2/3/21
A D V A N C E D D ATA A N A LY S I S
IN PSYCHOLOGY
L E C T U R E # 4 : O N E - W AY A N O VA
T-TEST LIMITATIONS
What are the limitations of using t-tests?
1. We can only compare two group means at a time.
2. We can only analyze one independent variable at a time.
3. You increase the Type I error rate when you do too many test
(more on this later!)
The fix: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
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ANNOUNCEMENTS
• Written exam is on March 6th from 1 – 4 p.m.
• Oral exams will take place on March 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th.
• Sign ups for the oral exams will be open on February 8th – 22nd.
• Exam procedures document has been posted to Quercus.
• Will review both quizzes in office hours on Thursday.
• Jamovi tutorial video coming – sorry for the delay!
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
ANOVAs allow us to:
✓Compare two or more groups at a time.
✓ Analyze one or more independent variables simultaneously.
✓ Test for interactions between independent variables.
✓ Control the Type I error rate.
We will begin with the one-way between-subjects ANOVA
to analyze differences between two sample means.
Note: “One-Way” refers to the fact that there is one independent variable.
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ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) ANOVA ASSUMPTIONS

We will begin with the one-way between-subjects ANOVA
to analyze differences between two sample means.
But wait.
Shouldn’t we be using an independent samples t-test?!
Because they are equivalent tests, the assumptions for a between-
subject ANOVA are the same as those used for an independent-
samples t-test.
ü The dependent variable is continuous (ratio/interval scale); the
independent variable is categorical (ANOVA can handle 2+
groups/categories though!).
ü The data/observations are independent.

You will see by the end of this lecture that the independent ü Assume that the DV is normally distributed for all groups.
samples t-test and an ANOVA yield the same results. ü Assume that the variances are homogenous across all groups.
The F statistic is used in ANOVA.
F = t2 ü No outliers beyond ± 4 standard deviations in all groups.

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LOGIC OF ANOVA LOGIC OF ANOVA – ERROR ESTIMATE

Remember: The purpose of collecting samples is to You already know how to calculate the error variance. It is
estimate population parameters from sample statistics. the variance that is found within samples (i.e., the spread):
μNM μM
There are two ways of estimating population variance:

1. Error estimate (σ2e )

Frequency

2. Treatment estimate (σ2t)

When the null is true, these two estimates will be the same.
But when the null is false… let’s see! X
Non-Musicians Musicians

∑% &% − & "

!" =
7 (−1 8

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LOGIC OF ANOVA – ERROR ESTIMATE LOGIC OF ANOVA – ERROR ESTIMATE

If the null hypothesis was true, what would the two If the alternative hypothesis was true, what would the
distributions look like, relative to each other? distributions look like, relative to each other?
μμ
MM μNM μM
Frequency

Frequency
X X
Non-Musicians
Musicians Non-Musicians Musicians

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LOGIC OF ANOVA – ERROR ESTIMATE LOGIC OF ANOVA – ERROR ESTIMATE

Compare the two scenarios: The error estimate of variance does not change
regardless of if the null is true or not.

One of the assumptions of an ANOVA is that you require roughly

equal variances (i.e. “homogeneity of variance”). Due to this
assumption, we can simply estimate s 2 by finding the average of
the sample/group variances.
∑ &'#
!"# =
Does the amount of variance within (i.e., the spread of
(
error) the non-musicians’ and musicians’ scores change?
This error estimate is also called the Mean Squared Error
NO! (MSError) or MSWithin

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LOGIC OF ANOVA – TREATMENT ESTIMATE LOGIC OF ANOVA – TREATMENT ESTIMATE

Another way you can estimate the population variance is to To calculate the treatment estimate of population variance, you
use the variance between sample means (this is a new need to look at how much the group means deviate from the
concept!) grand mean (multiplied by N for each group):

You need to quantify how much the sample means deviate μNM GRAND MEAN
μM
from the overall mean, also known as the grand mean.

% ∑(*+ − -.)#

Frequency
!"# = %&'# =
0−1
(")# − %&)( ("# − %&)(

This treatment estimate of the variance is called

MSTreatment or MSBetween.
X
Non-Musicians Musicians

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LOGIC OF ANOVA – TREATMENT ESTIMATE LOGIC OF ANOVA – ERROR ESTIMATE

If the null hypothesis was true, what would my distributions Compare the two scenarios: Does the amount of variance
look like, relative to each other? between the non-musician and musician groups (i.e., the
GRAND MEAN
μμ
MM spread) change at all?

YES!
Frequency

When the null is false, the treatment

estimate will be biased:
it will be TOO BIG.
X
Non-Musicians
Musicians

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LOGIC OF ANOVA LOGIC OF ANOVA

IF THE NULL IS TRUE IF THE NULL IS FALSE (REJECTED)

H0 : μ1 = μ2 = μ3 = ... = μk = μ H1 : At least ONE group is different.

(when independent variable has “K” levels)
MSerror still unbiasedly estimates the population variance
MStreatment/between and MSerror are two ways of estimating
the same thing, population variance. BUT

Therefore, !"# = !$# MStreatment will be biased by being TOO BIG.

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()* ,-./+0)1+2) ,-5+)6++2

THE F STATISTIC THE F STATISTIC ! "#$%& =
(+*
=
,-3//4/
=
,-78)982

()* ,-./+0)1+2) ,-5+)6++2 The F statistic tests whether the variation between groups
! "#$%& = = = greater than the variation within groups.
(+* ,-3//4/ ,-78)982
measure of effect (or treatment)
assessed by examining variance
(or difference) between the groups
If H0 is not true… F > 1
If H0 is true… F≤1 measure of random variation (or error)
assessed by examining variance
within the groups

How much greater than 1 does F have to be though?

You need to find a critical value using the F-table! This is the same logic used for t-tests!

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T-TEST VS. ANOVA EXAMPLE EXAMPLE – INDEPENDENT SAMPLES T-TEST

Let’s do an example where t or F isn’t equal to 1 If we were to do a t-test:

To test whether arousal (or stress) levels increase as the difficulty of a task Mean Variance
increases, 32 participants were assigned to one of two conditions: Typical Typical 3.6 1.25
or Difficult task. There were 16 participants per condition. Their galvanic Difficult 6.0 2.00
skin responses were recorded: higher levels indicate greater arousal.
Descriptive statistics are provided. #$ − #& 3.6 − 6.0 −2.4
!= = = = −5.33
Mean Variance 1.25 2.0 3.25
'$& '&&
Typical 3.6 1.25
($ + (& 16 + 16 16
Difficult 6.0 2.00
NOTE: We have equal n (16 participants PER group)

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EXAMPLE – ANOVA COMPARISON

If we were to do an ANOVA: $%&'()*+(,* /0.23
F = $%-''.'
=
4.056
= 28.36
Mean Variance
Typical 3.6 1.25 <4 − <5 3.6 − 6.0 −2.4
Difficult 6.0 2.00 ;= = = = −5.33
>45 >55 1.25 2.00 3.25
!"# =
∑ &'(
GM =
∑ 8'
!=# =
> ∑(8 ' ?@A)(
?4 + ?5 16 + 16 16
) ) )?+

+.#- .(#.00) 9.: .(:.0) (9.:?B.C)( ∗+: .[(:.0?B.C)( ∗+:]

= = =
# # +
(-5.33)2 = 28.41 à t2 = F
= 1.625 = 4.8 =
+.BB∗+: .[ +.BB ∗+:]
= 46.08
+ Note: The numbers are a bit off because of rounding errors.
MSError MSTreatment

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CRITICAL VALUE FOR T COMPARISON

$%&'()*+(,* /0.23
F = $%-''.'
=
4.056
= 28.36 > 4.17

tcritical(30) = 2.042 @4 − @5 3.6 − 6.0 −2.4

?= = = = | − 5.33| > 2.042
Since F = t2… B45 B55 1.25 2.00 3.25
C4 + C5 16 + 16 16
Fcritical(1,30) = 4.17

Reject the null hypothesis. Participants’ galvanic skin

Note: responses were higher for the difficult task, indicating greater
• df treatment = k – 1 arousal, F(1,30) = 28.36, p < .05. [a.k.a. t(30) = -5.33, p < .05]
• df error = N - k

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ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) K > 2 EXAMPLE

A graduate student examined whether IQ varies depending on the type of
ANOVAs allow us to: extracurricular activity that people participate in. Below are the data. What
✓Compare two or more groups at a time. conclusions can the graduate student make?

✓ Analyze one or more independent variables simultaneously. 1. MUSIC 2. DRAMA 3. CONTROL

S1,M : 122 S1,D : 102 S1,C : 99
✓ Test for interactions between independent variables.
S2,M : 119 S2,D : 99 S2’C : 102
✓ Control the Type I error rate. S3,M : 118 S3,D : 103 S3’C : 98
S4,M : 117 S4,D : 104 S4’C : 101
AVERAGE: 119 AVERAGE: 102 AVERAGE: 100
Let’s do a one-way between-subjects ANOVA to analyze
differences between three sample means!
H0: There is no difference in mean IQ across the three types of
extracurricular activity (μMusic = μDrama = μControl)
HA: At least one extracurricular is different in terms of mean IQ.

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EXAMPLE – ANOVA F OBSERVED

Relevant descriptive statistics: $%&'()*+(,* /01
F = $%-''.'
=
/.33
= 103.32
Mean Variance
Music 119 4.67
GM: 107 F is greater than 1, so we need to check if the difference is
Drama 102 4.67
Control 100 3.33 significant…

∑ &'( 6 ∑(7 ' 89:)(

However, given that we have three groups, you need to check the F
!"# = !5# = table for a critical value! (Can’t use the t table anymore).
) )8;

+.-. / +.-. /(1.11) (;;<8;=.)( ∗+ / ;=#8;=. ( ∗+ / (;==8;=.)( ∗+

= =
1 #

= 4.22 =
;++∗+ / #? ∗+ /[ +< ∗+]
= 436
#
MSError MSTreatment

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THE F-TABLE Note: F can never be <0, because you’re dealing

with variances (where you square all of your values!). THE F-TABLE Note: F can never be <0, because you’re dealing
with variances (where you square all of your values!)
Because of this, an ANOVA will also never be two-
tailed.

N–k k–1 N – k = 12 – 3 = 9 k–1=3–1=2

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CONCLUSION
Since our F observed (103.32) is greater than the F critical
(4.26); we reject the null hypothesis.

Reporting your results in APA style: There was a significant

difference in IQ between people who engage in different
extracurricular activities, F(2,9) = 103.32, p < .05. Questions?

(df numerator, df denominator) or (df treatment, df error) or (k-1, N-k)

Note: The ANOVA is an omnibus test – it will tell you if any group is
significant different, but won’t tell you which one. To figure out which
groups in particular differ, you need to conduct multiple comparison
tests (more on this later!)

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LOGIC OF ANOVA
There are two ways of estimating population variance:

1. Error estimate (σ2e )

∑ 24#
!3# =
Let’s take a break. 5

2. Treatment estimate (σ2t)

% ∑(() *+,).
!"# = 12(# !"# = /*0

Why though?!

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THE STRUCTURAL MODEL THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE

Every individual score can be broken down mathematically: Average IQ of adults (i.e., non-musicians) = 100

*+, = .. . + 1., + 2+, Average IQ of musicians = 119

John’s IQ = 134

$ = population mean
X = a score in a sample
i = subject number
j = condition number
& = amount by which
!"# ? %? &# ? '"# ?
Subject “i” deviates
from Condition “j”:
ε = '() - $j
!"# = % + &# + '"#
% = degree to which
Condition “j” deviates
from the mean:
134 = 100 + 19 + 15
% = $ - $j

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THE STRUCTURAL MODEL THE STRUCTURAL MODEL

Since we are dealing with samples, we need to estimate … Subtract the grand mean from both sides of the
the structural model. equation to remove its effect:

!"# = % + '# + ("# "#$ = "&' + "$ − "&' + ("#$ − "$ !

"#$ − "&' = "&' − "&' + "$ − "&' + ("#$ − "$ !

*"# = *̅,- + *#̅ − *̅,- + (*"# − *#̅ ) "#$ − "&' = "$ − "&' + ("#$ − "$ !
(Grand Mean) (Group Mean) (Score) Total Deviation Treatment Deviation Error Deviation

This slide was adapted from slides created by Marco Sama - Thank you Marco! This slide was adapted from slides created by Marco Sama - Thank you Marco!

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THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE

Let’s apply the structural model for all participants of our Reorganize your data into a matrix:
previous example:
i (subject) j (group) $% $&%
1. MUSIC 2. DRAMA 3. CONTROL 1 1 (Music) 119 122
Xij S1,M : 122 S1,D : 102 S1,C : 99
1. MUSIC 2. DRAMA 3. CONTROL 2 1 (Music) 119 119
S2,M : 119 S2,D : 99 S2’C : 102 3 1 (Music) 119 118
S3,M : 118 S3,D : 103 S3’C : 98 S1,M: 122 S1,D: 102 S1,C: 99 4 1 (Music) 119 117
S4,M : 117 S4,D : 104 S4’C : 101 S2,M: 119 S2,D: 99 S2’C: 102 1 2 (Drama) 102 102
AVERAGE: 119 AVERAGE: 102 AVERAGE: 100 S3,M: 118 S3,D: 103 S3’C: 98 2 2 (Drama) 102 99
S4,M: 117 S4,D: 104 S4’C: 101 3 2 (Drama) 102 103
H0: There is no difference in mean IQ across the three types of $' = 119 $( = 102 $) = 100 4 2 (Drama) 102 104
extracurricular activity (μMusic = μDrama = μControl) 1 3 (Control) 100 99
HA: At least one extracurricular is different in terms of mean IQ. 2 3 (Control) 100 102
3 3 (Control) 100 98
4 3 (Control) 100 101
41 GM = 107

THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE

Let’s estimate the structural model for the first participant: Now let’s estimate it for every participant:
i j $% $&% ($&% −)*) ($% − )*) ($&% −$% )
$&% − $-. = $% − $-. + ($&% − $% , 1 1 (Music) 119 122 15 12 3
2 1 (Music) 119 119 12 12 0
Total Deviation Treatment Deviation Error Deviation
3 1 (Music) 119 118 11 12 -1
4 1 (Music) 119 117 10 12 -2
1 2 (Drama) 102 102 -5 -5 0
i j $% $&% ($&% −)*) ($% − )*) ($&% −$% )
2 2 (Drama) 102 99 -8 -5 -3
1 1 (Music) 119 122 15 12 3
3 2 (Drama) 102 103 -4 -5 1
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
4 2 (Drama) 102 104 -3 -5 2
GM = 107
1 3 (Control) 100 99 -8 -7 -1
2 3 (Control) 100 102 -5 -7 2
3 3 (Control) 100 98 -9 -7 -2
4 3 (Control) 100 101 -6 -7 1
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GM = 107

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THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE

Summing across each participant will give you zero: So we square the deviations, then add them up:
i j $% $&% ($&% −)*) ($% − )*) ($&% −$% ) i j $% $&% ($&% −)*), $% − )* , ($&% −$% ),
1 1 (Music) 119 122 15 12 3 1 1 (Music) 119 122 225 144 9
2 1 (Music) 119 119 12 12 0 2 1 (Music) 119 119 144 144 0
3 1 (Music) 119 118 11 12 -1 3 1 (Music) 119 118 121 144 1
4 1 (Music) 119 117 10 12 -2 4 1 (Music) 119 117 100 144 4
1 2 (Drama) 102 102 -5 -5 0 1 2 (Drama) 102 102 25 25 0
2 2 (Drama) 102 99 -8 -5 -3 2 2 (Drama) 102 99 64 25 9
3 2 (Drama) 102 103 -4 -5 1 3 2 (Drama) 102 103 16 25 1
4 2 (Drama) 102 104 -3 -5 2 4 2 (Drama) 102 104 9 25 4
1 3 (Control) 100 99 -8 -7 -1 1 3 (Control) 100 99 64 49 1
2 3 (Control) 100 102 -5 -7 2 2 3 (Control) 100 102 25 49 4
3 3 (Control) 100 98 -9 -7 -2 3 3 (Control) 100 98 81 49 4
4 3 (Control) 100 101 -6 -7 1 4 3 (Control) 100 101 36 49 1
GM = 107 45 46
Σ=0 Σ=0 Σ=0 GM = 107 Σ = 910 Σ = 872 Σ = 38

THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE

What have we calculated? What have we calculated?
i j $% $&% ($&% −)*), This column provides the i j $% $&% $% − () * This column provides the
1 1 (Music) 119 122 225 sum of the total squared 1 1 (Music) 119 122 144
sum of the the treatment
deviations, also known as squared deviations, also
2 1 (Music) 119 119 144 2 1 (Music) 119 119 144
the Sums of Squares Total known as the Sums of
3 1 (Music) 119 118 121 (SSTotal): 3 1 (Music) 119 118 144 Squares Treatment,
4 1 (Music) 119 117 100 4 1 (Music) 119 117 144 (SSTreatment) or the Sums of
1 2 (Drama) 102 102 25 0 1 2 (Drama) 102 102 25 Squares Between (SSBetween)
- - $&% − $./
2 2 (Drama) 102 99 64 2 2 (Drama) 102 99 25
% &
3 2 (Drama) 102 103 16 3 2 (Drama) 102 103 25 /
+ , $% − $-.
4 2 (Drama) 102 104 9 4 2 (Drama) 102 104 25 %
1 3 (Control) 100 99 64 1 3 (Control) 100 99 49
2 3 (Control) 100 102 25 2 3 (Control) 100 102 49
3 3 (Control) 100 98 81 3 3 (Control) 100 98 49
4 3 (Control) 100 101 36 4 3 (Control) 100 101 49
GM = 107 Σ = 910 47 GM = 107 Σ = 872 48

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THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE THE STRUCTURAL MODEL - EXAMPLE

What have we calculated? What have we calculated?
i j $% $&% $% − () * There are a lot of i j $% $&% ($&% −$% )* This column provides the
1 1 (Music) 119 122 144
redundancies! The mean 1 1 (Music) 119 122 9
sum of the the error
does not change for each squared deviations, also
2 1 (Music) 119 119 144 2 1 (Music) 119 119 0
participant, just the group. known as the Sums of
3 1 (Music) 119 118 144 3 1 (Music) 119 118 1 Squares Error, (SSError) or the
4 1 (Music) 119 117 144 So you can get away with 4 1 (Music) 119 117 4 Sums of Squares Within
1 2 (Drama) 102 102 25 using this instead: 1 2 (Drama) 102 102 0 (SSWithin)
2 2 (Drama) 102 99 25 2 2 (Drama) 102 99 9
/ ,
3 2 (Drama) 102 103 25 + , $% − $-. 3 2 (Drama) 102 103 1 + + $&% − $%
4 2 (Drama) 102 104 25 % 4 2 (Drama) 102 104 4 % &
1 3 (Control) 100 99 49 1 3 (Control) 100 99 1
2 3 (Control) 100 102 49 Just multiply by the number 2 3 (Control) 100 102 4
of scores in the group.
3 3 (Control) 100 98 49 3 3 (Control) 100 98 4
4 3 (Control) 100 101 49 4 3 (Control) 100 101 1
GM = 107 Σ = 872 49 GM = 107 Σ = 38 50

SUMS OF SQUARES DEGREES OF FREEDOM

( ( (
! ! $#" − $&' = * ! $" − $&' + ! ! $#" − $" … But wait!
" # " " #
So far, we’ve calculated the sums of squares (i.e., sum of the
squared deviations). To find variance (i.e., the average of the
,,-./01 = ,,23/4335 + ,,6#/7#5 squared deviations), we need to divide by degrees of freedom:
,,-./01 = ,,-830/935/ + ,,:88.8 TOTAL TREATMENT ERROR

Sums of Squares Σ = 910 Σ = 872 Σ = 38

NOTE: Notice how they are additive? This means that you can (SS)
calculate two of the sums of squares, and figure out the third by Degrees of !"#$%&' = ) − 1 !"#,-&%.-/% = 0 − 1 !"1,,$, = ) − 0
simple addition or subtraction... Freedom
12 – 1 = 11 3–1=2 12 – 3 = 9
(df)
Mean Square 82.72 436 4.22
(MS)
This slide was adapted from slides created by Marco Sama - Thank you Marco!

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MEAN SQUARES THE F-CRITICAL

Look up your critical value using the degrees of freedom for
Once we divide by the degrees of freedom, you end up treatment (i.e., the “Numerator”) and the degrees of freedom
with the Mean Square (i.e., the variance – they’re the same for error (i.e., the “Denominator”).
thing). Then all you do is calculate the observed F Ratio!
Our critical value: F(2,9) = 4.26
$$%&'()*'+)
#$%&'()*'+) =
./%&'()*'+)
#$%&'()*'+) In our experiment:
!=
#$,&&-& F = 103.32
$$,&&-&
#$,&&-& =
./,&&-&

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CONCLUSION EFFECT SIZE (AGAIN)

Effect Size: a quantitative measure of the strength of a
Since our F observed (103.32) is greater than the F critical phenomenon. For any measure of effect size, a larger absolute
(4.26); we reject the null hypothesis. value always indicates a stronger effect size.

Reporting your results in APA style: There was a significant
difference in IQ between extracurricular groups, F(2,9) =
103.32, p < .05, η2 (“eta-squared”)= 0.96.
Note: The ANOVA is an omnibus test – it will tell you if any
group is significant different, but won’t tell you which one. To
figure out which groups in particular differ, you need to
conduct multiple comparison tests (more on this later!)
Types (or “Families”) of Effect Size Calculations:
1. Difference family: effect size based on standardized differences
between means
§ Cohen’s d, Hedge’s g (not covered in this course)
2. Correlational family: effect size based on “explained variance”
§ Eta-squared, omega-squared
3. Categorical family: used for categorical variables
(not covered in this course)

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T-TEST EFFECT SIZE FORMULAS ETA-SQUARED

Eta-Squared: Out of the total variance, the proportion that can
One-Sample Independent- Paired-Samples be attributed to a specific treatment/independent variable.
Samples

#−% #' − #( *−0 $$%&'()*'+)

!= != != !" =
& &) &, $$%,)(-

You only calculate it if F is significant. If not, the effect size is

Cohen’s d denotes effect size: the magnitude of an effect. Make sure you theoretically be zero, as the experiment would not account for
report the absolute value, as effect size cannot be negative. any significant proportion of the total variance.
All this formula does is transform the difference between the two means into
standard deviations! It is standardizing the difference.

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ETA-SQUARED SUMMARY – SOURCE TABLE

“The treatment (i.e., independent variable) STAY ORGANIZED! Use a source table instead:
accounted for ___ % of the variance” SOURCE SS df MS F

Treatment ( )−1 ++,-./01.20 5+,-./01.20

$$%&'()*'+) (or “Between”) ! " $# − $&'
34,-./01.20 5+6--7-
!" = #
$$%,)(- Error ( 9−) ++6--7-
(or “Within”) " " $8# − $# 346--7-
# 8

There is also something called omega-squared that is Total ( 9−1

" " $8# − $&'
discussed in the textbook. For this course, use Eta-Squared. # 8

(Later, we will use partial eta-squared)

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SUMMARY – SOURCE TABLE SUMMARY – SOURCE TABLE

STAY ORGANIZED! Use a source table instead: STAY ORGANIZED! Use a source table instead:

SOURCE SS df MS F SOURCE SS df MS F

Treatment 872 Treatment 872 2

(or “Between”) + (or “Between”) +
Error 38 Error 38 9
(or “Within”) = (or “Within”) =
Total 910 Total 910 11

The sums of squares are additive! The degrees of freedom are additive!

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SUMMARY – SOURCE TABLE SUMMARY – SOURCE TABLE

STAY ORGANIZED! Use a source table instead: STAY ORGANIZED! Use a source table instead:

SOURCE SS df MS F SOURCE SS df MS F

Treatment 872 ÷ 2 = 436 Treatment 872 2 436 = 103.32

(or “Between”) (or “Between”) ÷
Error 38 ÷ 9 = 4.22 Error 38 9 4.22
(or “Within”) (or “Within”)
Total 910 11 Total 910 11

Divide SS by df to get MS Divide MSTreatment by MSError to get F!

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SUMMARY – SOURCE TABLE

STAY ORGANIZED! Use a source table instead:

SOURCE SS df MS F

Treatment 872 2 436 103.32

(or “Between”)
Error 38 9 4.22 Questions?
(or “Within”)
Total 910 11

Use the degrees of freedom to find the critical F value: F(2,9) = 4.26

And compare this value to your observed F: 103.32 > 4.26; therefore, reject H0.

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Next week:
Let’s do a practice question together. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with a Covariate
& Randomized Block Design

PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE!

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