13. Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disorder of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism.

What are
the factors that contribute to DM?

Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how the body uses blood sugar
(glucose). Glucose is an important source of energy for the cells that make up the muscles and
tissues. It's also the brain's main source of fuel. The underlying cause of diabetes varies by type.
Type 1diabetes mellitus is when the pancreas stops making insulin.The main things that lead to it
are:

 Family history. If you have relatives with diabetes, chances are higher that you’ll get it,
too. Anyone who has a mother, father, sister, or brother with type 1 diabetes should get
checked. A simple blood test can diagnose it.

 Diseases of the pancreas. They can slow its ability to make insulin.

 Infection or illness. Some infections and illnesses, mostly rare ones, can damage the
pancreas.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is when the body can't use the insulin it makes. This is called insulin
resistance. Type 2 usually affects adults, but it can begin at any time in your life. The main things
that lead to it are:

 Obesity or being overweight.

 Impaired glucose tolerance. Prediabetes is a milder form of this condition. It can be

diagnosed with a simple blood test. If you have it, there’s a strong chance you’ll get type 2
diabetes.

 Insulin resistance.Type 2 diabetes often starts with cells that are resistant to insulin. That
means your pancreas has to work extra hard to make enough insulin to meet your body's
needs.

 Ethnic background. Diabetes happens more often in Hispanic/Latino Americans, African-

Americans, Native Americans, Asian-Americans, Pacific Islanders, and Alaska natives.

 Gestational diabetes. If you had diabetes while you were pregnant, you had gestational
diabetes. This raises your chances of getting type 2 diabetes later in life.

 Sedentary lifestyle. You exercise less than three times a week.

 Family history. You have a parent or sibling who has diabetes.

 Polycystic ovary syndrome. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have a
higher risk.

 Age. If you're over 45 and overweight or if you have symptoms of diabetes, talk to your
doctor about a simple screening test.
 14. Autoimmune disorders are more associated to Type 1-Diabetes Mellitus. Why is autoimmune
diseases common among children?

Autoimmune diseases refer to problems with the immune system, which usually fights off viruses,
bacteria, and infection. The problem causes the immune cells to attack the body by mistake. In
type 1 diabetes, the immune system attacks the pancreas and destroys its insulin-producing
cells. The direct cause of most autoimmune disorders is generally unknown. In children, genetic
inheritance is a likely contributor if a relative in the immediate family is also affected with an
autoimmune disease. Other well-founded theories suggest environmental factors play a significant
role in autoimmune prevalence in children as well. In fact, developed countries have a much
higher incidence of autoimmune disease than any developing countries. Some medical
practitioners have suggested that the modern diet consisting of (mostly) inflammatory foods might
also be a cause of autoimmune disease. Others have formulated the “hygiene hypothesis” which
correlates the decline of infectious disease with the increase in autoimmune disease. With this
theory, it is believed that young children in developed countries lack exposure to pathogens that
would have normally “prepped” their immune system to recognize and attack infection. As a result,
the immune system becomes hyper-reactive, attacking the healthy tissue in error.

15. Discuss the function of glucagon and insulin in our body. How does it affects the glucose level.

Insulin, hormone that regulates the level of sugar (glucose) in the blood and that is produced by the
beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Insulin is secreted when the level of blood
glucose rises—as after a meal. When the level of blood glucose falls, secretion of insulin stops, and
the liver releases glucose into the blood. Glucagon is a hormone produced by the alpha cells of the
pancreas that stimulates the liver to release glucose (through the breakdown of glycogen, the stored
glucose). Glucagon plays an active role in allowing the body to regulate the utilisation of glucose and
fats. It is released in response to low blood glucose levels and to events whereby the body needs
additional glucose, such as in response to vigorous exercise. Glucagon serves to keep blood glucose
levels high enough for the body to function well. When blood glucose levels are low, glucagon is
released and signals the liver to release glucose into the blood. In people with diabetes, glucagon’s
presence can raise blood glucose levels too high. The reason for this is either because not enough
insulin is present or, as is the case in type 2 diabetes, the body is less able to respond to insulin.

16. Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is an emergency. Give a possible condition that can be a
result of increased ICP? Discuss your answer.

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is a rise in pressure around the brain. It may be due to an
increase in the amount of fluid surrounding your brain. Increased ICP can also mean that your brain
tissue itself is swelling, either from injury or from an illness such as epilepsy. Increased ICP can be
the result of a brain injury, and it can also cause a brain injury. Therefore, increased ICP is a life-
threatening condition. A blow to the head is the most common cause of increased ICP. Other
possible causes of increased ICP include: infections, tumors, stroke, aneurysm, epilepsy, hypoxemia,
meningitis and seizures. It can also be caused by hydrocephalus, which is an accumulation of spinal
fluid in the brain cavities and hypertensive brain injury, which is when uncontrolled high blood
pressure leads to bleeding in the brain.