Assignment #

Submitted To: Sir Ali

Submitted By: Shahzaib Ashiq
Registration No: BSCT-01173020
Section: CV-8C
Division: Civil (Morning)

Department of Civil Technology

The University of Lahore

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 Loads
Loads
Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to structure
components.Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures. Assessment of
their effects is carried out by the methods of structural analysis. Excess load or overloading may
cause structural failure, and hence such possibility should be either considered in the design or
strictly controlled. Mechanical structures, such as aircraft, satellites, rockets, space stations,
ships, and submarines, have their own particular structural loads and actions. Engineers often
evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations, contracts, or specifications. Accepted
technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection.
Loading
In general mechanical properties of structural materials improve with increasing rate of load
application. For low-carbon steel, for example, yield strength, ultimate strength, and ductility rise
with increasing rate of strain. Modulus of elasticity in the elastic range, however, is unchanged.
For concrete, the dynamic ultimate strength in compression may be much greater than the static
strength.
Since the improvement depends on the material and the rate of strain, values to use in dynamic
analysis and design should be determined by tests approximating the loading conditions
anticipated.
Under many repetitions of loading, though, a member or connection between members may fail
because of ‘‘fatigue’’ at a stress smaller than the yield point of the material. In general, there is
little apparent deformation at the start of a fatigue failure.
Main Loading Structure

1. Dead loads
2. Imposed loads
3. Wind loads
4. Snow loads
5. Earthquake loads
6. Special loads

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 1. Dead Loads (DL)
The first vertical load that is considered is dead load. Dead loads are permanent or
stationary loads which are transferred to structure throughout the life span. Dead load is
primarily due to self weight of structural members, permanent partition walls, fixed
permanent equipments and weight of different materials. It majorly consists of the
weight of roofs, beams, walls and column etc. which are otherwise the permanent parts
of the building.

2. Imposed Loads or Live Loads (IL or LL)

The second vertical load that is considered in design of a structure is imposed loads or live loads.
Live loads are either movable or moving loads with out any acceleration or impact. These loads
are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building including weights
of movable partitions or furniture etc..

3. Wind loads
Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to earth. Wind
load is required to be considered in structural design especially when the heath of the building
exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.

4. Snow Loads (SL)

Snow loads constitute to the vertical loads in the building. But these types of loads are
considered only in the snow fall places. The IS 875 (part 4) – 1987 deals with snow loads on
roofs of the building.

5. Earthquake Loads (EL)

Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the building. The total
vibration caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular directions,
usually taken as vertical and two horizontal directions.

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6. Other Loads and Effects acting on Structures
As per the clause 19.6 of IS 456 – 2000, in addition to above load discussed, account shall be
taken of the following forces and effects if they are liable to affect materially the safety and
serviceability of the structure:

 One Way Loading System of Slab;

One-way slabs transfer the imposed loads in one direction only. They may be supported
on two opposite sides only [Fig. 1.1(a)], in which the structural action is essentially one-
way, the loads being carried in direction perpendicular to the supporting beams or walls.

 Two Way Loading System of Slab

But rectangular slabs often have such proportions and supports (e.g., relatively deep, stiff
monolithic concrete beams) that result in two-way action [Fig. 1.1(b)]. At any point, such slabs
are curved in both directions resulting in biaxial bending moments. It is convenient to think of
such slabs as consisting of two sets of parallel strips, in each direction and intersecting each
other. So part of the load is carried by one set and the remainder by the other.

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Slab

one
A way B

Lx

C D
Ly

Two way
A B

E F
Lx

C D
Ly

45 45

L 2