IKC-GID.

04 Transport Systems
Lecture Notes
Week 13-14
Lecturer: Dr Ismail Kurt
Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Eng. Izmir Katip Celebi University
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
The environmental impacts of transportation
Transportation is a dominant source of emission of most
pollutants and their multiple impacts on the environment. These
impacts fall within three categories:
• Direct impacts . The immediate consequence of
transport activities on the environment where the cause and
effect relationship is generally clear and well understood.
• Indirect impacts . The secondary (or tertiary) effects of
transport activities on environmental systems. They are often of
higher consequence than direct impacts, but the relationships
involved are often misunderstood and difficult to establish.
• Cumulative impacts . The additive, multiplicative or
synergetic consequences of transport activities. They take into
account the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an
ecosystem, which are often unpredicted.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
The transport–environment link
The main environmental dimensions of transportation are related to the causes,
the activities, the outputs and the results of transport systems
• Causes . Two major factors contribute to the level of transport activities.
Economics refers to the general level of development, income and transport
supply. An advanced economy is likely to generate more transportation
activities per capita than a developing one. Land use refers to the spatial
structure and location of transport demand.
• Activities . Involve a wide array of factors expressing the usage of
transportation infrastructures and all the related services. All these activities
have environmental outputs.
• Outputs . The first outcome of transportation activities are emissions of all
sorts (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, etc.). According to the
geographical characteristics of the area where emissions occur (e.g. wind
patterns) ambient pollution levels are created. Once these levels are
correlated with population density, a level of exposure to harmful pollutants
can be calculated. This exposure is likely to have consequences.
• End results . They include all the health, environmental and welfare effects of
the exposure to emissions from transportation activities, which are very
difficult to measure.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Environmental Dimensions of Transportation
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Environmental dimensions
• Climate change - Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ; not a
pollutant), methane (CH4 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), silicon tetrafluoride (SiF 4 ),
benzene and volatile components (BTX), heavy metals (zinc, chrome, copper and
cadmium) and particulate matters (ash, dust)
• Air quality – Highway vehicles, marine engines, locomotives and aircraft
are the source of pollution in the form of gas and particulate matters
emissions that affects air quality causing damage to human health
• Noise - Noise represents the general effect of irregular and chaotic sounds.
Long term exposure to noise levels above 75dB seriously hampers hearing and
affects human physical and psychological wellbeing. Transport noise
emanating from the movement of transport vehicles and the operations of
ports, airports and rail yards affects human health, through an increase in the
risk of cardiovascular diseases.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Environmental dimensions
• Water quality - Transport activities have an impact on hydrological
conditions. Fuel, chemical and other hazardous particulates discarded from
aircraft, cars, trucks and trains or from port and airport terminal operations,
such as de- icing, can contaminate rivers, lakes, wetlands and oceans
• Soil quality - Shipping activities are modifying the scale and scope
of wave actions leading to serious damage in confined channels such
as river banks. The removal of the earth’s surface for highway
construction or lessening surface grades for port and airport
developments have led to important loss of fertile and productive soils.
Soil contamination can occur through the use of toxic materials by the
transport industry. Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed
on road sides and enter the soil. Chemicals used for the preservation of
railroad ties may enter the soil. Hazardous materials and heavy metals
have been found in areas contiguous to railroads, ports and airports.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Environmental dimensions
• Biodiversity - The need for construction materials and the
development of land- based transportation has led to deforestation.
Many transport routes have required draining land, thus reducing
wetland areas and driving- out water plant species. The need to
maintain road and rail right of way or to stabilize slopes along transport
facilities has resulted in restricting growth of certain plants or has
produced changes in plants with the introduction of new species
different from those which originally grew in the areas. Many animal
species are becoming extinct as a result of changes in their natural
habitats and reduction of ranges.
• Land take - Major transport facilities can affect the quality of urban life by
creating physical barriers, increasing noise levels, generating odors, reducing
the urban aesthetic and affecting the built heritage.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation and energy
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation
and energy
consumption
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation and energy consumption
Transportation markets are particularly impacted by these
three energy issues:
• Price level and volatility of energy
• Energy performance
• Environmental externalities
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation and energy consumption
A trend that emerged since the 1950s concerns the growing share of
transportation in the world’s total oil consumption; transportation
accounts for approximately 25 percent of world energy demand and
for about 61.5 percent of all the oil used each year. Energy
consumption has strong modal variations:
• Land transportation accounts for the great majority of energy
consumption. Road transportation alone consumes on average 85
percent of the total energy used by the transport sector in
developed countries. Rail transport accounts for 6 percent of
global transport energy demand.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation and energy consumption
• Maritime transportation accounts for 90 percent of cross- border
world trade as measured by volume. The nature of water transport
and its economies of scale make it the most energy- efficient mode
since it uses only 7 percent of all the energy consumed by transport
activities.
• The aviation industry accounts for 8 percent of the energy
consumed by transportation. Air transport has high energy
consumption levels, linked to high speeds. Fuel is the second most
important cost for the air transport industry accounting for 13–20
percent of total expenses. This accounts for about 1.2 million barrels
per day
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation and energy consumption
Further distinctions in the energy consumption of transport can be
made between passenger and freight movements:
Passenger transportation accounts for 60 to 70 percent of energy
consumption from transportation activities. The private car is the
dominant mode but has a poor energetic performance, although this
performance has seen substantial improvements since the 1970s,
mainly due to growing energy prices and regulations.
Freight transportation is dominated by rail and maritime shipping,
the two most energy- efficient modes. Coastal and inland waterways
also provide an energy- efficient method of transporting passengers
and cargoes.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation and alternative fuels
• Biogas such as ethanol, methanol and biodiesel can be produced from
the fermentation of food crops (sugar cane, corn, cereals, etc.) or wood-
waste. Their production, however, requires large harvesting areas that
may compete with other types of land use. Besides, it is estimated that
one hectare of wheat produces less than 1,000 liters of transportation
fuel per year which represents the amount of fuel consumed by one
passenger car traveling 10,000 kilometers per year.
• Hydrogen is often mentioned as the energy source of the future. The
steps in using hydrogen as a transportation fuel consist in: (1) producing
hydrogen by electrolysis of water or by extracting it from hydrocarbons;
(2) compressing or converting hydrogen into liquid form; (3) storing it
on- board a vehicle; and (4) using fuel cells to generate electricity on
demand from the hydrogen to propel a motor vehicle.
 Transport, Energy and
Environment
Transportation and alternative fuels
• Electricity is being considered as an alternative to petroleum fuels
as an energy source. A pure battery electric vehicle is considered
a more efficient alternative to a hydrogen- fuel propelled vehicle
as there is no need to convert energy into electricity since the
electricity stored in the battery can power the electric motor
• Hybrid vehicles consisting of a propulsion system using an internal
combustion engine supplemented by an electric motor and
batteries, which provides opportunities combining the efficiency
of electricity with the long driving range of an internal combustion
engine. A hybrid vehicle still uses liquid fuel as the main source of
energy but the engine provides the power to drive the vehicle or
is used to charge the battery via a generator.