Training and

development

Training and development involves

improving the effectiveness of
organizations and the individuals and
teams within them.[1] Training may be
viewed as related to immediate changes in
organizational effectiveness via organized
instruction, while development is related to
the progress of longer-term organizational
and employee goals. While training and
development technically have differing
definitions, the two are oftentimes used
interchangeably and/or together. Training
and development has historically been a
topic within applied psychology but has
within the last two decades become
closely associated with human resources
management, talent management, human
resources development, instructional
design, human factors, and knowledge
management.[1]

History
The first training-related article was
published in 1918 in the Journal of Applied
Psychology. This article explored an
undergraduate curriculum designed for
applied psychologists.[2] World War II
influenced the focus of applied psychology
research to be on effectiveness of training
programs, particularly in military contexts.
By the 1960s and 70s, the field began
developing theories and conducting
theory-based research because up until
that point, the field had been rooted in trial-
and-error intervention research.[2] This era
also brought along the development of
new training methods such as the use of
computers, television, case studies, and
role playing.[2][3] The scope of training and
development also expanded to include
cross-cultural training, focus on the
development of the individual employee,
and the use of new organization
development literature to frame training
programs.[3] The 1980s marked a shift to
focus on how employees were receiving
and implementing training programs, and
encouraged the collection of data for
evaluation purposes, particularly
management training programs.[4] The
development piece of training and
development became increasingly popular
in the 1980s and 90s, with employees
more frequently being influenced by the
concept of "lifelong learning".[5] It was in
this decade that research revealing the
impact and importance of fostering a
training and development-positive culture
(including management and co-worker)
was first conducted.[5] The turn of the
century brought more research in topics
such as team-training, for example cross-
training.[6] Cross-training emphasizes
training in coworkers' responsibilities.[6]

Training practice and

methods
Training and development encompasses
three main activities: training, education,
and development.[7][8][9]
The "stakeholders" in training and
development are categorized into several
classes. The sponsors of training and
development are senior managers. The
clients of training and development are
business planners. Line managers are
responsible for coaching, resources, and
performance. The participants are those
who actually undergo the processes. The
facilitators are Human Resource
Management staff. And the providers are
specialists in the field. Each of these
groups has its own agenda and
motivations, which sometimes conflict
with the agendas and motivations of the
others.[10]
Especially in the last couple decades,
training has become more trainee-focused,
which allows those being trained more
flexibility and active learning
opportunities.[11] For example, these active
learning techniques include
exploratory/discovery learning,[12] error
management training,[13] guided
exploration,[14] and mastery training.[11]
Typical projects in the field include
executive and supervisory/management
development, new-employee orientation,
professional-skills training, technical/job
training, customer-service training, sales-
and-marketing training, and health-and-
safety training. Training is particularly
critical in high-reliability organizations,
which rely on high safety standards in
order to prevent catastrophic damage to
employees, equipment, or the environment
(e.g. nuclear power plants, operating
rooms).[15]

It is important to note that all employees

require different levels and types of
development in order to fulfill their job role
in the organization. All employees need
some type(s) of training and development
on an ongoing basis to maintain effective
performance, or to adjust to new ways or
work, and to remain motivated and
engaged.[16] The instructional systems
design approach (often referred to as
ADDIE model) is great for designing
effective learning programs and used for
instructional design. Instructional design
is the process of designing, developing
and delivering learning content. There are
5 phases in the ADDIE model: (1) needs
assessment, (2) program design, (3)
program development, (4) training delivery
or implementation, and (5) evaluation of
training.

Analyze - problem identification, (TNA)

training needs analysis, target audience
determined, stakeholder's needs identified,
identify the resources required.[17]
Design - learning
intervention/implementation outline and
mapped, mapping evaluation methods.[17]

Development - determine delivery method,

production of learning product that is in
line with design, determine instructional
strategies/media/methods, quality
evaluation of the learning product,
development of communication strategy,
development of required technology,
development and evaluation of
assessments and evaluation tools.[17]

Implement - participation in side-

programs, training delivery, learning
participation, implementation of a
communication plan, evaluation of
business, execution of formal
evaluations.[17]

Evaluation - (integral part of each step)

formal evaluation, continuous learning
evaluation, evaluation of business,
potential points of improvement.[17]

There are many different training methods

that exist today, including both on and off-
the-job methods. On-the-job training
methods happen within the organization
where employees learn by working
alongside co-workers in ways such as
coaching, mentorship, apprenticeship, job
rotation, job instructional technique (JIT),
or by being an understudy. To contrast, off-
the-job training methods happen outside
the organization where employees attend
things such as lectures, seminars, and
conferences or they take part in simulation
exercises like case studies and role-
playing. It could also include vestibule,
sensitivity or transactional training
activities. Other training methods include:

Apprenticeship Training: system of

training in which a worker entering the
skilled trades is given thorough instruction
and experience, both on and off the job, in
the practical and theoretical aspects of the
work.[18]

Co-operative programs and internship

programs: training programs that combine
practical, on-the-job experience with
formal education. Typically these
programs are offered at colleges and
universities.[19]

Classroom instruction: information can be

presented in lectures, demonstrations,
films, and videotapes or through computer
instruction. (This includes vestibule
training where trainees are given
instruction in the operation of
equipment.)[19]

Self-Directed Learning: individuals work at

their own pace during programmed
instruction. Including books, manuals, or
computers to break down subject-matter
content into highly organized, logical
sequences that demand a continuous
response on the trainee's part.[20]

Audiovisual: methods used to teach the

skills and procedures required for a
number of jobs.[20]

Simulation: used when it is not practical or

safe to train people on the actual
equipment or within the actual work
environment.[20]

E-learning: training that uses computer

and/or online resources. Such as CBT
(computer-based training), videotapes,
satellites and broadcast interactive
TV/DVD/CD-ROM.[21]

The benefits of training employees are

increased productivity and performance in
the workplace, uniformity of work
processes, reduced supervision and
reduced wastage, promoting employees
from within, improving organizational
structure and designs, boosting morale,
better knowledge of policies and
organization's goals, improved customer
valuation and improved/updated
technology.[22] There is significant
importance in training as it prepares
employees for higher job responsibilities,
shows employees they are valued,
improves IT and computer processes, and
tests the efficiency of new performance
management systems. However, contrarily
some individuals believe training is a
waste of time and money because in
certain cases real life experience may
trump education, and organizations want
to spend less, not more.[23]
Seminar Training Method

Principles
When a company puts its employees
through training programs, it must ensure
that they are efficient and relevant to the
employees' tasks in the organization as it
is estimated that only 20-30% of training
given to employees are used in the month
later.[24] To help mitigate this issue, some
general principles should be followed to
increase employees desire to take part in
the program. These include:

Self efficacy: These means to increase

the learners belief that they can fully
comprehend the teachings.[24]
Attitude: An uncooperative attitude
towards learning could hinder the
individual’s capability to grasp the
knowledge being provided.[24]
Competence: This is the skill an
individual develops that enables them to
make good decisions in an efficient
manner.[24]
 External motivators: These are the
behaviours individuals present when a
reward or extrinsic goal is given to
them.[24]

Motivation is an internal process that

leads to an employee’s behaviour and
willingness to achieve organizational
goals.[25] Creating a motivational
environment within an organization can
help ensure employees achieve their
highest level of productivity.[24] Motivation
can create an engaged workforce that
enhances individual and organizational
performance.[26] The model for motivation
is represented at the most basic level by
motivators separated into two different
categories:

Intrinsic factors: These represent the

internal factors to an individual, such as
the difficulty of the work, achievement
recognition, responsibility, opportunity
for meaningful work, involvement in
decision making, and importance within
the organization.[26]
Extrinsic factors: These are external
factors to the individual, such as job
security, salary, benefits, work
conditions, and vacations.[26]
Training and Development Conference

Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators link

to employee performance in the
workplace. A company’s techniques to
motivate employees are continually
changing and evolving. Finding out what
motivates employees can help businesses
determine why people work specific ways
and perform at varying levels.[26]
There are many basic training and
development principles in Human
Resource Management. For instance,
performance feedback is important as
managers can use it to identify the
employee's lack of skills in areas of the job
and their approach to improving that
weakness while maintaining behaviour.

The traditional constructive feedback, also

known as weakness-based feedback, can
often be viewed as malicious from the
employees’ perspective. When interpreted
negatively, employees lose motivation on
the job, which affects their level of
production.[27] The other kind of feedback
that is more effective is known as
strengths-based feedback. This feedback
is more effective because it is easier to
adjust the performance once the individual
can separate flaws from strengths. The
strengths-based feedback is positive
feedback that allows the employees to
recognize their strengths and further
improve their performance with that
knowledge.[27] Using this strategy as a
base for constructive feedback shows
support and encouragement towards the
employee, which boosts their confidence.
Confidence in the workplace allows
individuals to stay focused and engaged.
However, the disadvantage of strengths-
based feedback is failing to perform at
one's full potential due to overconfidence.

Reinforcement is another critical principle

of employee training and development. By
positively reinforcing employees with
encouragement or reward, managers can
establish a desired pattern of behaviour.
Studies have shown that reinforcement
directly influences employee learning,
which is highly correlated with
performance after training. Reinforcement
based training emphasizes the importance
of communication between managers and
trainees in the workplace. The more the
training environment can be a positive,
nurturing experience, the more—and faster
—attendees are apt to learn.[28]

Another essential aspect of reinforcement-

based training is to discuss what has been
taught in a training session and how
employees can apply what they have
learned to the job. This can be done by
conducting pre and post-training
brainstorming sessions.  

Overall, managers play a significant role in

reinforcing learning by systematically
looking for ways to notice and thank the
employee when they use the skills and
knowledge from the training session.[28] By
positively reinforcing employees like this,
they will become more comfortable in the
workplace and more confident in their
abilities, which ultimately positively affects
their future performance.

Benefits
Training has been used in organizations
for the past several decades. Although
training and development requires
investments of many types, there are cited
benefits to integrating training and
development into organizations:

Increased productivity and job

performance [1]
 Skills development [1]
Team development [1][29]
Decreasing safety-related accidents [30]

However, if the training and development

is not strategic and pointed at specific
goals, it can lead to more harm than
good.[31] Needs assessments, especially
when the training is being conducted on a
large-scale, are frequently conducted in
order to gauge what needs to be trained,
how it should be trained, and how
extensively.[32] Needs assessments in the
training and development context often
reveal employee and management-specific
skills to develop (e.g. for new employees),
organizational-wide problems to address
(e.g. performance issues), adaptations
needed to suit changing environments
(e.g. new technology), or employee
development needs (e.g. career planning).
The degree of effectiveness of training
and development programs can be
predicted by the needs assessment and
how closely the needs were met, the
execution of the training (i.e. how effective
the trainer was), and trainee
characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive
abilities).[33] Effectiveness of training is
typically done on an individual or team-
level, with few studies investigating the
impacts on organizations.[1]
Occupation
The Occupational Information Network
(O*NET) cites training and development
specialists as having a bright outlook,
meaning that the occupation will grow
rapidly or have several job openings in the
next few years.[34] Related professions
include training and development
managers, (chief) learning officers,
industrial-organizational psychologists,
and organization development
consultants. Training and development
specialists are equipped with the tools to
conduct needs analyses, build training
programs to suit the needs of the
organization by using a variety of training
techniques, create training materials, and
execute and guide training programs.[34]

See also
Adult education – Any form of learning
adults engage in beyond traditional
schooling
Microtraining
Training – Acquisition of knowledge,
skills, and competencies as a result of
teaching or practice

References
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23. Say, My. "Why Your Employee Training Is A
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|date= (help)
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32. Brown, Judith (December 2002). "Training
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Further reading
Anthony Landale (1999). Gower
Handbook of Training and Development.
Gower Publishing, Ltd.
ISBN 9780566081224.
Diane Arthur (1995). "Training and
Development". Managing Human
Resources in Small & Mid-Sized
Companies. AMACOM Div American
Mgmt Assn. ISBN 9780814473115.
Shawn A. Smith & Rebecca A. Mazin
(2004). "Training and Development" .
The HR Answer Book . AMACOM Div
American Mgmt Assn.
ISBN 9780814472231.
 Cohn JM, Khurana R, Reeves L (October
2005). "Growing talent as if your
business depended on it". Harvard
Business Review. 83 (10): 62–70.
PMID 16250625 .

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