TWELVE YEARS EXPERIENCE IN GAS PRODUCTION ON

THE MOLVE, KALINOVAC A N D STAR1 GRADAC FIELDS

Z. Mlinaric and M. Zelic, Croatia.

Abstract. The article covers the production technology as well as the Molve, Kalinovac and Stari Gradac gas
fields completion.
Specified are the upgrading phases and methods of well completion, from the standpoint of production
process optimization and safety, with special accent on the selection of adequate high-alloy steel grades for
prevention of the corrosion processes.
Experience achieved in the past twelve years has shown that the choice was correct, considering the applied
materials as weil as the sealing components and the gas-tight thread joints. No evident damage due to corrosion
or any other cause was detected in the past period and we hope that in the majority of cases this will be
maintained during the gas wells production life.

1. INTRODUCTION duction completion as well as to conceive the most

The Molve Gas Field was discovered twenty years
ago. Further reservoir engineering was effected seven
years later due to extremely severe natural conditions
(see Fig. 1).
Such conditions were a great challenge at the time,
not only for our company, but also for international
experts and technologists, and particularly for sub-
surface and surface well equipment material manu-
facturers.
The first two production wells on the Molve field
were equipped and put to production in 1980, after
which both reservoir engineering and well construc-
tion were intensified, resulting in the completion of
the total of 21 wells presently in production, yielding
of 200000 to 500000 cubic meters of gas per well
daily.
The development of the Kalinovac Gas Field
began in 1984, and today, there are 14 wells in pro-
duction, yielding 100000 to 200000 cubic meters of
gas per well daily, together with about 120-180 cubic
meters of condensate.
As can be seen from Table 1, it is a gas-condensate
field with extremely severe natural conditions.
The Stari Gradac field is the last one in the engin-
eering sequence, covering only 6 completed wells, 3
of them currently in production yielding 50000 to
100000 cubic meters of gas per well daily and 45-85
cubic meters of condensate.
Considering the high reservoir pressures, and,
especially, high reservoir temperatures, it was neces-
sary to choose the most rational and the safest pro-
rational gathering system. We should also .stress the
fact that, just recently, the total production of the
said three fields amounted to ten billion cubic meters
of gas and over two million tons of condensates.
2. GEOLOGY
The Molve, Kalinovac and Stari Gradac gas fields
are located in the north-western part of Croatia,
some 120 km from the capital-Zagreb. Morphologi-
cally speaking, it is a low-lying region of the Drava
Valley, with an average height of 120 m above sea-
level. The ‘Molve’ structure is an asymmetrical anti-
cline cut through its northern part by three reverse
fractures. The fluid bearing rocks are from the
Miocene and pre-Tertiary period, with different lith-
ological content. The reservoir rocks opened for pro-
duction are Paleozoic and Mesozoic conglomeritic
Phyllites and quartzites, Mesozoic carbonates
(dolomites of the boundstone type), and Miocene
carbonates.
The ‘Kalinovac’ structure is also an asymmetrical
anticline cut through its northern part by four
reverse fractures and two normal fractures on the
southern edge of the structure, of north-west try
south-east direction. The hydrogen accumulation has
occurred in the natural reservoir characterized by the
presence of three main chromostratigraphic wholes :
Permo-Triassic, Mesozoic and marine Miocene,
separated by transgressive borders. The carbonate
conglomeritic Phyllites and quartzites, Mesozoic car-
bonates (dolomites) and Miocene carbonates (sandy
483
484 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES

--
- I
MUDGfiAOIEANT(èad1Om)
ITHOLOGY WELL COMPLETION PRODUCTIONEQUIPMENT
- PORE GRADIEANT(barl1On
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
GRAVEL TUBING HANGER
7
\
\
\
CLAY CLAYSTONE HYDRAULIC \
CONTROL LINE
SAND CLAY
FLOW COUPLING
\
I
I
CLAY - CASING l
1
COAL I
TUBING RETRIEVABLE
I
SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVE
I
SANDY I
CLAYSTONE I
I
FLOW COUPLING 1
COARSE 1
SANDSTONE I
I
I
CLAY MARL TUBING, PREMIUM THREAD I
I
COAL 1
I
SLIDING SIDE DOOR
I
l
I
I
COAL I
MARL I
STRAIGHT SLOT LOCATOR I
I
PERMA-DRILL PRODUCTION

SANDSTONE
'RTR' SEAL UNIT

SEAL SPACER MANDREL

SEAL BORE EXTENSION
SANDSTONE 'RTR'SEAL UNIT
MARL
'KTR' SEAL UNIT

'RTR' SEAL UNIT

MULE SHOE GUIDE

MILL-OUT EXTENSION
MARL SILTITE

LANDING NIPPLE

SANDSTONE PERFORATED TUBING

II INTERMEDIIATE
CASING NO-GO LANDING NIPPLE
COARSE
SANDSTONE 9:" L-80
47 #
MUDSTONE
WIRELINE REENTRY GUIDE
LIMESTONE
DOLOMITE

QUARTZITE

AMPHI BOLITE
SCHIST

PRODUCTION
CASING
~..
7" 32ir ~

PREMIUM

Fig. 1. Typical well completion and productionequipment for Molve field.

 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES 485

TABLE I
Formation and Fluid Properties

Field
Parameters Molve Kalinovac Stari Gradac

Form ation
P,, bar 480 477 505
T i , "C 179 182 195
Depth, m 3128-3480 3415-3434 3680-4072
OGR, cm3/m3 70 660 865
WGR, cm3/m3 45 146 590
k, pm2 1-36 0.2-29 0.1-0.3
Porosity, % 8.2 5 3-4
Collectors phylite, quartzite, phylite, quartzite, ciastite,
dolomite, limestone dolomite, limestone quartzite
Gas
Y8
0.8 1 0.74 0.73
Contents:
CO,, mol% 25.1-23.4 11.15-11.43 10.56-10.36
H2S, PPm 75.0-1 12 35-75 258-320
RSH, mg/m3 5.3-3.1 1.3-5.9 17.5-11.0
Hg, mg/m3 0.078 1-0.1012 O. 177-0.241 0.0026-0.0086
Condensate
Density, 15 "C kg/m3 791.3 778.3 768.53
Pour point, "C + 13-+ 14 +9 +10
Water
pH-value 4.6-5.21 5.6-6.24 5.05
Brine, g NaCl/dm3 0.1-1 1.7 12-14 2.57-4.99
Cloride, mg/dm3 O. 3 18-709 8 6824-81.5 1326-2975
Bicarbonate, mg/m3 74.44 146.4-439.0 113.5-957

wackestone and grainstone) were opened for pro-
duction.
Stari Gradac is a massive type reservoir (horst
anticline) spreading along the border, partly belong-
ing to Croatia and partly to Hungary (Barcs-Nygat).
Hydrocarbon accumulation was formed in a com-
bined type trap. Collector rocks are represented by
different lithological facies-breccia conglomerates
are predominant in the productive part of the M
reservoir, anhy-dolomites in the P reservoir, whereas
quartzites make a part of the P2 reservoir. The major
part of the hydrocarbon accumulation is associated
with pre-Tertiary rocks.
Lithological diversity within the reservoir rocks in
both the vertical and lateral sense, on all three fields,
was also reflected upon the layers' physical
characteristics-from very high to very low per-
meability and porousness. Gas and condensates are
contained primarily in the fracture (secondary) poro-
sity, whereas the matrix porosity is almost negligible.
All three reservoirs are characterized by reservoir
pressures which are much higher than the hydro-
static one, as well as by extremely high temperatures,
whereas the well fluid mixture contains a relatively
high percentage of CO2 H2S and mercury. Some of
the reservoir and the reservoir fluids characteristics
are given in Table 1.
3. PRODUCTION SYSTEM
The production system, comprising a unique
hydrodynamic and thermodynamic 'reservoir-well-
gathering station' system, was elaborated and
designed for all three fields in question on the basis
of single phase and two phase flow patterns, thereby
covering the follówing :
The physics of fluid flow from formation to well
The physics of fluid flow in tubing
The physics of fluid flow in flowline
The physics of fluid flow through restrictions
Heat loss in tubing and flowline
Mechanical stresses in the string
Anti-corrosion protection
Safety system

486 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES
Analysis and concept of the production system were
based upon the most recent correlations of single
phase and two phase flow not only in the reservoir,
but also in the horizontal and vertical pipes, and cor-
responding restrictions covering all hydrodynamic
and thermodynamic processes.
Besides, the correlations associated with the
analysis and elaboration of the production system
are an integral part of the ‘nodal system analysis’,
‘tubing movement’ and ‘heat loss analysis’ computer
models, which have been used for the calculation of
all relevant parameters under different conditions of
both well and the entire production system exploit-
ation, as well as for the well completion.
3.1. Anti-corrosion protection
With respect to the presence of CO,, H,S,
mercury and chloride, determination of anti-
corrosion protection methods was one of the greatest
challenges facing our experts. Two basic methods
were considered:
(a) inhibition (continuous, batch, squeeze)
(b) the choice of materials resistant to corrosion
which was expected under such severe conditions.
In the beginning, continuous inhibition was attempt-
ed through the injection valve at a given depth, but
this system was not justified because very soon the
injection valve was damaged and corroded due to the
presence of certain aromates in the inhibitor. Besides,
a part of the string below the valve remained
unprotected.
Also, it is important to stress that, due to the high
temperature (above 180 OC), the impact of inhibitor
failed in the deeper well layers due to its disinte-
gration.
After anti-corrosion protection was not effected
with the inhibition it was decided to apply high-alloy
steel grades to ensure resistance to different types of
corrosion under different pressure, temperature and
stress conditions, i.e. resistance to:
- CO, corrosion
- H,S corrosion (general)
- sulfide stress cracking
- chloride stress cracking
- liquid metals corrosion, and so on.
The criteria for the choice of material referred to the
following:
(a) the appearance of CO, corrosion is possible if
partial pressure of CO, is above 2 bar;
_.
Pl P l
the appearance of H,S corrosion is possible if
H2S partial pressure is above 0.010 bar;
for carbonic and alloy steel grades with chro-
mium content below 13% the hardness as per
Rockwell scale should not exceed 23 H R C , and
for duplex materials not exceeding 28 HRC.
due to the relatively deep wells the solution
annealed tubing yield strength was supposed to
be 551.7 MN/m2 (80 KSI).
Abiding by these criteria and the MR 01-75-91
NACE standard, the materials for the production
string and the production casing were selected :
- production casing above permanent packer of con-
trolled hardness should be of carbon steel.
- production casing below the packerduplex
material with 25% Cr in gas wells, and 13% Cr in
gas-condensate wells.
- production tubing-high-alloy steel duplex
material with 25% Cr in gas wells (Molve) and
high-alloy steel with 13% Cr; hardness H R C < 23
in gas-condensate wells (Kalinovac and Stari
Gradac) ;
- subsurface equipment (packer SCSSV . . .) made of
Incoloy 925 material.
In principle, the thread joints of the production
string and production casing are gas tight premium
thread with three to four sealing elements, one of
them being metal to metal.
3.2. Well completion
Initial equipping
Well design of the first two production wells
Mol-11 and Mol-12 was executed on a geological-
lithological column and logging measurements of the
neighbouring wells, taking into account the well
depth, pore gradient, layer fracturing gradient and
‘temperature gradient. By the standard casing pro-
gramme, stresses appearing in the respective columns
were calculated, and the following well construction
had been approved :
- conductor casing, 2 0 , J-55,94lb/ft to the depth of
about 250 m for the consolidation of surface layers
i.e. for the protection of surface water from pol-
lution.
- 1st intermediate casing 13$”, N-80, 72 lb/ft covers
poorly consolidated layers, more shallow gas hori-
zons and formations of low layer gradient.
- 2nd intermediate casing, 9;“ L-80, 47 lb/ft was
installed in the overpressure zone floor and was
cemented up to the top.
i81 p1 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES
- production casing 7”, 32 lb/ft, L-80 was installed
down to the well bottom, whereas, in the perfor-
ation (packer seat) zone, a 13% Cr column was
installed. Thread joints are, as we have already
mentioned, gas tight, while the column is cemented
to the depth of 2.000 m from the head, and its free
part stretched in order to compensate for tem-
perature dilatations.
Estimating that in the gas, next to CO,, there is no
major quantity of H,S, a tubing of 3f” in diameter,
N-80, (13% Cr), 9.2 lb/ft was installed in the wells,
with gas tight premium thread, a permanent packer
with latch system, two side pocket mandrels (one for
killing and one for inhibition), extension joints and
subsurface safety valve (SCSSV). The sealing of the
wellhead and the christmas tree was performed by
elastomeric seals. The christmas tree, having a
working pressure of 690 bar was made of the AIS1
410 (13% Cr) material, with manually operated
master gate valve and hydraulically operated upper
master gate valve.
Test production was started towards the end of
1980, and, with numerous difficulties, went on for
several days. During that period, the existence of a
considerable quantity of H,S in the natural gas was
established. In order to prevent the corrosion
process, we replaced a major part of the production
equipment. The N-80 tubing was replaced by a new
one of L-80 quality, and a new type of packer was
installed enabling free movement of the tubing.
Packer and tubing sealing was enabled by sealing
units with V seals in the following combination:
ryton-teflon-ryton (R-T-R) and kalrez-teflon-ryton
(K-T-R). Parts of the christmas tree were replaced by
new monolithic parts without welded joints, whereas
tubing hanger sealing was enabled by high tem-
perature elastomers activated by sticks. It was
decided that the corrosion problem caused by H,S is
to be solved by injecting a 20% inhibitor solution in
diesel oil into the layer.
A few months of performance of the said wells
revealed the following difficulties:
- tubing hanger and christmas tree sealing elements
made of high temperature elastomers (204 O C )
proved completely inappropriate for high dynamic
temperatures (120 OC) and other fluid properties.
After four months, not even the additional activa-
tion of the elastomer seals was enough to reach
tightness;
- lack of tightness of the subsurface safety valve was
observed (with a number of elastic seals) at each
well shut-down;
487
- despite pre-stressing of the production casing, the
entire well head was lifted for about 120 mm;
- after squeezing the inhibitor, the production index
dropped.
By a major increase of the Molve field reserves, as
well as by the discovery a new Kalinovac Gas-
Condensate Field, the second phase of the Podravina
Project development was started, expected to solve
the observed deficiencies, and to pay particular atten-
tion to anti-corrosion protection, regarding the pres-
ence of C O , , H,S, chlorides and mercury. On the
basis of information and professional experience
from other fields in Europe and the States with
similar characteristics, the conclusion has been
reached that the chosen construction was not an
optimal one, particularly with respect to anti-
corrosion protection.
On this basis, the well design and production
equipment construction were chosen which, during
its life time will require a minimum number of work-
overs, whereas the corrosion process shall be reduced
to minimum through selection of adequate material,
appreciating the aforementioned criteria prescribed
by the NACE standard.
The well completion design (Fig. 1) did not
undergo any major changes except in production
string material-carbon steel with controlled hard-
ness. (HRc< 23).
The production casing thread is premium thread
and cementation was performed in one stage-up to
the well head.
This kind of cementation with additional circula-
tion of hot drilling mud in order to make the cement
binding as uniform as possible and the shift of the
production casing due to temperature be minimum,
demanded the production casing seat to be placed in
the well head, with a mandrel system.
The production string (Fig. 2) and the christmas
tree (Fig. 3) underwent more substantial changes,
especially with respect to the choice of material:
(1) Considering the presence of CO2, H,S chlorides,
the duplex stainless steel material was chosen for
tubing (50% austenite-50% ferrite), solution
annealed, with a minimum yield strength of
80-KSI. As yield strength of this material is con-
siderably reduced under high temperatures, the
string was tapered.
(2) Other parts of the equipment: packer, sliding
side-door, subsurface safety valve, was made of a
more superior material: Incoloy 925.
(3) Due to the presence of aggressive gases and
amines, for sealing units within the packer, the
488 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES [81P l

KI L

KI1.L LINE

LEGEND:
GATE VALVE (LOWER MASTER)
HANDWHEEL OPERATED
GATE VALVE (UPPER MASTER)
ADAPTED FOR HYDRAULICACTUATOR
GATE VALVE (WING)
ADAPTED FOR HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR

ADAPTED FOR ELECTRIC ACTUATOR

Fig. 2. Wellhead and Xmas tree.

 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES
-- __- - -- __
__-._.- -. --
DOWN SYSTEM
Fig. 3. Wellhead safety (control) system.
combination R-T-R and K-T-R was chosen,
whereas the DSV sealing materials were made of
Ryton, Aflas or Kalrez.
A clad material was chosen for the christmas tree,
whereas the gate seat and stems were made from
Inconel 625.
For sealing of the Christmas tree, a metal to metal
sealing was chosen, ensuring high sealing safety
even at temperatures above 135 OC.
With the discovery of the Stari Gradac Gas-
Condensate Field (200-300 ppm H,S) and the exten-
sion of the Kalinovac field, the third phase of the
production system design was practically started. On
the basis of the experience gained, the correctness of
the well construction, i.e. of the subsurface and
surface equipment, was confirmed, since it completely
satisfied the criteria set for safe operation of the well.
Therefore, for new wells of the Kalinovac and the
Stari Gradac fields, the changes in the choice of sub-
surface and surface materials were only partial:
(1) Aware of the fact that we were dealing with gas-
condensate reservoirs, the AIS1 420 (13% Cr)
material was chosen for tubing, maximum hard-
ness below 23 HRC,although it does not entirely
meet the criteria set by the NACE Standard;
489
__ - __-
Tubing retrievable
suríace controlled
(2) The clad material of the Christmas tree was
replaced by the F6NM (13% Cr) forged material.
3.3. Safety system
The safety/shut-down/system consists of two
hydraulically operated gate valves : the upper main
and the wing surface controlled subsurface safety
valve and an electrical hydraulic unit. The criteria for
shut-down of the wing valve is either high or low
pressure in the gas flowline, whereas all three valves
are closed only in the case of low pressure of the
Christmas tree.
Remote control shut-down of the well is also pos-
sible from the control room in the central gas station,
where other well performance parameters are moni-
tored as well,: pressures, temperatures, production,
etc. The gas flowline is made of plain carbon steel,
whereas the anticorrosion protection is performed by
continuous inhibition at the inlet of the gas flowline.
3.4. Well killing
For cases of unpredicted accidents and leakage of
production equipment, a killing system was con-
structed. Brine water was chosen for well killing and
 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES
490
-

LEGEND
- Gas Line
_ _ _ _Condensate
____ Line
_.

-
..-.-.--
Salt Water line
Process Feed Line ('Etan')
Distribution Line
Fig. 4. Gathering system of Molve-Kalinovac-Stari
Gradac.
GTP Gas Treatment Plant
SGS Satellite Gas Station
PP SGS Pilot Plant Satellite Gas Station

is prepared in a plant located next to the central gas
station. In every gas station, there is a reservoir with
a 120 cubic meter volume, containing brine water
which is, when necessary, transported to each indi-
vidual well through a pipeline.
Due to the proven characteristics of formation on
all three fields, the well killing was performed by
direct pumping of the corresponding fluid into the
formation. If that is not possible, there is yet another
possibility: the opening of the sliding side-door or
perforation of tubing immediately above the packer,
thus providing for fluid circulation.
All devices and equipment, as well as the team for
well killing, are located in the immediate vicinity of
the central gas station. The time elapsed between the
sounding of the accident on one of the wells and the
preparation for starting operation is not to surpass
two hours.
3.5. Gathering system
The gathering system consists of one satellite gas
station on the Stari Gradac field, three satellite gas
stations and a plant for condensate stabilization on
the Kalinovac field and one satellite gas station and
three gas treatment plants on the Molve field (Fig. 4).
The satellite gas stations perform first of all the
separation of liquid and gaseous phase, whereas the
condensate from the fields of Kalinovac and Stari
Gradac is stabilized on Kalinovac, from which it is
forwarded for transport.
The gas from all gas fields is directed to the Molve
GTP where non-hydrocarbon components are
separated from the gas mixture, the gas is dehydrated
and prepared for transport. Within the scope of the
central gas treatment plant there is an H,S purifi-
cation unit and an ethane yielding plant.
The water from all gas stations is transported by
pipeline to Molve, where it is injected into the wells.
4. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE AND
OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS
4.1. Corrosion
The corrosion process is monitored in several
ways:
(a) by measuring the iron content in water
(b) by measuring the inhibitor content in conden-
sates
(c) by measuring atomic hydrogen-hydrogen probes
(d) measuring by electro-resistant probes
(e) coupon testing
(f) measuring of the inner tubing wall with a micro-
caliper
(g) ultrasonic wall thickness measurement
Experience has shown the following:
(1) On particular wells of the Molve field where a
13% Cr tubing was used and the anti-corrosion
protection carried out by injecting the inhibitor
 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES
solution into the layer (first portion: 4 cubic
meters, 50% of the inhibitor; second portion:
10-20% of the inhibitor), even after eight months,
the content of the inhibitor in the condensate was
above 100 ppm. Chemical, mechanical and metal-
lurgical tests performed on the same tubing after
eight years of performance have shown satisfac-
tory results. Namely, the results of microstruc-
tural tests pointed to the existence of pitting
corrosion caused by CO2 and C1- with the great-
est depth of 0.035 inches.
On other wells of the Molve field, where a duplex
material tubing was used (25% Cr), by measuring
the iron content in the water, and by measuring
the inner tubing walls by means of a micro-
caliper, even in the wells with an increased water
content, it was shown that there is no major cor-
rosion presence. The same satisfactory results
(regardless of a high H2S content) were obtained
on the Kalinovac and Stari Grad fields wells,
where a 13% Cr tubing was used, due to a con-
siderable quantity of condensates acting as a
natural inhibitor.
The appearance of erosion more than corrosion
has been spotted on the lock mandrels of the wire
line safety valve made of 9% Cr 1 Mo material,
and on the outlets of the adjustable chokes and
control discs that were not coated with hard
material. The same phenomenon was registered
by measuring the wall thickness of the elbows of
the gas flowline loops.
The anti-corrosion protection of all surface pipe-
lines by inhibitor application has proven most
appropriate. By a long-standing practice, we have
established that, on the Molve field, for the pro-
tection of the flowline, the dosage of one phase
inhibitor in the amount of 0.016 ppm per cubic
meter of gas suffices. On the Kalinovac and Stari
Gradac gas-condensate fields, the continuous
dosage of a ‘three phase’ inhibitor in the amount
of 0.026-0.064 ppm per cubic meter of gas was
maintained. Inhibition is also performed in the
forwarding salt water pipelines-10-20 ppm per
cubic meter of water.
We have given up the corrosion monitoring by
means of hydrogen probes.
4.2 Sealing components
The combination of R-T-R and K-T-R sealing
components has ensured full tightness of the packer
seal assembly, regardless of the high temperature and
the presence of aggressive components in the gas
491
stream, or the high percentage of amines in the con-
densate.
The subsurface safety valve sealing elements made
of ryton, aflas, kalrez and peek, have also satisfied all
production criteria, whereas only at a production
shut-down and cooling of the well there has been
some occasional gas leakage. By restarting (heating)
it, a full tightness was achieved. The Christmas tree
sealing elements made of elastomers has proven non-
functional at the initial equipping of wells due to
high dynamic fluid temperatures (> 135 OC), so that,
after four months of operation, tightness could not
be achieved even by additional activation. Therefore,
the Christmas tree and the tubing hanger sealing
system at such temperatures have to be metal to
metal. Practice has shown that sealing of the pro-
duction casing may be performed by elastomers due
to a significant thermal drop between the tubing and
the outer part of the production casing.
4.3. Other experiences regarding the
production equipment
- After a long performance of the well, it was no
longer possible to open the sliding side-door. This
was caused by diesel oil cracking (with inhibitor),
by which the brine water in the well was replaced
before the perforation (through production
equipment).
- Fracturing of a well through production
equipment caused major damage regardless of the
protective measures that were undertaken.
- The percentage of the damage of thread joints
during workover operations amounted to 10-30%,
whereas the break up torque was 3-4 times higher
than the make up torque.
- The safety (shut-down) system has to be tested ‘at
the spot’ at least after each six months of oper-
ation. While doing so, care has to be taken of the
hydraulic oil quality (viscosity) for the operating
conditions of - 35 OC to + 50 OC.
4.4. Difficulties encountered in the
production process
An extremely significant problem in the pro-
duction of Kalinovac and Stari Gradac fields is the
disposal of scales in the near well zone and a part of
the production string below the packer. This pheno-
menon has been spotted when there were very high
dynamic pressure pulsations on some of the wells,
whereas, at the same time, production rates were
-
492 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES
lowering, which finally resulted in complete pro-
duction shut-down. Believing that it was a blockage
caused by the liquid phase forming in the near well
zone, a subsurface choke was installed in one of the
wells in order to improve the two phase flow. After a
few days of operation, the well stopped producing
once again, and, when the subsurface choke was
taken out, it was observed that it is completely
plugged with scales.
By chemical analysis of the sample, it was estab-
lished that the scales consisted of about 90% of
calcium sulphate and about 10% of calcium carbon-
ate. Its formation was explained by the mixing of
incompatible waters, in our case, the CaBr, solution
and layer water containing sulphate ion, as well as by
the change of pressure and temperature.
The problem was solved by injecting 20 cubic
meters of 8% Na EDTA solution in the reservoir.
Such interventions have been performed only on
some wells and they have given good results, while
the time elapsed until the new treatment amounted
to 6-8 months.
It was also observed that, by longer production,
i.e. after two to three treatments regarding the
removal of calcium sulphate using Na, EDTA, the
formation of calcium carbonate was increased, which
was only to be expected of the basis of the layer
water analysis. The disposal of calcium carbonate
was solved very simply by injecting a 10% acetic acid
solution.
The problem of scales is still being studied, both
with respect to the establishment of its genesis, type
and conditions of formation, and with respect to the
establishment of an efficient solution and/or inhibi-
tion which would prevent its formation at such high
temperatures.
5. CONCLUSION
On the basis of the afore presented the following
can be concluded :
1. The choice of well completion equipment has
proven to be fully justified, both from the pro-
duction process standpoint as well as from the
standpoint of safety.
2. The choice of material in order to lower the corro-
sion process i.e. of high-alloy steel grades with
13% Cr and 25% Cr (which, at the time, was
among the first to be used in practice under such
conditions) has shown, after 10-12 years, to be
completely justified, since there was no single
181P l
damage nor single intervention due to damage
caused by corrosion.
Sealing elements as well as premium thread joints
have completely justified their purpose and there
were no major problems in this respect.
Due to high pressure and high temperature, the
Joule-Thomson coefficient has relatively small sig-
nificance (in perforations it comes close to the
inversion point), so that the cooling effect in the
tubing is smaller, i.e. the fluid comes to the surface
under relatively high temperature (120-135 OC),
which caused the rational conception of the gath-
ering system.
The safety system, conceived with three safety
valves (SCSSV, upper main and wing automati-
cally operated) has also proven efficient under
such severe conditions of gas production.
Intensive formation of scales and its disposal in
the perforation area and the lower part of the well
has so far been successfully taken care of by
chemical means through periodical injecting of the
EDTA solution into the formation (twice a year).
APPENDIX A
Basic fluid f l o w equations
Jones-Blount-Blaze equation (2) is used for fluid
flow from formation into well:
al - P 2 = A%, + &,e (A- 1)
(
A = 15.40 kh T)[ln
j
(0.472 rJr,,,) + S ] (A-2)
4.734 x 10-19 yTzp
B= 64-31
a
(2) Fluid flow in tubing based on correlations for
single (gas fields) and two-phase flow (gas-con-
densate fields) (4):
(a) for single phase flow (gas)
qse = 3.378 x lo9
(pif- pw,, - e")D:6/3
yE L ,
0.5
e"-1
(b) for two-phase flow pressure gradient
P l p1 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES 493

2.1. Terminal critical velocity of the droplet in (5) Fluid heat loss based on equations (4):
tubing based on Turner's et al. equation (2): (a) in tubing

Vcr =
C[(pJ16) - 0.0405 pwJ0.25 -
('4-6)
(0.0405 *
C = 1.62-for water
c = 1.23-for condensate
Minimum flow rate of gas for continuous
X [GT-
%bwf

x ( i - e-0L)
Lt
-Pw&

-1
9
- CP
(A-14)
liquid removal :
(b) in pipeline
(qse)min= 24.64 x At P
lo6 u gi-.? (A-7) TL= To + (T,- T o ) ë U L
2.2. Erosional velocity (1):
0

( 4 kDon
a=- (A- 16)
mCP
c = 120
Erosional flow rate of gas : (6) Forces acting on tubing expressed by equations:
(a) external pressure
(qsc)max= 161.0 x 106At (A-9)

(3) Fluid flow in flowline based on correlations for

single and two-phase flow (4): (A-17)
(a) for single flow (gas)
2YC(DtO/6) - 11 for Dto/6 < 14
pTiPqo. 5 Po =
(D,0/@2
qse = 3.378 x lo9 D'I3
(A-18)
(A-10) (b) internal pressure

(4) Fluid flow through restrictions (1) :

(a) through choke beam (A-20)

(A-12)
4, = 225
m'
d,'CDPWh.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
(b) through subsurface safety valve
_A_ constant in Eq. (A-1)
At cross section of tubing area, m2
a parameter of heat transfer, W/(m2 K)
R
u constant in, Eq. (A-1)
(A-13) c constant in Eq. (A-6)
or CD discharge factor
c constant in Eq. (A-8)
Ap = 4.86 x 10-6(1 - /I:)4SeYTlZi cp specific heat of gas (at p = const)
Pld: G Y 2 D flowline size (ID), m
Do flowline size (OD),m
Bo = dJDt
D, tubing size (ID),m
Dto tubing size, (OD), m
y = 1 - (0.41 + 0.35E) d, choke beam diameter, mm
494 NEW EVALUATION TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES 181p1

e Napierian logarithm base (e = 2.71828) underground temperature, K

f, two-phase friction factor bottom hole flowing temperature, K
GT geothermal gradient K/m wellhead flowing temperature, K
9 acceleration caused by gravity (g = 9.81 m/sz) upstream temperature of gas, K
h effective reservoir thickness, m critical velocity, m/s
hP perforated interval, m erosional velocity, m/s
dh elevation distance, m gas velocity, m/s
k heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 K) mixture velocity, m/s
k effective reservoir permeability, pm2 x expansion factor
(CP) minimum yield strength, N/m2
L length of flowline, m average compressibility factor
Lt length of tubing, m Joule-Thomson coefficient, K/bar
dL distance (section) of flowline, m turbulent velocity flow coefficient
m
m'
-
mass flow rate, kg/s
tubing unit mass, kg/m
(ß = 2.33 x 10")
p o i
P average pressure, bar
internal tubing pressure, Pa ratio of borehole and tubing diameter
Pi
external tubing pressure, Pa specific gravity of gas (air = 1)
Po
- tubing wall thickness, m
Pr
PS,
average reservoir pressure, bar
separator pressure, bar gas viscosity, mPa s-
bottom hole flowing pressure, bar liquid density, kg/m3
PwJ
wellhead flowing pressure, bar mixture density, kg/m3
Pwh
surface flowing pressure downstream of choke, ratio of specific heat (IC= c,/c,)
Pwhs
bar
AP pressure drop, bar
upstream pressure, bar REFERENCES
Pi
Pz downstream pressure, bar 1. Beggs, H. D. Gas Production Operations, OGCI Pub-
gas flow rate at standard condition, m3/day lications, Tulsa, Okla., 1985.
4sc
2. Brown, K. E. The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods,
re drainage radius, m Voi. 4, PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma,
rW wellbore radius, m 1991.
S skin factor 3. Golan, M. and Whitson, C. H. Well Performance,
SF safety factor IHRDC, Boston, MA 02116,1986.
S parameter in Eq. (A-4) s = 0.06836 yLt/T,?) 4. Zeli&,M. Technology of Oil and Gas Gathering and
Preparation for Transport, INA-NAFTAPLIN,Zagreb,
average temperature, K 1987.
T, temperature at fluid entry, K 5. Technical Documentation of INA-NAFTAPLIN,
TL temperature at location L, K Zagreb.