EC6503 TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES

TWO MARKS QUESTION & ANSWERS

UNIT I - TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

PART-A
1) What is Transmission Line?
A Transmission line is a mechanism of guiding electrical energy from one place to another. (or)
Transmission line is an electrical line which is used to transmit electrical waves from one point
to another.
Eg: i. Transfer of RF energy from transmitter to antenna. ii. Transmission lines can also be used
as impedance transformers.

2) What are the types of Transmission Line?

i) Open wire line
ii) Cables
iii) Micro strip lines
iv) Coaxial Line
v) Waveguides
vi) Optical fibres

3) Write the applications of Transmission Line.

1. Used to transfer energy from one circuit to another.
2. Used as circuit element like inductor, capacitor and so on.
3. Used as impedance matching device.
4. Used of smith chart for calculating the lsc and loc.
5. Used as Frequency response of Resonant Circuit.

4) Define the Transmission Line Parameters. (N/D-18)

The parameters of a transmission line are:
i) Resistance (R): It is uniformly distributed along the length of the conductor and cross section
area of the conductor. Its unit is ohm/unit length.
ii) Inductance (L): When a conductor carries a current, the conductor will be surrounded and
linked by magnetic flux. The flux leakages per current give rise to the effect of inductance. Its
unit is Henry/ unit length.
iii) Capacitance (C): The conductors are separated by insulating dielectric, so that capacitance
will be distributed along the conductor length. Its unit is Farad/unit length.
iv) Conductance (G): The insulators of the open wire line may not be perfect and a leakage
current will flow and leakage conductance will exists between conductors. Its unit is mho/unit
length.

5) What are the secondary constants of a line? Why the line parameters are called
distributed elements?
The secondary constants of a line are:
Characteristic Impedance (Z0)
Propagation Constant (γ)
where γ=α+jβ the constants α=attenuation constant, β= phase constant.
Since the line constants R, L, C, G are distributed through the entire length of the line, they are
called as distributed elements. They are also called as primary constants.
6) Define Characteristic impedance (Z0). (N/D-17, M/J-16)
Characteristic impedance is the impedance measured at the sending end of the line. (or)
The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually written Z0) of a uniform transmission
line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave propagating along the
line; that is, a wave travelling in one direction in the absence of reflections in the other direction.
It is given by
Z0 = √Z/Y, where Z = R + jωL is the series impedance and Y = G + jωC is the shunt admittance.

7) Define Propagation constant (γ).

Propagation constant is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of the sending end current or
voltage to the receiving end current or voltage of the line. It gives the manner in the wave is
propagated along a line and specifies the variation of voltage and current in the line as a function
of distance. Propagation constant is a complex quantity and is expressed as γ = α + j β
α = real part called the attenuation constant and β=imaginary part called the phase constant.

8) What is a finite line? Write down the significance of this line?

A finite line is a line having a finite length on the line. It is a line, which is terminated, in its
characteristic impedance (ZR=Z0), so the input impedance of the finite line is equal to the
characteristic impedance (Zs=Z0).

9) What is an infinite line?

An infinite line is a line in which the length of the transmission line is infinite. A finite line,
which is terminated in its characteristic impedance, is termed as infinite line. So for an infinite
line, the input impedance is equivalent to the characteristic impedance (Z s=Z0=ZR).

10) What is wavelength of a line?

The distance the wave travels along the line while the phase angle is changing through 2π
radians is called a wavelength ().
 = 2π/ ; where  - phase angle is defined as radian/km.
 = t = /f;  - velocity

11) Define velocity of propagation?

The velocity of propagation is based on the observation of the change in phase along the line and
is measured in m/s. ().
 = t = 2πf/
 = / ;  = 2πf.

12) What are the types of line distortions?

The distortions occurring in the transmission line are called waveform distortion or line
distortion.
Waveform distortion is of two types:
a) Frequency distortion
b) Phase or Delay Distortion.

13) How frequency distortion occurs in a line?

When a signal having many frequency components are transmitted along the line, all the
frequencies will not have equal attenuation and hence the received end waveform will not be
identical with the input waveform at the sending end because each frequency is having different
attenuation. This type of distortion is called frequency distortion.
14) What is delay distortion?
When a signal having many frequency components are transmitted along the line, all the
frequencies will not have the same time of transmission, some frequencies being delayed more
than others. So the received end waveform will not be identical with the input waveform at the
sending end because some frequency components will be delayed more than those of other
frequencies. This type of distortion is called phase or delay distortion.

15) How to avoid the frequency distortion that occurs in the line?
In order to reduce frequency distortion occurring in the line, a) The attenuation constant α should
be made independent of frequency. b) By using equalizers at the line terminals which minimize
the frequency distortion.

16) What are Equalizers?

Equalizers are networks whose frequency and phase characteristics are adjusted to be inverse to
those of the lines, which result in a uniform frequency response over the desired frequency band,
and hence the attenuation is equal for all the frequencies.

17) How to avoid the frequency distortion that occurs in the line?
Phase distortion can be avoided by the use of coaxial cables. in such cables the internal
inductance is low at high frequencies because of skin effect, the resistance is small because of
large conductors, the capacitance and leakage are small because of the use of dielectric.

18) What is a distortion less line? What is the condition for a distortion less line? (A/M-18,
N/D-18, N/D-17, N/D-16)
A line, which has neither frequency distortion nor phase distortion is called a distortion less line.
The condition for a distortion less line is RC=LG. Also,
a) The attenuation constant should be made independent of frequency.
b) The phase constant should be made dependent of frequency.
c) The velocity of propagation is independent of frequency.

19) What is the drawback of using ordinary telephone cables?

In ordinary telephone cables, the wires are insulated with paper and twisted in pairs, therefore
there will not be flux linkage between the wires, which results in negligible inductance, and
conductance. If this is the case, there occurs frequency and phase distortion in the line.

20) How the telephone line can be made a distortion less line?
For the telephone cable to be distortion less line, the inductance value should be increased by
placing lumped inductors along the line.

21) What is Loading?

Loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by placing lumped inductors at specific
intervals along the line, which avoids the distortion.

22) What are the types of loading?

a) Continuous loading
b) Patch loading
c) Lumped loading

23) What is continuous loading?

Continuous loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by placing tapes of
magnetic materials such as perm alloy or a iron core or a magnetic tape over the conductor of the
line.
24) What is patch loading?
It is the process of using sections of continuously loaded cables separated by sections of
unloaded cables which increases the inductance value.

25) What is lumped loading?

Lumped loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by placing lumped inductors at
specific intervals along the line, which avoids the distortion.

26) What are the advantages and disadvantages of continuous loading?

Advantages:
a) Attenuation is independent of frequency.
b) α is decreased by increasing L provided R is not increased.
c) Increase in L up to 100mH/unit length is possible.
Disadvantages:
a) Expensive.
b) Achieves a small increase in L per unit length.
c) Existing methods cannot be modified by this method. Only replacement of line
is possible.

27) What are the advantages and disadvantages of Lumped loading?

Advantages:
a) There is no limit to a value by which the inductance is increased.
b) Cost is low.
c) Existing lines can be modified by this method.
Disadvantages:
a) For cables, Z2 is essentially capacitive.
b) Cable capacitance and lumped inductances form a low pass filter.
c) For frequencies below cut-off, fc = 1/LC and the attenuation is reduced, but
above cut-off the attenuation rises as a result of filter action.

28) State Campbell's Equation.

coshN γ' = coshN γ + Zc sinhN γ / 2Z0
where, Zc = is the loading coil impedance
γ = Propagation constant before Loading
γ' = Propagation constant after Loading
N = distance between the loading coils

29) When does the reflection occurs in a transmission line?

The load impedance is not terminated with characteristic impedance reflection takes place, (i.e)
ZR  Z0 , reflection occurs. Reflection is maximum when the line is open and short circuit.

30) Write the disadvantages of reflection.

i) Reflected waves appears as echo on the sending end.
ii) Efficiency is reduced.
iii) The received energy is rejected by load and output reduces.
iv) If the impedance of the generator is not Z0, the reflected wave is reflected again at the
sending end, becoming a new incident wav. The energy is thus transmitted back on the line until
dissipated in the line losses.
31) Define reflection coefficient.
Reflection Coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected voltage to the
incident voltage at the receiving end of the line Reflection Coefficient and is denoted by K.

K=Reflected voltage at load / Incident voltage at the load

K=Vr / Vi ; K = ZR - Z0 / ZR + Z0

32) Define reflection factor.

The ratio which indicates the change in current in the load due to reflection at the mismatched
junction is called reflection factor. It is denoted by k and defined by
k = reflection factor = 2 ZRZ0 / ZR + Z0

33) Define reflection loss. (A/M-18, M/J-16,

Reflection loss is defined as the number of nepers or decibels by which the current in the load
under image matched conditions would exceed the current actually flowing in the load.
Reflection loss is inversely proportional to reflection factor k.
Reflection loss, nepers = lnZR + Z0 / 2 ZRZ0 

Reflection loss, decibels = 20logZR + Z0 / 2 ZRZ0 

34) Define the term insertion loss (N/D-18)

The insertion loss of a line or network is defined as the number of nepers or decibels by which
the current in the load is changed by the insertion.
Insertion loss = Current flowing in the load without insertion of the network / Current flowing in
the load with insertion of the network.
Insertion loss in nepers = lnIR' / IR = ln 1/kS + ln 1/kR + ln 1/kSR + l

Insertion loss in decibels = 20 [ log 1/kS + log 1/kR + log 1/kSR + 0.43L]

35) What are the conditions for a perfect line?

For a perfect line, the resistance and the leakage conductance value were neglected. The
conditions for a perfect line are R=G=0.

36) What is a smooth line?

A smooth line is one in which the load is terminated by its characteristic impedance and no
reflections occur in such a line. It is also called as flat line.

37) Draw the equivalent circuit for transmission line.

 PART-B
1) Explain about differnt types of transmission lines. (A/M-15).

1. Open wire
2. Co-axial cables
3. Wave guides
4. Micro strip lines
5. OFC
Open wire:
These lines are the parallel conductors open through. Air and the conductors are separated by
air as a dielectric. Eg: Telephone lines.

Cables:
The telephone cables consisting of 100 of conductors which are individually insulated with
papers and these are twisted in pairs, (180° Phase Shift) and combine together and placed
inside the protective lead or plastic sheet.

Co-axial Cable:
There are two conductors which are co-axially placed, one is hollow and other is placed
inside the first conductor. The dielectric may be solid or gas. These lines are used for high
voltage levels.

Wave Guides:
1. It is used for microwave frequency (i.e.) 3GHz – 30GHz(109)

2. It follow conducting tubes having uniform cross reaction the energy is transmitted by
inner walls of the tube by the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
2) Deduce the expressions for characteristic impedance and propagation constant of a line
of cascade identical and symmentrical T sections of impedances. (N/D-11).

R, L, C, G – Primary Constants
Consider a transmission lines as a two conductor separated by dielectric.
 V1  V2
1. In a transmission line the terminal behaviour is not be same
I1  I 2
V2  V1  V
Where ∆V is the drop in series arm and ∆I is a drop in short arm.
I2  I1  I
2. Due to the drop, the voltage between the i/p and o/p there is a presence of resistor in the
series arm.
3. Since the two wires separated by dielectric. There is capacitance and this capacitance not
ideal and it has leakage inductance which should be ideally zero.
4. Initially the voltage and current on a line are in phase and later there is a phase shift
which is due to the presence of inductance.

R, L, C, G are called primary constants of transmission line.

Z – Series impedance
Y – Shunt admittance
Z  R  jwL
Let Z is equal to
Y  G  jwC
The characteristics of transmission line can be studied using the following parameter.
1) Characteristic impedence  Zo

  Secondary constants
2) Propagation constant   

R  jwL
Zo  Z Y  ohms
G  jwC
  ZY   R  jwL G  jwC
Transmission line as a cascaded T section.
To study the behavior of TL it can be considered as a no. of identical T section connected
in series and the last section is terminated as Zo input impedance of the first section also Zo.

The two part n/w form of transmission line

 Note: Since the transmission line is introducing delay the signal is distorted. Since it is a wire
it having some resistance and attenuation in the signal.

3) Discuss the general Solution of transmission line in detail. (N/D-17),(A/M-15),(N/D-11).

(or) Derive the transmission line equation and hence obtain expression for voltage and
current on a transmission line. (M/J-16),(M/J-14),(M/J-13),(M/J-12),(A/M-18).

GENERAL SOLUTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE:

i) Consider equivalent circuit of transmission line.

ii) Let dx be the incremental length of line.

 Z  R  jwL 
iii) Series impedance  Y  G  jwC

iv) Shunt admittance

v) Voltage drop across Z of T section is,
 V  dV  V  I  R  jwL dx
 V  dV  higher potential
V  lower potential
dV  I  R  jwL dx

 Z  R  jwL
dV
 I  R  jwL 
dx
dV
 IZ 1
dx

|||by  I  dI  I  V  G  jwc dx

dI  V  G  jwc dx
dI
 VY 2
dx
vi) Differentiate eq 1 & 2 w.r.to x
d 2 V dI
 Z
dx 2 dx
  dI 
= (VY)Z   VY 
dx 
= VYZ
W.K.T   YZ
 2  YZ
d2 V
  2V 3
dx 2
d 2 I dV  dV 
|||by  Y  IZY   IZ
dx 2 dx dx 
d2I
 2I 4
dx 2
d2 V d2 I
  2
V;  2I
dx 2 dx 2
This is a second order differential equation

The solution for the equation is

V  A e x  B e x 5a
I  C e x  D e x 5b
Where A, B, C, D are arbitrary constant

Diff equ 5a & 5b w.r.to x,

dV
 A  e x  B  e  x
dx
ZI   A e x   B e x
W.K.T   ZY
ZI  ZY A e ZY x
 ZY B e  ZY x

Y Y
I Ae ZY x
 B e ZY x
6a
Z Z
|||by,
dI
 C  e x  D  e   x
dx
YV  C ZY e ZY x  D ZY e  ZY x

Z Z
V Ce ZY x
 D e ZY x
6b
Y Y

At the receiving end,

Assume x = 0, V = VR, I = IR
Sub in equ 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b
VR  A  B 7a
IR  C  D 7b
Y Y
IR  A  B 8a
Z Z
Z Z
VR  C  D 8b
Y Y
To find A & B, consider equ 7a & 8a
VR  A  B
 Y Y
IR  A  B
Z Z
Z
Multiply by in above equ
Y
Z
IR AB I
Y
VR  A  B II
Z
IR  VR  2A
Y
IR Z VR
A 
2 Y 2
VR V  VR Z
A Zo  R  IR  ; Zo  
2ZR 2  ZR Y
VR  Zo 
A 1  Z 
2 R

To find B, subtract II from I

Z
IR AB
Y
( ) VR  A  B
Z
IR  VR  2B
Y
VR IR Z VR V
B  B  R ZO
2 2 Y 2 2ZR
VR  Zo 
B  1  Z 
2 R

|||by,
IR  ZR 
C  1  Z 
2 O

IR  ZR 
D 1  Z 
2 O

Sub A, B, C, D in equ 5a & 5b

VR  ZO   x VR
 ZO    x 
V 1  Z  e  2
1  Z  e 
2 R R 

IR  ZR  x IR  ZR   x 
I  1  e  1  e
2 ZO  2 ZO  

To express V & I equation in terms of refection co-efficient ‘K’
  Z  
  1 O  
VR  ZO    x  ZR    x 
V 1 
 Z   e  e
2  ZO  
 1  Z  
R

 R 
VR  Z R  ZO    x Z R  ZO   x 
V  Z  e  Z  Z e 
2 R  R O 
VR  Z R  ZO  x  x
V
2  Z  e  K e 
R
 Z R  ZO 
 where K   (Reflection Coefficient)
 Z R  ZO 
|||by,
  Z  
  1 R  
I  Z   ZO    x 
I  R  1  R   e x  e
2 ZO    ZR  
 1  Z  
 O 
I R  Z R  ZO    x ZO  Z R   x 
I e  e 
2  ZO   ZO  Z R 
I  Z  ZO    x Z R  ZO   x 
I R  R e  e 
2  ZO   Z R  ZO 
I R  Z R  ZO 
I e x  K e   x 
2  ZO  
Thus one useful form of voltage & current equ are
VR  ZR  ZO 
V e x  K e   x 
2  ZR  
IR  Z R  ZO  x  x
I
2  Z  e  K e 
O

Another useful form of voltage & current equ can be derived by simplifying
VR  ZO   x VR  ZO    x
V 1  Z  e  2 1  Z  e
2 R R

VR  x VR ZO  x VR  x VR ZO  x
V e e  e  e
2 2 ZR 2 2 ZR

 
VR  x
2
V ZO  x
e  e x  R
2 ZR

e  e x  
 VR 
V  VR cos h  x  I R ZO sin h  x   IR 
 ZR 
V  VR cos h ZY x  IR ZO sin h ZY x   ZY 
 
|||by,
IR  ZR   x I R  ZR    x
I 1  Z  e  2 1  Z  e
2 O O

I R  x I R ZR  x I R   x I R ZR   x
I e  e  e  e
2 2 ZO 2 2 ZO

I
IR
2
e x
 e  x  I R ZR
2 ZO
e x
 e  x 
VR
I  I R cos h  x  sin h  x
ZO
VR
I  IR cos h ZY x  sin h ZY x
ZO
Thus the voltage and current equation at any paint from the receiving end of transmission line are
V  VR cos h ZY x  IR ZO sin h ZY x
VR
I  I R cos h ZY x  sin h ZY x
ZO
Voltage and current equation at a sending end of transmission line of length ‘ℓ’ is
V  VR cos h ZY l  IR ZO sin h ZY l
VR
I  IR cos h ZY l  sin h ZY l
ZO

4) Prove that infinite line is equal to finite line terminated with characteristic impedance.
(M/J-16), (N/D-17)

INFINITE LINE:
A line of finite length, terminated in a load equal to characteristic impedance. Appears to the
sending end generator as an infinite line.
For l  , tanh l  1
 Z  ZO tanh  l   Z R  ZO 
ZS  ZO  R   ZS  ZO    ZS  ZO
 ZO  ZR tanh  l   ZO  Z R 

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE:

VS
Input impedance ZS 
IS
Voltage and current eq. at the sending end of transmission line of length ‘ℓ’ is given by,
VS  VR cosh  l  I R ZO sinh  l
VR
IS  I R cosh  l  sinh  l
ZO
VS VR cosh  l  IR ZO sinh  l
ZS  
IS V
IR cosh  l  R sinh  l
ZO
VR
VR cosh  l  Z sinh  l
ZO O

I Z
IR cosh  l  R R sinh  l
ZO
 Z 
VR cosh  l  O sinh  l 
  ZR 
 Z 
IR cosh  l  R sinh  l 
 ZO 
 Z 
IR ZR cosh  l  O sinh  l 
  ZR 
 ZR 
IR cosh  l  sinh  l 
 ZO 
ZR cosh  l  ZO sinh  l

ZO cosh  l  ZR sinh  l
ZO
 Z cosh  l  ZO sinh  l 
ZS  ZO  R 
 ZO cosh  l  ZR sinh  l 
 Z  ZO tanh  l 
ZS  ZO  R 
 ZO  ZR tanh  l 
Voltage and current eq. can also be expressed in terms of sending and as follows.
VR  ZO  l VR  ZO   l
VS  1  Z  e  2 1  Z  e
2 R R
 IR  Z R  l I R  Z R   l
IS  1  Z  e  2 1  Z  e
2 O O

  Z R  ZO  
   
V  Z   Z R   l 
VS  R 1  O  el  e
2  ZR    Z R  ZO  
  Z  
 R 
V  Z  ZO   l  ZR  ZO  l 
VS  R  R e   e  1
2  ZR    ZR  ZO  
|||by,
  ZO  Z R  
   
I  Z  ZO   l  Z O   l 
IS  R  R e  e
2  ZO    Z R  ZO  
  Z  
 O 
IR  ZR  ZO   l  ZO  ZR  l 
IS  e   e 
2  ZO    ZR  ZO  
IR  ZR  ZO   l  ZR  ZO  l 
IS  e   e  2
2  ZO    ZR  ZO  
Divide 1 by 2
VR  Z R  ZO    l  Z R  Z O    l 
2  Z  e   Z  Z  e 
ZS 
VS

R  R O 
IS I R  Z R  ZO   l  Z R  ZO   l 
e   e 
2  ZO    ZR  ZO  
 1   l  Z  Z   l 
I R ZR   e   e 
R O

 ZR    ZR  ZO  
ZS 
 1    Z  Z O   l 
IR   el   R e 
 O 
Z  ZR  ZO  
l  l
e  K e 
ZS  ZO  l  l 
e  K e 
Z R  ZO
where K 
Z R  ZO

(REFLECTION CO-EFFICIENT)

5) Derive the secondary constants using R, L, G, C and find the velocity of propagation.
(N/D-18), (A/M-11).

Expression for 𝛂, β in Terms of Primary Constant:

Propagation Constant     j
α = Attenuation Factor
β = Phase Constant
 R  jwL G  jwC    j
Squaring on both sides
 R  jwL G  jwC    j 2
RG  w2 LC  jwLG  jwRC   2   2  j2
 RG  w LC  jw  LG  RC  
2 2

  2  j 2 
Equate real and imaginary terms
 RG  w LC  
2 2
 2  1
w  LG  RC  2 2
Square 2 on both sides
w 2  LG  RC  4 2  2
2
3
From 1,  2   2  RG  w2 LC 4
Sub 4 in 3
w 2  LG  RC  4 2  2  RG  w 2 LC
2
 
w 2  LG  RC  4 4  4 2 RG  4 2 w 2 LC
2

w2
4
 LG  RC2   4   2 RG  w 2 LC  
   w2

 LG  RC2  0
2
 2   2 RG  w 2 LC 
4

  2

 RG  w 2 LC    RG  w LC  w  LG  RC
2 2 2

 2

 w LC  RG    RG  w LC  w  LG  RC
2 2 2 2

2
W.K.T     RG  w2 LC
2 2

 2

 w LC  RG    RG  w LC  w  LG  RC   RG  w LC
2 2 2 2 2

 2

 w LC  RG    RG  w LC  w  LG  RC
2 2 2 2
 2RG  2w 2 LC
2

 2

 RG  w LC   RG  w LC  w  LG  RC
2 2 2 2

6) Discuss the types of waveform distortion introduced by a transmission line. (N/D-15),

(N/D-13), (M/J-13), (M/J-14), (N/D-10), (N/D-08).

WAVEFORM DISTORTION:
When a signal is transmitted over the line, it will not have all frequency with equal attenuation
and equal time delay.
∴ the received waveform will not be identical with the input waveform.
This variation is known as distortion
2 types of distortion
1. Frequency distortion
2. Phase distortion
FREQUENCY DISTORTION:
Attenuation constant α is given by,
 RG  w LC   RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC 
2 2 2 2


2
α is a function of frequency
A complex applied voltage containing many frequency will not have equal attenuation.
∴ received waveform will not be identical with the input waveform.
This is known as frequency distortion.
It can be reduced using equalizers.
Equalizers are network whose frequency & phase characteristics are adjusted to be inverse to that
of line resulting in uniform frequency response over the desired band.

PHASE DISTORTION:
Phase constant k is,
 w LC  RG    RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC   RG  w 2 LC  
2 2 2 2


2
For an applied voltage, received waveform will not be identical with the input waveform, since
some components will be delayed more than others.
This is known as delay or phase distortion.
w
Velocity of propagation 

If β varies, ϑ varies, results in delay distortion.
It can be overcome by the use of coaxial cable.

7) Derive the condition for distortion less operation of transmission line. (N/D-15), (N/D-
16), (M/J-14), (N/D-10), (N/D-12), (M/J-13), (N/D-13).

DISTORTIONLESS LINE:
If a line is to have neither frequency nor delay distortion, then α and velocity of propagation ϑ
should not be a function of frequency.

CONDITION FOR DISTORTIONLESS LINE:

W.K.T
 w LC  RG    RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC
2 2 2 2

 1
2
To bring β, a direct function of frequency, the term under the second radical be reduced to
 RG  w LC
2 2

 RG  w LC 
 w 2  LG  RC  RG  w 2 LC 
2 2 2 2
2
R 2 G 2  w 4 L2 C2  2w 2 RG LC  w 2 L2 G 2  w 2 R 2 C2  2w 2 LG RC  R 2 G 2  w 4 L2 C2  2w 2 RG LC
w 2 L2 G 2  w 2 R 2 C2  2w 2 RG LC  0
L2 G 2  R 2 C2  2 RG LC  0
 LG  RC2  0
LG  RC 3
∴ the condition that makes β, a direct function of frequency is LG = RC
Sub eq. 2 in 1
 w LC  RG    RG  w LC
2 2 2


2


 w LC  RG   RG  w LC 
2 2
2w 2 LC
2 2
  w LC 4
 w
Velocity of propagation  

w

w LC
1
 5
LC
Velocity of propagation (ϑ) is the same for all frequency. Thus eliminating delay distortion.
To make α independent of frequency,
 RG  w LC  RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC
2 2

2 2 2


2
The term under the second radical forced to be equal to  RG  w 2 LC 
2

 RG  w LC   RG  w LC
2 2 2


2


 RG  w LC   RG  w LC 
2 2
2RG
2 2
  RG 6
From 3
LG = RC
L R
 7
C G
To achieve eq. 7 requires large L since G is small.
If G intentionally increased, α is increased results in poor line efficiency.
Reduction in R raises the size and thus the cost of conductors, so that above condition poses
practical problems.

8) Discuss in detail about indctance loading of telephone cables and derive the attenuation
constant, phase constant and velocity of signal transmission () for uniformaly loaded
cable. (M/J-07).

TELEPHONE CABLE:
In telephone cable, the wires are insulated with paper and twisted in pairs.
This results in negligible value of inductance L & conductance G.
∴ wL << R, G << wC
Z  R  jwL  Z  R
Y  G  jwC  Y  jwC
PROPAGATION CONSTANT   ZY
 jwRC
  wRC 45
  wRC cos 45  j sin 45 
 1 1 
  wRC  j 
 2 2
wRC wRC
    j  j
2 2
wRC
  1
2
 w w
 
 wRC
2
2w
 2
RC
From 1 & 2, α and ϑ are function of frequency, thus the telephone cable having frequency &
phase distortion.

9) Explain in detail about conditions for loading and its types.

For the mine to be free of distortion, condition is

RC = LG
R L
For a practical transmission line, hence the signal is distorted.
G C
R L R L
To satisfy the condition  , reduce or increase .
G C G C
R
To reduce ,
G
1. R can be increased by increasing the area of cross section A
l
R
A
This increases the size or cast of line.
2. To 3 G , it is necessary to use poor insulator.
But when G 3 , leakage will increase results in poor line efficiency.
R
3. Hence method of reducing is ineffective.
G
L
To increases , either increase L or decrease C.
C
4. If C is reduced, separation between the lines will became more. The brackets which were
carrying more number of wires will carry only less number of wires due to increased
separation. More no. of brackets, towers, posts required. Thus the line becomes much
costlier.
Hence method of reducing C is ineffective.
To increase the inductance, lumped inductors were spaced at regular interval.
This is called loading the line.

METHODS OF LOADING:
i) Continuous Loading
ii) Lumped Loading
CONTINUOUS LOADING:
In this method, to increases L, tapes of magnetic materials such as perm alloy or u-metal having
high permeability are wound on each conductor.
The increase in L is given by,

L mH
d
1
nt
Where,
μ = Permeability of surrounding material
d = Diameter of copper conductor
 n = No. of layers
t = Thickness per layer

PROPAGATION CONSTANT OF CONTINUOUS LOADED LINE:

Assume G = 0, wL >> R
Z  R  jwL
Y  G  jwC jwC
  ZY   R  jwL jwC
 wL  
 R 2  w 2 L2 tan 1  w 2 C2 
 R  2

  R  
 wC R 2  w 2 L2  tan 1   
2  wL 2
wL  
Note:  tan 1  
 R 
  tan 1 
 R  2  wL 
 R 
  wC R 2  w 2 L2   tan 1 
 wL 
 1  R 
  wC R 2  w 2 L2   tan 1 
2 2  wL 

R2  1  R 
  wC wL  1   tan 1 
2 2
w L 2 2  wL 
 1  R 
  w 2 LC   tan 1 
2 2  wL 
 1  R 
  w LC   tan 1 
2 2  wL 
 after loading wL  R,
1   R   
Let    tan 1 
 wL 
2
2 2  R neglected 
 w 2 L2 
 1  R  1  R 
cos   cos   tan 1   sin  tan 1 
2 2  wL   2  wL  
Since wL  R, tan  , tan 1 () , sin  
1 R  R
 cos   sin   cos  
 2 wL  2wL
|||by
 1  R  
sin   sin   tan 1 
 wL  
sin   1
2 2  2
  w LC   w LC e j  w LC  cos   jsin  
 R 
  w LC  2wL  j(1) 

R C
  jw LC
2 L
R C w w 1
 ;   w LC;     
2 L  w LC LC
Z R  jwL jwL L L
ZO      ZO 
Y G  jwC jwC C C
ADVANTAGES OF CONTINUOUS LOADING:
1. Attenuation α is independent of frequency.
2. α is decreased by increasing L, provided R is not disturbed.
3. Increase in L up to 100mH/unit length possible

DISADVANTAGES OF CONTINUOUS LOADING:

1. Very expensive
2. Achieve only a small increases in L per unit length.
3. Existing lines can’t be modified by this method. Only replacement is possible.
Discuss in detail about Lumped loading. (N/D-17)

LUMPED LOADING:
1. In this type of loading, the inductors are introduced in lumps at uniform distance along
the line.
2. Lumped inductors are in the form of coils called loading coils.

From the figure, attenuation is independent of frequency for continuous loading, while for
lumped loading α increases rapidly after the cut off frequency.

ADVANTAGE OF LUMPED LOADING:

1. Achieves a large increases in L
2. Cost involved is small
3. Existing lines can be modified.
DISADVANTAGES OF LUMPED LOADING:
1. For a cable, Z2 is capacitive. The combination of inductance & capacitance forms a LPF.
2. For frequencies below cut off, α is reduced. Above cut off, attenuation rises as a result of
filter action.
10) Derive the Campbell's equation. (N/D-10),(N/D-17).

CAMPBELL’S EQUATION:
Analysis of lumped loading can be obtained considering a symmetrical section of T line from the
centre of one loading coil to the centre of next.
Let ZC = LOADING COIL IMPEDANCE
Before loading, length of the line is ‘ι’
For a symmetrical T network,
ZO
sinh l  1
Z2
Z1
cosh l  1  2
2Z2
Z1 ' ZC Z1
Series arm impedance  
2 2 2
Shunt are impedance = Z2
ZO
From 1, Z2 
sinh l
Z1
 cosh l  1 Z2  2
Z1 ' ZC
   cosh l  1 Z2
2 2
Z1 ' ZC ZO
   cosh l  1
2 2 sinh l
After loading
Z1 '
cosh  ' l  1 
2Z2
Z1 '
 1 2
Z2
ZC ZO
1   cosh l  1
 2 sinh l
ZO
sinh l
sinh l  ZC ZO 
cosh  ' l  1     cosh l  1
ZO  2 sinh l 
Z sinh l
cosh  ' l  1  C  cosh l  1
2ZO
ZC
cosh  ' l  cosh l  sinh l
2ZO
This expression is known as Campbell’s equation.
Using this, propagation constant of a loaded line can be computed.

11) Explain the significance of reflection coefficient and insertion loss. (A/M-11).

REFLECTION CO-EFFICIENT:
 REFLECTED VOLTAGE AT LOAD
K
INCIDENT VOLTAGE AT LOAD
V  Z   Z  
V  R 1  O  el  1  O  el 
2  ZR   ZR  
VR  Z 
Where, 1  O   Incident voltage
2  ZR 
VR  ZO 
2 1  Z   Reflected voltage
R

 ZO 
VR
1  Z  Z  Z
2 Z R  ZO
K R
 R O
 K
VR  ZO  ZR  ZO Z R  ZO
1
2  ZR 
CASE i: (ZR = ZO)
K = 0, no reflection

CASE ii: LINE IS SHORT CIRCUITED (ZR = 0)

ZO
K  1  1180
ZO
REFLECTION IS MAXIMUM

CASE iii: LINE IS OPEN CIRCUITED (ZR = ∞)

 Z 
ZR  1  O 
 ZR 
K  1  K  1 0
 ZO 
ZR  1 
 ZR 
REFLECTION IS MAXIMUM

TRANSFER IMPEDANCE IN TERMS OF K:

SENDING END VOLTAGE  VS 
ZT 
RECEIVING END CURRENT  IR 
 ZO  l  ZO  l 
VR
VS  1   e  1  Z  e 
 ZR 
2 R 
  Z R  ZO  
 
V Z  ZO  l  ZR  l 
 
VS  R  R e  e
2  ZR    Z R  ZO  
  Z  
 R 
V  Z  ZO   l  ZR  ZO  l 
VS  R  R e   e 
2  ZR    ZR  ZO  
IR ZR  ZR  ZO   l  ZR  ZO  l 
VS    e   e 
2  ZR    ZR  ZO  
VS 1
  ZR  ZO  el   ZR  ZO  e  l 
IR 2 

  ZR  el  e l   ZO  el  e l  

VS 1
IR 2
 VS
ZT   ZR cosh l  ZO sinh l
IR
ZT  ZR cosh l  ZO sinh l

12) Derive the expressions for input impedance of open and short circuited lines. (N/D-16),
(N/D-18), (M/J-12).

OPEN & SHORT CIRCUITED LINES:

 ZR cosh l  ZO sinh l 
INPUT IMPEDANCE ZS  ZO  
 ZO cosh l  ZR sinh l 

i) For short circuit line, ZR = 0

 Z sinh l 
ZSC  ZO  O   ZO tanh l
 ZO cosh l 
ZSC  ZO tanh l

ii) For open circuit line, ZR = ∞

 ZO 
Z Z  cosh  l  ZR sinh  l 
ZOC  O R  
Z R  ZO
cosh l  sinh l 
 ZR 
ZOC  ZO coth l
ZOC  ZSC   ZO coth l  ZO tanh l   ZO 2
ZO  ZOC  ZSC
ZSC ZO tanh l

ZOC ZO coth l
ZSC
 tanh l 2 
ZOC
ZSC
l  tanh 1
ZOC

13) If Z=R+jwL and Y=G+jwC, show that the line parameters values fix the velocity of
propagation for an ideal line. (N/D-11).

1. The distance travelled by the wave corresponding to a phase shift of 2π radian is called
wavelength and represented by λ meters.
  2 
2. It is defined as the velocity with which for signal of single frequency propagates along
the line at the particular frequency.
V  f  2  f  w  metres

α and β in terms of primary constants

R, L, C, G
The propagation constant γ and ZO are the secondary constants of the line. The γ in terms of
complex form it is represented as
    j
  R  jwL G  jwC    j
Squaring on both sides
 2  2j   2   R  jwL G  jwC
 RG  w 2 LC  jw  LG  RC
Equating real and imaginary parts
 2   2  RG  w2 LC   2   2  RG  w 2LC ………………1
2  w  LG  RC 
Squaring on both sides
4 2  2  w 2  LG  RC 2
 2  2  w 4  LG  RC  ………………2
2 2

Sub α2 value in 2
 
 RG  w 2 LG  2  w 4  LG  RC 
2 2 2

 4  RG 2  w 2 2 LG  w 4  LG  RC   0
2 2

 
 4   2 RG  w 2 LC  w 4  LG  RC   0
2 2

This is a Quadratic eq in β2
   RG  w LC  LG  RC 
2 2
 RG  w 2 LC   4 w
2 2

4

2

 w LC  RG   RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC 
2 2 2 2

 2

2

 w LC  RG   RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC 
2 2 2 2

 2

2
W.K.T
 2   2  RG  w2 LC

 w LC  RG   RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC 2
2 2 2

 2

2
RG  w 2 LC

 w LC  RG   RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC 2  2RG  2w 2 LC

2 2 2


2

 RG  w LC  w 2  LG  RC 2
2
RG  w 2 LC  2

  2

2
14) Derive about the Insertion loss.

Insertion Loss:
The insertion loss of a line or n/w is defined as the no. of nepers or decibels by which the current
in the load is change by the insertion. The insertion of a 4 terminal n/w or a line b/w a generator
and a load may improve or reduced the impedance match b/w the source and the load.
IS 
IR
2ZO

 ZR  ZO  e l  Ke l …………1 
From figure
 E
IS 
Zg  Zs

 e l  Ke  l 
The I/P impedance ZS  ZO 
 e l  Ke  l 
E
IS 
 e l  Ke  l 
Zg  ZO   l
 e  Ke  l 
E

 
Zg e l  Ke  l  ZO e l  Ke  l  
l  l
e  Ke


 l
E e  Ke l 

Zg e  Kel  l
  Z e O
l
 Ke  l 
From equation
2ZO IS
IR 
 R O  e l  Ke l
Z  Z

IR 

2ZO E e l  K e  l 
 Z R  ZO  e l  l
 K e Zg e  Ke  l  l
  Z e
O
l
 Ke  l 
Let I′R is the current flowing in the load
To find
E
I 'R 
ZR  Zg
E
I 'R Zg  Z R
IR  2ZO E
 R O g
Z  Z Z el
 
Ke  l  ZO e l  Ke  l   
E
Zg  Z R

2ZO E
 Z Z   Z Z 
 ZR  ZO  Zg  e l  ZR  ZO e l   ZO  e l  ZR  ZO e l 
 R O   R O 
1
Z R  Zg

2ZO
  Z  Z e  Z  Z e  l 
l
 Z  Z e l  Z  Z e   l  
 ZR  ZO   Zg  R O Z  ZR O   ZO  R O Z  ZR O  
  R O   R O 
 1
Zg  Z R

2ZO
Z R  ZO
  
 Zg Z R  Z O e l  Z R  Z O e   l  Z O Z R  Z O e  l  Z R  Z O e   l 
Z R  ZO  
Z g Z R  Z g Z O e   l  Z g Z R  Z O Z O e l  Z O Z R  Z O Z O e   l


2ZO Zg +ZR 

Z g  
 ZO  ZO  ZR  e l   j   ZO  Zg  ZR  ZO  e  l    j  

2ZO Zg +ZR 
l
Neglect e 0


Z g 
 ZO  ZO  ZR  el e jl

2ZO Zg +ZR 
The physical significance of the eq can be studied by multiplying the numerator and denominator
by 2 Zg ZR
IR '  ZR  ZO  2 Zg ZR Zg  ZO e e

 l jl
 
IR 4 Zg ZR ZO ZR +Zg  
Talking the magnitude



2 Z g Z R  Z R  Z O  Z g  Z O e l 
4 Zg Z R ZO 2
Z R +Zg 
Rearranging the terms
IR ' ZO +Zg ZR +ZO 2 Zg ZR

IR 2 Zg ZO 2 ZR ZO Zg  ZR 
2 Zo Zg 2 ZR Zo
KS  , KR 
Zg  Zo ZR  Zo
2 Zg ZR
KSR 
Zg  ZR
The current ratio
1  1 e l
IR ' K e l KS KR
 SR 
IR KS  K R 1
K SR
In nepers
 ln  1 K   ln  1 K   ln  1 K    l
IR '
ln
IR  S  R  SR 

In decibels
 20log  log 1 K  log 1 K  log 1 K  0.43 l 
 S R SR 
Where KR – reflection factor at load
KS – reflection factor at source
KSR – reflection factor for direct connection with generation and load
eαℓ – loss in the line
 UNIT II-HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES
PART-A

1) State the assumptions for the analysis of the performance of the radio frequency line.
(A/M-18)
1.Due to the skin effect ,the currents are assumed to flow on the surface of the conductor. The
internal inductance is zero.
2.The resistance R increases with square root of 'f' while inductance L increases with f .
Hence ωL>>R.
3.The leakage conductance G is zero.

2) State the expressions for inductance L of a open wire line and coaxial line. (N/D-14)
For open wire line ,
L=9.21*10-7(µ/µr +4 ln b/a)=10 -7(µr +9.21 log b/a) H/m
For coaxial line,
L = 4.60*10-7[log b/a] H/m

3) State the expressions for the capacitance C of a open wire line and coaxial line. (N/D-14)
For open wire line,
C=(12.07)/(ln b/a)µ µf/m
For coaxial line,
C=(55.5r)/ (ln b/a) µ µf/m

4) What is dissipation less line?

A line for which the effect of resistance R is completely neglected is called dissipation less line .

5) What is the nature and value of Z0,α, β and  for the dissipation less line? (N/D-11), (M/J-
14) (N/D-17)
For the dissipation less line,
i) The Z0 is purely resistive and given by, Z0=R0 = ( L/C) ½
ii) Attenuation constant, α=0
iii) Phase constant, β=w (LC) ½ radians/m
iv) Velocity of propagation,  = 1/(LC) ½ m/s

6) What are nodes and antinodes on a line? (N/D-17)

The points along the line where magnitude of voltage or current is zero are called nodes.
The points along the lines where magnitude of voltage or current first maximum are called
antinodes or loops.

7) What is standing wave ratio? (M/J-13),

The ratio of the maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltage or current on a line having
standing waves called standing waves ratio and it is denoted by S.
 Vmax Imax
VSWR  S  or S 
Vmin Imin

8) What is the range of values of standing wave ratio and Reflection coefficient? (N/D-10)
The range of values of standing wave ratio is theoretically 1 to infinity.
(i) 1 < SWR < 
Minimum value of SWR is 1.
Maximum value of SWR is .
(ii) 0 < K < 1
Minimum value of reflection coefficient is 0.
Maximum value of reflection coefficient is 1.

9) State the relation between standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient. (A/M-11), (N/D-
12),(M/J-12)

1 K
S , K = Reflection coefficient.
1 K
S 1
K , S = Standing wave ratio
S 1

10) What are standing waves?

In a transmission line, if the load impedance is not equal to the characteristic impedance (ZR 
Z0), the energy delivered to load is reflected back to source. The actual voltage at any point on
the transmission line is the sum of the incident and reflected wave voltages at that point. The
resultant total voltage wave appears to stand still on the line, oscillating in magnitude with time,
having fixed positions of maxima and fixed minima. Such waves are called standing waves.

11) How will you make standing wave measurements on coaxial lines? (A/M-15)
For coaxial lines it is necessary to use a length of line in which a longitudinal slot, one half
wavelength or more long has been cut. A wire probe is inserted into the air dielectric of the line
as a pickup device, a vacuum tube voltmeter or other detector being connected between probe
and sheath as an indicator. If the meter provides linear indications, S is readily determined. If the
indicator is non linear, corrections must be applied to the readings obtained.

12) Give the input impedance of dissipation less line.

The input impedance of dissipation less line is given by,
 1  K   2l 
ZS  R O  
 1  K   2l 

13) Give the maximum and minimum input impedance of the dissipation less line.
Maximum input impedance, ZSmax  R O S
Minimum input impedance, ZSmin  R O S

14) Give the input impedance of open and short circuited lines. (N//D-10), (A/M-18)
The input impedance of open and short circuited lines are given by,
For a short circuit, ZSC  jR O tan l  j  S
For a open circuit, ZOC   jR O CO  l  j XS
15) Why the point of voltage minimum is measured rather than voltage maximum?
The point of a voltage minimum is measured rather than a voltage maximum because it is usually
possible to determine the exact point of minimum voltage with greater accuracy.

16) Why standing waves do exists in transmission line. (N/D-10)

When the transmission line is not terminated with its characteristic impedance (Z R  Z0), the
energy delivered to the load is reflected back to source which give rise to the standing waves.

PART-B
1) Discuss the various parameters of open wire line and coaxial line at radio frequency.
(N/D-15), (N/D-14), (N/D-18)
Due to skin effect the current is considered as following essentially on the surface of the
conductor in a skin of very small depth. The internal inductance and internal flux are reduced
nearly to zero, the inductance of open wire line becomes,
L
0 d
2 ln a  H m
a – radius of open wire line
d – distance b/w 2 open wire line
0  4  107 H m

The value of capacitance of a open wire line is not affected by skin effect,
 0
Capacitor C 
 a
F m , where
ln d
o = 8.854x10 -12
F/m.

If the current flows at high frequency over the surface of the conductor in a thin layer, there is an
increase in resistance of the conductor. The skin depth of the surface layer of current is
1
Skin depth  metres
 f
Direct current resistance of open wire line is,
Rdc  K
a2
For alternating current resistance of open wire line is,
Rdc  K  a

 f
K
a
6
K f ohm/m
a 
This equation shows that the resistance increases with increasing frequency.

Parameters of coaxial cable

The parameters of the coaxial line are also modified by the presence of high frequency currents
on the line. Because of skin effect, the current flows only on the surface of the conductor and it
eliminates the flux linkages. The inductance of the capacitance of coaxial cable is,
L
0 b
2 ln a 
a – outer radius of inner conductor
b – inner radius of inner conductor
The capacitance of coaxial cable is not affected by high frequency current. The value of
capacitance of coaxial cable is,
2 0
C f m 1   o  r
ln b  
a
Due to skin effect, the resistance of the coaxial cable is given by,

Rac  K  6 1a  1 b 
Rac 
K  f 6 1
 a
1
b 
Rac 
K 6

f 1 1 
a b m  
Resistance increases with an increase in frequency.

2) Derive the line constant of a zero dissipation line. (M/J-16), (A/M-18)

The line constants for transmission line are
Z = R + jωL
Y = G + jwC
R  jwL
Zo 
G  jwC
  R  jwL G  jwC

For a transmission of energy at high frequency, wL>>R, we assume negligible losses or zero
dissipation and G is also assumed to be zero. (R = G = 0)
The Characteristic impedance Z0 is given by,
Z = jωL
Y = jwC
Zo  L C

The propagation constant  is given by,

  R  jwL G  jwC
  jwL jwC
  j  jw LC
0
  w LC

The velocity of propagation  is given by,

VP  w   1
LC
Zo = Ro which is purely resistive

3) Discuss in detail about the voltages and currents on the dissipation less line. (N/D-17),()
The voltage at any point of distance‘t’ and the current from the receiving end of the transmission
line is given by
VS 
VR
2ZR  
ZR  ZO  e l  Ke l 
IS 
IR l

2Zo  ZR  ZO  e  Ke
 l

Zo = Ro
    j
  j
Z  R O   e jl  Ke jl 
2ZR  R
V
VS  R

IS 
IR

2Zo  ZR  R O  e  Ke
jl  jl

The voltage and current equation of Transmission Line can also be represented as
VS  VR cosh  l  IR ZO sinh  l
VR
IS  IR cosh  l  ZO sinh  l
Zo = Ro
    j
  j
VS  VR cosh jl  I R R O sinh jl
V
IS  IR cosh jl  R R sinh jl
O

VS  VR cosh l  jIR R O sinh l

VR
IS  IR cosh l  j R O sinh l
 2   2 
VS  VR cos   l  jI R R O sin   l
   
 2  V  2 
IS  I R cos   l  j R sin   l
  RO  
Case 1: when the line is open circuited
IR = 0
 2 
VSC  VR cos   l
 
VR  2 
IOC  j sin   l j is in phase quadrature 90 phase shift
RO  
Case 2: when the line is short circuited
VR = 0
 2 
VSC  j IR R O sin   l
 
 2 
ISC  IR cos   l
 
From the above expression of voltage and current it is seen that the voltage and current are in
phase quadrature. The voltage and current magnitude distribution for an open circuit line are in
quadrature everywhere and thus no power is transmitted along the line when the line is short
circuited the voltage and current are in quadrature and the waves are shifted by λ/4 from the open
circuit case.
 Distribution of voltage and current Under open circuit and short circuit
Case3: If line is matched ZR = Zo , the reflection coefficient and reflected wave becomes zero.

2R o  ZR  R O  e
VR l
VS 

2R o  ZR  R O  e
IR l
IS 

VS  VR e l
IS  IR e l
VS  VR e jl
IS  IR e jl

Voltage and current are in phase.

Voltage and current are same and repeated every λ/2.
At every λ/4 maximum to minimum process. From the above graph it is seen that at every λ/4
period the voltage and current characteristics changes to maximum to minimum and vice versa.
At every λ/2 the characteristics will be repeated.
Case 4: When RR = 3R0, K = 1/2, there is a finite value of voltage (or) current at all points on the
line.
Since both voltage and current have values other than zero at the load, some power is being is
transmitted. For resistive loads greater than R0, voltage and current distributions resemble those
of open circuited line.

5) Briefly explain on Standing waves. (N/D-16), (A/M-18)

In a transmission line, if the load impedance is not equal to the characteristic impedance (Z R 
Z0), the energy delivered to load is reflected back to source. The actual voltage at any point on
the transmission line is the sum of the incident and reflected wave voltages at that point. The
resultant total voltage wave appears to stand still on the line, oscillating in magnitude with time,
having fixed positions of maxima and fixed minima. Such waves are called standing waves.
 Standing waves on a dissipation less line terminated in a load not equal to R 0

When a line is terminated with a load other than R o, then the voltage and magnitude of current
and measure along the line is given to the following graphs.

If the line is either short circuited or open circuited at the receving and, we get nodes and
antinodes in the voltage distributions as shown below,

Standing waves on a line having open or short circuited terminations

i) Nodes are the points of zero voltage or current (E=I=0) in the standing wave systems.
ii) Antinodes or loops are points of maximum voltage or current.
iii) A line terminated with R0 has no standing waves and thus no nodes or loops and is called as
smooth line.
iv) For open circuit, the voltage nodes occur at distances /4, 3/4, 5/4 and so on from the
open end of the line. Under the same conditions, the current nodes occur at a distance 0, /2, ,
3/2 and so on for open termination.

v) For short circuit, these nodal points shift by a distance of /4.

Voltage nodes occur at 0, /2,  and so on,
Current nodes occur at /4, 3/4, 5/4 and so on.

From the graph it is observed that nodes are the paths of over current and antinodes are points of
maximum voltage on current. A line terminated in Ro as no standing waves such a line called
smooth line.

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR):

The ratio of maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltage or current on a line having standing
waves called SWR denoted by ‘S’.
Vmax Imax
VSWR  S  or S  It is complicated.
Vmin Imin
The maxima of voltage along the line occurs at point where the incident and reflected wave are
in phase and add directly.
V
VR
2ZR  R 
Z  R O  e jl  Ke jl 
Z  R O  1  K 
2ZR  R
V
Vmax  R
|||rly
ZR  R O  1  K 
2ZR 
VR
Vmin 

Vmax 1  K
S 
Vmin 1  K
1 K
S
1 K
S 1
K where ‘S’ is the voltage standing wave ratio.
S 1
It is measured by RF voltmeter
ISWR measured by RF ammeter.
The ‘S’ value ranges from S = 1 to ∞
K = 0 to 1
Relation b/w S and K
Vmax V  V
We know that S  and we know Vmax = V  V  Vmin = V  V  and the ratio =
Vmin V  V

S
 V   1 K
V 1  V



V 1  V
V 
 1 K 



1 V  1 K
V
Vmax  Vmin
Show that K 
Vmax  Vmin
Vmax
1
S  1 Vmin V  Vmin
K   max
S  1 Vmax Vmax  Vmin
1
Vmin
5) Derive an expression for the input impedance of the dissipation less lines. (N/D-13),
(A/M-15), (M/J-14), (N/D-16), (M/J-12),

The input impedance of dissipation less line is given by,

ZR  ZO tanh  l ZO  R O
ZS  Zo 
ZO  ZR tanh  l   j
ZR  R O tanh jl
 RO 
R O  ZR tanh jl
 ZR  ZO jtanh l
ZS  R O 
ZO  ZR jtanh l
The impedance is complex in general and is periodic with variation of s, the period being  or
s = /2. It can be also obtained as,
ZR cosh  l  ZO sinh  l
ZS  ZO 
ZO cosh  l  ZR sinh  l
 e l  e l   e l  e   l 
ZR    Z O  
 2  2
 ZO 
 e l  e  l   e l  e   l 
ZO    Z R  
 2  2
     
Z R e l  Z R e   l  Z O e  l  Z O e   l  
2
 ZO 
Z O e l  Z O e   l  Z R e  l  Z R e   l
2
e l  ZR  ZO   e  l  ZR  ZO 
 ZO
e l  ZO  ZR   e  l  ZR  ZO 
 e   l  Z  ZO  
e l  ZR  ZO  1   l R 
 e  Z R  ZO  
 ZO
 e   l  Z  ZO  
e l  ZR  ZO  1   l  R 
 e  ZR  ZO  

 ZO
1  Ke  l  l
e 
1  Ke  l  l
e 
 1  Ke2 l    j
ZS  ZO 
 1  Ke2 l  ZO  R O
2 jl
 1  Ke 
ZS  R O  2 jl 
 1  Ke 
Taking magnitude
 1  K   2l 
ZS  R O  
 1  K   2l 
i) The Input impedance is maximum   2l  0
  2l  0
l
2
1 K
ZS max   R O
1 K
ZSmax  R O S
ii) Along the line, if we travel at the distance of λ/4 from the point where the impedance is
maximum we get a point of Zmin.    2  
l      2
2 4 2 4
2   4  2      
  
4 4 2
  
l
2
2l    
1  K   2l
ZSmin  R O
1  K   2l
1  K      
 RO
1  K      
1  K 
ZSmin  R O
1  K 
1 K
 RO
1 K
RO
ZSmin  S

6) Deduce the input impedance of an open circuit and short circuit dissipation less lines.
(N/D-13), (M/J-12), (M/J-14), (M/J-16), (N/D-11), (A/M-18) (N/D-17)

The input impedance of dissipation less line is given by, We know that ZS = Zo
ZR  R O jtan l
R O  jZR tan l
i) For a short circuit line:
ZR = 0
R O jtan l
ZS  R O
RO
ZSC  jR O tan l  j  S

Short Circuit line

ii) For a open circuit line:

ZR  R O jtan l
ZOC  R O ZR  
R O  jZR tan l
1  R O jtan l 
ZR  
 RO  ZR 
ZR  O Z  jtan l 
R
 R 
 RO ZSC XS
  j tan l  j
jtan l RO RO
ZOC   jR O CO  l  j XS

Open Circuit line

The variation of ZSC/RO is the length of line’t’ can be plotted as follows,

Calculation of XS R  tan l
O

2
R O  tan   0  0
XS
for l  0

for l   4
XS 2   
R O  tan  4
 tan  2  
 2    
for l   2
XS
R O  tan     2 
 tan   0
 2    3 
for l  3 4
XS
R O  tan     4 
3 
 tan  tan 3 2  
2

for l  
XS  2 
R O  tan   
  
 tan 2  0

Calculation of XS R  cot l
O

2
R O  cot   0  
XS
for l  0

for l   4
XS 2   
R O  cot  4
 cot  2  0
 2    
for l   2
XS
R O  cot     2 
 cot   0
  2   3  
for l  3 4
XS
R O  cot     4 
3
 cot
0
2
X
O

 

for l   S R  cot  2   
  
 cot 2  0

7) Derive the measurement of power and impedance on the line of negligible losses. (N/D-
15), (M/J-14),(N/D-17), (N/D-11) (N/D-17)
We know that the voltage and the current on dissipation less line is given by
 ZR  R O  1  K    2l
VR
V
2ZR

 ZR  R O  1  K 
VR
Vmax 
2ZR

 ZR  R O  1  K    2l
IR
I
2R O

 ZR  R O  1  K 
IR
I max 
2R O

 Z  R O  1  K 
VR
Vmax 2ZR R
Zmax  
 Z  R O  1  K 
Imax IR
2R O R
Zmax = RO
|||rly
 ZR  R O  1  K 
VR
Vmin 
2ZR

 ZR  R O  1  K 
IR
Imin 
2R O
Vmin
Zmin   RO
I min
When the voltage is high, the current will be low at the same instant of time
 Z  R O  1  K 
VR
Vmin 2ZR R

 Z  R O  1  K 
Imin IR
2R O R
1 K
R max  R O  RO S
1 K
Vmin R 1 K
 R min  O S 
Imin 1 K
The effective power flowing into the resistance is given by
V2max V2
P , P  min
R max R min
V2 max V2min
P2 
R max R min
Vmax  Vmin
P
RO
(or)
P  Imax  Imin R O
Measurement of load impedance we know that the input impedance.
 Z  jR O tan l 
ZSmin  R O  R 
 R O  jZR tan l 
We know that Rmin = Ro/S
From Vmin at a distance of ‘t’ meters away we get the load impedance.
RO  ZR  jR O tan l ' 
 R  
 R O  jZR tan l ' 
S O

R O  jZR tan l '  S ZR  jR O tan l '

R O  jZR tan l '  SZR  SjR O tan l '
R O  jZR tan l ' SjR O tan l '  SZR
R O 1  j Stan l '
ZR 
S  jtan l '
R O 1  j Stan l '  SZR  jZR tan l '
RO 1  j Stan l '  ZR S  jtan l '
Here Vmin preferred than Vmax since the position of Vmin can be measured with greater
accuracy.
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