Carbohydrates - These are hydrates of aldehyde or
Based on the number of sugars
ketone derivatives based on the location of the CO
functional group.
A. Classification Of Carbohydrates
1. Based on CO functional group location
a. The aldose form has a terminal carbonyl
group(O=CH-) called an aldehyde group.
e.g. mannose and galactose
b. Ketose form has a carbonyl group (O=C) in the
middle linked between to two other carbon
atom called ketone group. e.g. fructose
2. Based on Number of Carbon Atom
a. Trioses- contain three carbon atom.
Glycol aldehyde- smallest carbohydrate (has
three carbon compound) e.g. glyceraldehyde
b. Tetroses - contain four carbon atoms.
e.g. Erythrose
c. Pentoses- contain five carbon atoms
e.g. Ribose, deoxyribose
d. Hexoses- contain six carbon atoms
e.g. Glucose, fructose
3.
a. Monosaccharides- are simpler sugars that
cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler isomers. These
sugars can contain 3 or more carbon atom.
Consists of
glucose and
fructose,
and
galactose
b. Disaccharide- are formed when two
monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic
linkage. Sucrose, lactose, maltose
Lactase – located in intestine microvilli
c. Oligosaccharide- are chain of 2 to 10 units of
sugar. e.g. raffinose
d. Polysaccharide- are formed by linkages of many
monosaccharides. E.g. starch, cellulose, glycogen
o Starch- major form of stored CHO in plants:
composed of mixtures of two substances
Amlyose- linear polysaccharide
Amylopectin- highly branched polysaccharide
o Cellulose- structural CHO that form cell walls and
other supporting tissues of plant cells
o Glycogen- the stored polysaccharide for animals:
also known as animal starch

B. Representation model of CHO
1. Fisher Projection - It has the aldehyde or ketone at
the top of drawing. The carbons are numbered
starting the aldehyde or ketone end. The compound
may be represented as a straight chain or a cyclic
(hemiacetal form)
F. Regulation of Glucose Concentration in the Blood
2. Haworth Projection - Represents the cyclic form that
is more representative of the actual structure.
C. Stereoisomers
The central carbons of carbohydrates are
asymmetrical (chiral) –four different groups are
attached to the carbon atoms. This allows for
various spatial arrangements around each
asymmetric carbon also called stereogenic centers
forming molecules called stereoisomers.
D. Chemical Properties of CHO
1. Reducing Substances - these CHO can reduce
other compound. To be a reducing substance,
the CHO must contain a ketone or aldehyde
group
2. Non-Reducing Substances - do not have an
active ketone or aldehyde group. sucrose is the
only non-reducing substances
E. Glucose metabolism
Glucose- is the primary source of energy for human.
1. Carbohydrate Digestion
a. Digestion starts in the mouth through the
enzyme ptyalin - salivary amylase
b. Alkaline pancreatic secretions increase the
pH of the intestines, enabling carbohydrate
digestion through pancreatic amylase
(amylopsin)
c. Monosaccharides are absorbed from the
duodenum and ileum into blood.
2. Metabolism in the blood
a. Energy production by conversion to carbon
dioxide and water
b. Storage as Glycogen in the liver
c. Storage as triglycerides in the adipose
tissues
d. Conversion to ketoacidosis, amino acids or
proteins
1. Pathway in Glucose Metabolism
a. Glycolysis - Metabolism of glucose molecule to
pyruvate or lactate to energy, 2 ATP generated
b. Gluconeogenesis - Formation of glucose – 6 –
phosphate from non – carbohydrate sources.
Such as protein and fatty acids
c. Glycogenolysis - Breakdown of glycogen to
glucose for use as energy
d. Glycogenesis - Conversion of glucose to
glycogen for storage
e. Lipogenesis - Conversion of carbohydrates to
fatty acids. Decrease in glucose
f. Lipolysis - Breakdown of fats; fats are used as
energy. Increase in glucose
2. Hormones Involved in Glucose Metabolism.
The liver, pancreas and other endocrine glands
are involved in controlling blood glucose
concentration in a narrow range
a. Insulin
✓ The primary hormone responsible for the
entry of glucose in to the cells
✓ It is synthesized by β cells of islet of
Langerhans in the pancreas
✓ It is normally released when glucose levels
are high.
✓ Stored in liver, fats, muscle
✓ Glycogenolysis
b. Glucagon
✓ The primary hormone responsible for
increasing glucose level (hyperglycemic
agent)
✓ Release during stress and increase
catabolic fasting
✓ It is synthesized on the α cells of islet of
Langerhans in the pancreas.
 ✓ Fasting plasma glucagon concentrations 3. somatostatin
are normally 25-50 pg/ml
Pathway in Glucose Metabolism
✓ Glycogenolysis, Gluconeogenesis
c. Epinephrine Glycolysis
✓ Produced by the adrenal medulla
✓ Released during time of stress
✓ Increase plasma glucose by inhibiting
insulin secretion
✓ Increases glycogenolysis and promoting
lipogenesis
d. Glucocorticoids (Cortisol and Corticosteroid)
✓ Are secreted by the cells of the zona
fasciculate and zona reticularis of the
adrenal cortex
✓ They decrease intestinal entry of glucose in
to the cell
✓ Promote gluconeogenesis, liver glycogen
and lipolysis.
e. Catecholamines
✓ It is released by the chromaffin cells of the Gluconeogenesis
adrenal medulla
✓ Inhibits insulin secretion
✓ Promote glycogenolysis and lipolysis.
f. Growth hormone (Somatotrophic)
✓ It is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
✓ It decreases entry of glucose in to the cell
✓ Promote glycogenolysis and glycolysis.
g. Thyroid hormone (Thyroxine)
✓ Synthesized by the thyroid gland
✓ Promote glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis,
and intestinal absorption of glucose
h. Adrinocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
✓ It stimulates the release of cortisol from
adrenal cortex Glycogenolysis
✓ Promote glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis
i. Somatostatin
✓ It is produced by the delta cells of the islet
of Langerhans of the pancreas
✓ It also synthesized by the paraventricular
and arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus (a
neuroendocrine hormone)
✓ It primarily inhibits the action of insulin,
growth hormone and glucagon
3 hormones synthesized in pancreas
1. Insulin
2. Glucagon
Glycogenesis

Lipogenesis

Lipolysis

Prepared by:
Christian Paras
BSMT-3B