each contain four varieties of cells:

 The alpha cell produces the hormone glucagon and makes up approximately

20 percent of each islet. Glucagon plays an important role in blood glucose
regulation; low blood glucose levels stimulate its release.
 The beta cell produces the hormone insulin and makes up approximately 75
percent of each islet. Elevated blood glucose levels stimulate the release of
insulin.
 The delta cell accounts for four percent of the islet cells and secretes the
peptide hormone somatostatin. Recall that somatostatin is also released by the
hypothalamus (as GHIH), and the stomach and intestines also secrete it. An
inhibiting hormone, pancreatic somatostatin inhibits the release of both
glucagon and insulin.
 The PP cell accounts for about one percent of islet cells and secretes the
pancreatic polypeptide hormone. It is thought to play a role in appetite, as well
as in the regulation of pancreatic exocrine and endocrine secretions. Pancreatic
polypeptide released following a meal may reduce further food consumption;
however, it is also released in response to fasting.

11. Enumerate physiologic changes in the endocrine system associated with aging and
explain each.
Answer:
As we age, changes naturally occur in the way body systems are controlled. Some
target tissues become less sensitive to their controlling hormone. The amount of
hormones produced may also change. Blood levels of some hormones increase, some
decrease, and some are unchanged. Hormones are also broken down (metabolized)
more slowly. Many of the organs that produce hormones are controlled by other
hormones. Aging also changes this process. For example, an endocrine tissue may
 produce less of its hormone than it did at a younger age, or it may produce the same
amount at a slower rate.

1. The hypothalamus is located in the brain. It produces hormones that control the

other structures in the endocrine system, including the pituitary gland. The amount of
these regulating hormones stays about the same, but the response by the endocrine
organs can change as we age.
2. The pituitary gland is located just below (anterior pituitary) or in (posterior
pituitary) the brain. This gland reaches its maximum size in middle age and then
gradually becomes smaller. It has two parts:

 The back (posterior) part stores hormones produced in the hypothalamus.

 The front (anterior) part produces hormones that affect growth, the thyroid
gland (TSH), adrenal cortex, ovaries, testes, and breasts.
3. The thyroid gland is located in the neck. It produces hormones that help
control metabolism. With aging, the thyroid may become lumpy (nodular).
Metabolism slows over time, beginning at around age 20. Because thyroid hormones
are produced and broken down (metabolized) at the same rate, thyroid function
tests are most often still normal. In some people, thyroid hormone levels may rise,
leading to an increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease.
4. The parathyroid glands are four tiny glands located around the thyroid. Parathyroid
hormone affects calcium and phosphate levels, which affect bone strength.
Parathyroid hormone levels rise with age, which may contribute to osteoporosis.
5. Insulin is produced by the pancreas. It helps sugar (glucose) go from the blood to
the inside of cells, where it can be used for energy. The average fasting glucose level
rises 6 to 14 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) every 10 years after age 50 as the cells
become less sensitive to the effects of insulin. Once the level reaches 126 mg/dL or
higher, the person is considered to have diabetes.
6. The adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys. The adrenal cortex, the
surface layer, produces the hormones aldosterone, cortisol, and
dehydroepiandrosterone.

 Aldosterone regulates fluid and electrolyte balance.

 Cortisol is the "stress response" hormone. It affects the breakdown of glucose,
protein, and fat, and it has anti-inflammatory and anti-allergy effects.
Aldosterone release decreases with age. This decrease can contribute to
lightheadedness and a drop in blood pressure with sudden position changes
(orthostatic hypotension). Cortisol release also decreases with aging, but the blood
level of this hormone stays about the same. Dehydroepiandrosterone levels also drop.
The effects of this drop on the body are not clear.

7. The ovaries and testes have two functions. They produce the reproductive cells
(ova and sperm). They also produce the sex hormones that control secondary sex
characteristics, such as breasts and facial hair.

 With aging, men often have a lower level of testosterone.

 Women have lower levels of estradiol and other estrogen hormones
after menopause.
 EFFECT OF CHANGES

Overall, some hormones decrease, some do not change, and some increase with age.
Hormones that usually decrease include:

 Aldosterone
 Calcitonin
 Growth hormone
 Renin
In women, estrogen and prolactin levels often decrease significantly.

Hormones that most often remain unchanged or only slightly decrease include:

 Cortisol
 Epinephrine
 Insulin
 Thyroid hormones T3 and T4
Testosterone levels usually decrease gradually as men age.

Hormones that may increase include:

 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Norepinephrine
 Parathyroid hormone
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004000.htm

12. Myxedemic Coma is an extreme, severe stage of hypothyroidism. What are the
factors that can precipitate this condition?
Answer:
Multiple factors can precipitate myxedemic coma. Some of the more common
precipitating factors include infections, particularly pneumonia and urosepsis, and
certain medications. Another potential risk factor is failure to reinstate thyroid
replacement therapy during hospitalization.
Factors Known to Precipitate Myxedema Coma
Factors Known to Precipitate Myxedema Coma
1. Burns

2. Carbon dioxide retention

3. Gastrointestinal hemorrhage

4. Hypoglycemia

5. Hypothermia
6. Infection

 Pneumonia

 Influenza

 Urinary tract infection/urosepsis

 Sepsis

7.Medications

 Amiodarone (Cordarone)

 Anesthesia

 Barbiturates

 Beta blockers

 Diuretics

 Lithium

 Narcotics

 Phenothiazines

 Phenytoin (Dilantin)

 Rifampin (Rifadin, Rimactane)

 Tranquilizers

8.Stroke

9.Surgery

10. Trauma