Gas Invasion and Migration in
Cemented Annuli: Causes and Cures
R.B. Stewart, Koninklijke/Sheli E&P Laboratorium
Foe. Schouten,* Shell u.K. E&P Ltd.
Summary. A laboratory study has been conducted to identify the various mechanisms involved in the invasion and migration of
formation gas in cemented annuli and to develop procedures to stop this process. Mechanisms operate differently in different
circumstances, and it is important for the zonal-isolation characteristics of the cement that the preventive procedures used are the
appropriate ones.
Introduction
The drilling industry has paid much attention to gas-well zonal-
isolation problems, and there is extensive literature on the subject. 1
However, many of the possible solutions referred to in the publi-
cations reviewed in Ref. 1 were found to work only under specific
field conditions.
A number of projects were undertaken by Koninklijke/Shell E&P
Laboratorium in the late 1970's and early 1980's to attempt to over-
come these limitations. This paper summarizes that work. Empha-
sis is placed on laboratory investigations, and only superficial
reference is made to field results, which will be published later in
more detail.
Investigations Into the Causes of the Problem
Zonal Isolation. Mud Displacement. Laboratory tests showed that
certain proprietary anti~gas-migration cements had excellent zonal-
isolation characteristics. It was hoped that these cements could pro-
vide adequate zonal isolation in situations where mud-displacement
practices were poor-i.e., good mud displacement occurred only
over short annular sections. These hopes proved unfounded. Field
experience showed that, irrespective of how good a particular ce-
ment type was at resisting gas invasion and/or migration, reliable
zonal isolations could be obtained only if effective mud-displacement
practices were used. Consequently, it was decided that any reliable
system must ensure both good mud displacement and the prevention
of gas migration after placement.
No laboratory mud-displacement research was included in these
studies. Mud-displacement practices adopted by Shell in the late
1970's2 were confirmed to be reliable, and much operational effort
has been spent on increasing their applicability to a wider range
of field conditions.
Gas Invasion/Migration After Placement. Good displacement
practices coupled with the use of stable, fast-setting, low-fluid-loss
slurries were found to solve gas zonal-isolation problems in many
(but not all) operational circumstances. More effective and univer-
sally applicable techniques were therefore required.
An analysis of field data showed that gas could migrate vertically
through the cement, the inner cement/casing microannulus, the outer
cement/formation microannulus, or through all three (Fig. 1).
Migration through the microannuli did not occur under all field cir-
cumstances (see the Discussion), but failure to take precautions to
prevent such migration resulted in numerous zonal-isolation failures.
Depressurization Phenomena. Neat Cement and Foam Cement.
Depressurization of the annular cement column 3 was understood
to be partly responsible for gas invasion. One of the justifications
for developing a foam cement 4 was to obtain slurries that would
depressurize less than conventional ones.
The differences in depressurization behavior of neat and foamed
slurries were demonstrated in tests with the apparatus shown in
Fig. 2.
'Now at Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij.
Copyright 1988 SOCiety of Petroleum Engineers
SPE Drilling Engineering, March 1988
A cement slurry was pumped into a 12-m [39-ft] vertical steel
column. The column was sealed and a gas pressure, Pro was ap-
plied at the top of the column with nitrogen. A transducer meas-
ured the pressure exerted on the bottom of the column, Pb, as a
function of time. Fig. 3 compares typical depressurization, Pb/Pr-
ratio, curves for neat and foamed cement slurries. The gas pressures,
Pro were kept constant for the duration of the tests. The minimum
in the neat cement curve corresponds to the time at which gas from
the top of the column started to break through to the pressure trans-
ducer at the bottom of the column.
The increase in the depressurization rate after 5 to 6 hours cor-
responds to the cement reaching initial set-i.e., the start of the
exothermic hydration reactions. Initial set was determined by meas-
uring the temperature of the setting slurry. Depressurization also
occurred in foamed cement columns but gas breakthrough never
occurred.
Foam cements are used successfully for gas-well zonal-isolation
purposes but their use has the following limitations.
1. Service- and operating-company foam-cementing expertise is
not available in all operating areas.
2. Foam-cement rheologies cause too much shear thinning for
efficient mud displacement. This disadvantage is often overcome
by the use of preflushes, scavenger slurries, etc. Relying on these
techniques, however, to give adequate high-velocity contact times,
and thereby ensuring efficient mud displacement, can be a problem.
3. Foam cement may not prevent annular gas migration through
the microannuli.
Pressure Transmission. Gels developed by a cement slurry soon
after placement restrict pressure transmission through the slurry. 5
Such equations as Eq. 1 are used to calculate the effect of a given
gel on pressure transmission.
p=4GLld, ....................................... (1)
where
P = axial pressure differential required to initiate axial
. movement of cement slurry,
G = static gel strength at a given time,
L = length of cement column, and
d = diameter of cement column.
The most common use of such an equation is to determine the
maximum time for which a cement-pumping operation can be in-
terrupted and the slurry still be moved again after the interruption.
Eq. 1, however, assumes that the slurry is acting as a coherent "one-
phase body. " This may be a valid assumption for pumping appli-
cations, bilt it may be less valid in certain other applications. Eq.
1 is not valid for a situation in which a slurry is depressurized in-
ternally, owing to fluid loss or hydration, and subsequently repres-
surized by the water phase within the "slurry gel matrix." How
pressure transmission occurs in a setting cement slurry needed to
be understood.
77
 ================~~~~~~~~~~GAS CHANNELS IN
CEMENT MA-TRIX

MICRO-ANNULUS
BETWEEN CASING
AND CEMENT (DUE
A f - - - TO PRESSURE REDUCTION
INSIDE CASING)

{/t~~~:-- MICRO ANNULUS

_
CEMENT ~~~~~~~~~~~§~~~=== BETWEEN FORMATION
AND CEMENT
(SHRINKAGE)

Fig. 1-Gas migration routes in cemented annulus.

,
NITROGEN LOOP 2
I
g~~~;J :::():1t: PRESSURE

NI~=~E~EN ==a::r:o ON CEMENT

SEE I
PRESSURE ENLARGED
DIAGRAM I
I T I'
P __ 6

'- _~_ 'J

COLUMN,ORDINARY
STEEL
___---'----D~~~t-I-t~
(height: 12m, I rtK rtK
diameter:76rnm)

DESIGNA TlON
.~n .-n
1 ,MIXER
2 ECCENTRIC SCREW PUMP
p
3 MAGNETIC FLOW METER
• SAMPLE/FLUSH POINT
5 MEASURING COLUMN
, PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
7 THERMO COUPLE

Fig. 2-Cement column apparatus.

The test apparatus shown in Fig. 4 was used to investigate how

3 slurries repressurized themselves when their pore pressures were
reduced as a result of simulated fluid loss and hydration.
P, The coiled copper tubing was filled with a cement slurry. To simu-
2.5
late pore-pressure reductions within the cement, the coiled tubing
SETTING was cooled quickly to achieve predetermined volume reductions;
CEMENT the relatively large reduction in the water volume (Le., relative to
2
the cement volume) caused the slurry pore pressure to drop (Fig.
Pb 5). Corrections were made for the change in dimensions of the coiled
~ 1.5 tubing. Pore pressures were restored automatically (after a time
If lag) by repressurization from the water reservoir. The pore-pressure
drops, which took place before pressurization occurred, were meas-
ured (Fig. 6), and then the coiled tubing was reheated to the origi-
NEAT nal temperature (Fig. 5). These cooling/heating cycles were repeated
throughout the setting process of the cement.
0.5 It was observed that before the initial set, it was extremely diffi-
cult to obtain large pore-pressure reductions (Figs. 5 and 6). These
could undoubtedly have been attained if the cement had been be-
having as an impermeable gel. Apparently, the gels were behaving
o 5 10 15 20 like permeable media, and repressurization was taking place through
TIME (hours) the mobile water phase. After initial set, pressure transmission
through the cement became more difficult.
Fig. 3-Pressure behavior of foamed and unfoamed Class G Shrinkage. Samples of cements were placed in the apparatus
cement. shown in Fig. 7, and their volume reduction and temperature were
monitored as a function of time. This was done by pressurizing
the top of the cement with nitrogen and monitoring the closed-in
nitrogen pressure. Significant shrinkage of the cements did not oc-

78 SPE Drilling Engineering, March 1988

 80 7_

I
70
II
Q. I
!II:
~
0
II:
60 6, I

0 I
III 50
II: I
::I
III I
40
,
III
III 51
II:
Q. 4
:I 30 ~
::I

WATER-FILLED TUBE ~~~--t~

!
>< 20 ~
3" '"
.... ....
c
:I
10 .....
1 2

CEMENT-FILLED - - f - - - - i WATER-FILLED 0
COILED COPPER TUBE THERMOSTATED 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(1.50m LONG 6mm 1.0.' BATH
TIME (hours)

Fig. 4-Apparatus for measuring pore pressure in setting Fig. 6-Maximum differential pressures observed with con-
cement. secutive cycles.

RECORDERS
450

400
.• PRESSURE TRANSDUCER __~~~--lIl!
CONSTANT
NITROGEN --M~-l><l-4'1l-lXl­
'"
iii
II: 350
PRESSURE

::>

...
"'"' PIPE NIPPLE WITH CAPS --~~<-
II: THERMOCOUPLE

..;:
..J
300
CEMENT SLURRY __ ----<-
....
BAROID HEATING JACKET
z OR THERMOSTATIC BATH
II: 250
......
0
200
1-7 COOLING CYCLES
INITIAL SET
HYDRAULIC HAND PUMP
0 FOR PRESSURIZING WITH WATER
0 4 8 12
TIME (hours)
Fig. 7-Cement set monitoring apparatus.
Fig. 5-Pressure transmission capability of pore fluid in ce-
ment during setting.

GEL STRENGTH, Pa TEMPERATURE, ·c

cur until after the hydration reaction started at initial set. A typical 500 2 0 0 - - - -_ __
58 5
set of results is given in Fig. 8. Note the correlation between the
temperature, gel development, and pore-pressure data, which are
~ 400 ~____-------55 4
also given in the same figure. The temperature data were obtained
W
with the apparatus shown in Fig. 7, the gel data with a Fann vis- a:: 300 54 3
cometer, and the pore-pressure data with the apparatus in Fig. 4. ~
Fluid-Loss Control. The fluid-loss control of a cement slurry after
initial set depends, to a large extent, on how much the hydrated
.
f
rr:
o
200 53 •

100 5. 1
structure has been allowed to develop before the fluid loss is meas- Q.

ured. To demonstrate this, Table 1 contains the fluid-loss results O+--~ __ ~~ ____ ____ ~ ~~- __r---io
of a slurry with poor fluid-loss control, which was tested in various o 10 15 20
ways. Such a slurry would never be used in the field for zonal- TIME (hourw) tEXCL. 20 min STtRIIING IN CONSISTOMETfRJ

isolation purposes but it demonstrated the point better than a con-

ventional low-fluid-loss slurry.
It was first tested according to API specifications (Table 1, Test
1). Identical slurries were then subjected to a number of other fluid-
loss tests. In all tests, the slurry was treated in a certain manner
and then its fluid loss determined in the API cell with the API stan-
dard procedure.
In Test 2, the slurry was sheared for 20 minutes in a consistometer
and poured into an API fluid-loss cell. The slurry was not
pressurized-Le., filtration started-until it reached initial set. In
a parallel test, the same slurry was poured into a second API cell
and the pressure applied 40 minutes after initial set (Test 3).
Fig. 8-Relationship between gel strength, shrinkage, pres-
sure drop, and temperature of a setting cement slurry.
In Tests 4 and 5, slurries were sheared in a consistometer until
initial set (Test 4) and until 40 minutes after initial set (Test 5).
They were then placed in API fluid-loss cells and pressure applied
immediately. It is clear that the fluid-loss control of slurries improves
rapidly if they are left unsheared after initial set (Tests 3 and 5).
In all of these tests, initial set was determined by temperature meas-
urement of duplicate samples.

SPE Drilling Engineering, March 1988 79

 TABLE 1-FLUID-LOSS CONTROL OF SLURRIES PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER

Fluid Loss at 6900 kPa and 52°C

(cm 3 )
According 40 Minutes .....
NtTflOGEN
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
to API At After SOURce

Test Specifications Initial Set Initial Set GAS

1 920'
2 810" CEMENT
3 130"
4 1050 t
2.5 em 'U·TUBE'
5 1050* IN CNEN AT
2O-100"C

.. API test: slurry not sheared after mixing .

• .. Slurry sheared for 20 minutes after mixing.
t Slurry sheared continuously until initial set. Fig. 9-U-tube apparatull for tellting cement'li sealing ability
t: Slurry sheared continuously until 40 minutes after initial set.
to gall.

For slurries with good initial API fluid-loss control [API high-
pressure/high-temperature (HP/HT) < 50 cm 3], the fluid losses de-
termined after they have been allowed to remain static for a few
minutes after initial set often approached zero-Le., after initial
set, their fluid losses are not considered to contribute significantly
to slurry depressurization.
Stability. Little work was done on slurry stability. It was assumed
that the free-water content of slurries under downhole conditions
should be less than 1.0% after placement to prevent the formation
of water pockets and channels through which gas could migrate.
Similarly, it was considered that column depressurization caused
by the vertical movement of water through the static cement
gels 6 ,7 -Le., phase segregation-should be minimized, e.g.,
through the use of fluid-loss additives. 5
Working Hypothesis on Cement Depressurization. On the basis
of the above, a working hypothesis was formulated to explain the
mechanisms by which an API cement slurry depressurized. This
hypothesis was subsequently used as a basis for developing solutions
to the gas invasion problems. It can be summarized as follows.
I. When a stable cement slurry is placed in the wellbore, it begins
to gel, and the hydrostatic pressure it exerts tends to fall from that
of the slurry to that of the water phase within the slurry. This tran-
sition is interrupted by initial set. At initial set, the exothermic hydra-
tion reactions start, pore water begins to be converted into hydrates
(resulting in a net volume reduction), and the pore pressure of the
cement starts to fall to below that of the water-phase gradient.
2. Depressurization can be further aggravated by fluid loss. How-
ever, iflow-fluid-Ioss (API HP/HT<50 cm 3 ) cement slurries are
used and the slurries are not placed until or after initial set, depres-
surization caused by fluid loss is not considered to be a problem.
3. Because slurries are designed to be placed at initial set, their
dominant depressurization mechanism is considered to be that result-
ing from hydration shrinkage.
Note that the time at which initial set occurs is very dependent,
among other factors, on how the slurry is sheared. 2 Our records
show that in extreme cases, initial set in the field can occur up to
6 hours later than in a consistometer simulation. It is important that
the correct initial set is used in the cementation design.
V-Tube Gas Suction Tests. Given the above hypothesis, it was
assumed that gas invasion/migration caused by hydration shrinkage
of the cement was of prime concern. The V-tube apparatus 8 was
developed specifically to investigate this phenomenon. The apparatus
(Fig. 9) allows the other depressurization mechanisms to be
neglected.
The V-tube was filled with a cement s"iurry, and gas pressure
was applied to the top of one of the legs. The cement was allowed
to set and the gas pressure was monitored continuously throughout
the process. As expected, gas was not sucked into the cement until
after initial set (see V-Tube Anti-Gas-Migration Tests). The gas
flow rates through the cemented V-tubes were subsequently meas-
ured by increasing the pressure differential across the V-tube (usual-
ly up to 4 to 20 MPa [580 to 2,900 psi]) and measuring the resultant
flow rates.
Gas Migration Tests. Vertical gas-bubbleigas-stream flow through
cement columns was studied as part of a more comprehensive in-
vestigation of vertical gas flow in non-Newtonian fluids. For cement
slurries and other opaque slurries, 2-m [6.6-ft]-high columns fitted
with electrodes to measure gas movement were used (Fig. 10). It
was found that as gel values increased, gas migration rates decreased
until a critical gel value was obtained. Above this value, no further
gas movement occurred (Fig. 11). From the results, it was con-
cluded that, if gas should invade a cement before initial set as a
result of depressurization caused by cement gelation, the gel that
had caused the depressurization in the first place would almost cer-

200 25

SLURRY

. .
_,
20
E
E
150
...
GLASS TUBE ,: "'-"._ ... -.... ... ... :z:
t- t-
CONDUCTIVITY
ELECTRODES
U
..
0
.J
100 ~'"
15
"z.
0:
BUBBLE
..
>
.J
II
10
t-
'".
.J

II
:>
II
50
"

O+---~-----r----~--~----~~~r----+O
o 10 15 20 25 30 35

GELATION TIME min

Fig. 10-Apparatus for measuring gas migration rates in
slurries.
Fig. 11-Velocity of air bubbles in a gelling cement slurry
column.

80 SPE Drilling Engineering, March 1988

 TEMPERATURE 800
GAUGE

l.
".
u,j600
a:
:::l
tJ)
tJ)
w
a:
WATERI II.
PRESSURE CEMENT TRAP .... 400
REDUCING VALVE
"j:z
w
a:
w
1::200
Q
[ NO FOAMING AGENT
Fig. 12-Apparatus for measuring gas injection pressures in
setting cement.
o+-~~~~~~--~--~
o 5 10 15 20
tainly be strong enough to prevent invasion of seepage bubbles. TIME (hou's)
In these experiments, gels of 20 Pa [0.003 psi] were usually strong
enough to stop small gas bubbles from migrating, and such gels Fig. 13-lnfluence of foam formation on gas injection pres-
are usually formed by most slurries soon after placement. This rein- sure during gas flow into a setting cement column.
forced our opinion that the main gas invasion/migration problem
was after initial set, not before it.
leakage rates were still unacceptably high. When the V-tube was
Investigations To Find Solutions to the Problem cooled rapidly after the leakage rates had stabilized, however, it
In line with the comments made in Zonal Isolation, solutions to was found that gas flow in the surfactant-containing cement virtu-
the problem necessarily require reliable hydraulic sealing of the ally stopped, while the flow rate in the cement without the surfac-
cement, of the cement/casing bond, and of the cement/formation tant did not. For a lO-MPa [1,450-psi] pressure differential across
bond. Failure to achieve anyone of these seals may lead to failure the V-tube, the gas flow rate for the surfactant-containing slurry
of the cementation. The sealing problem within the cement will be reduced from 1200xlO- 1O to 43xlO- 10 m 3 /s [4.2xlO- 6 to
considered first. 152x 10- 9 ft 3 /sec] while for the slurry without surfactant, the
The chances of developing an unfoamed cement system that was flow rate remained almost constant (i.e., it "increased" from
44 800 x 10- 10 to 45 500 x 10- 10 m 3 /s [158xlO- 6 to 161x
capable of stopping formation gas invasion were not considered to
be good. Efforts were therefore concentrated on developing systems 10 -6 ft 3 /secD. Thus, it was concluded that gas was migrating
that would give zonal isolation by prevention of gas migration. A through both the slurry and the outer microannulus formed by bulk
number of anti-gas-migration systems were investigated (some of cement shrinkage. Cooling the V-tube sealed the microannulus and
al~owed the rates of migration through the cement and through the
which performed well), but only the system that was chosen for
further development is discussed here. mlCfoannulus to be determined independently. In this way, it was
The selected system simply involved the incorporation of a foam- shown that the only significant gas leakage with the surfactant ce-
ing surfactant (same type as that used in foamed cements) in an ment had been through the microannulus. The microannulus flow
u?foamed cement slurry. The purpose of the surfactant was spe- in the surfactant-free cement was insignificant compared with the
CIfically to generate a foam cement with invading formation gas flow through the slurry proper.
instead of gas added to the slurry at surface or generated by chem- Attention was now concentrated on practical field solutions to
ical reaction downhole. Surfactants have been added to cements the problem of microannulus flow. Inert fillers (silica flour, sand,
since the earliest days of oilwell cementing. To the best of our latex, etc.) were incorporated in the cement-slurry formulations to
knowledge, however, Marrast et ai. 9 were the first to recognize reduce the extent by which they shrank. Fig. 14 shows that in the
t?e potential of certain types of surfactants to inhibit gas migra- V-tube tests, annular gas leakage problems were significantly less
tIOn. They showed that the use of surfactant-containing cements, when a filler was used.
whic~ w~re capable of forming stable foams when invaded by gas,
The biggest reduction in microannulus leakage rates was obtained,
had slgmficantly less gas zonal-isolation problems than cements however, by internally lining a 2.54-cm [I-in.] section of each of
without this capability. the V-tube legs with a thin, compressible material (a seal ring).
The hydraulic seal obtained with the seal-ring/surfactant cement
Vse of a Foaming Surfactant To Increase Resistance to Gas
Migration. It became apparent from the previously described and
subse~uent scouting studies that if a gas stream were forced through
a gellIng surfactant-containing slurry, the gas would be changed
3.5j
3.0
~
",.".. .... - .- - -
_____________ .
from a fingering low-viscosity fluid into a viscous foam with con-
siderably more resistance to migration. 2.5 /
/

LEGEND
These observations were quantified with the apparatus shown in A - _ NEAT CEMENT
O.Oi---..,..-----
Fig. 12. The injection pressures required to flow gas at a controlled
,'/\
0-----
X - - - NlAT CEIlENT*SURfACTANT
NUT CEIlENT* SURFACTANT* 35'10 SAND
0-------· NEAT CEMENT .. SURfACTANT .. SEAL RING
rate through a cement column were measured. Gas injection was 0.5
: I \
started at initial set. In Fig. 13, typical injection pressures are given 0.' :j \
for two cements that were identical except that one contained a foam- 0.3 /l \"
ing surfactant and the other did not. Note that the incorporation :1:1 \/r-:....--------------
,IE "'-"-.........
0.2
of a surfactant increases the resistance to flow six-fold.
0.1

V-Tube Anti-Gas-Migration Tests. The apparatus and experimen- ~~/I

'/ I j I - - ; -.. n~·-----77--~
o 5 ,0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
tal technique used in these tests were identical to those described CURIMG TIlliE (1!ouB)

in V-Tube Gas Suction Tests (Fig. 9). Surfactant-containing ce-

~ents w~re compared with cements containing no surfactant. Sig-
Fig. 14-Pressure behavior of API Class G cement.
mficant Improvements were obtained by use of the surfactant, but

SPE Drilling Engineering, March 1988 81

combination was orders of magnitude better than the best results
with fillers. Seal rings were later developed to be fitted to the outside
of casings. IO . and Prevention Methods Described," Oil & Gas J. (Dec. 10, 1984)
Conclusions
Good mud-displacement techniques with stable, low-fluid-loss, fast-
setting cement, have proven in the past to be a highly effective meth-
od of zonally isolating formation gas under most field conditions.
Unfortunately, in certain circumstances, such practices are inade-
quate. The work done at Shell's E&P Laboratory has shown that
in these situations reliable gas zonal isolation can often be achieved
only if additional (secondary) measures are taken.
These secondary measures should ensure protection against all
three potential channels of gas migration. There may be circum-
stances that do not require all additional measures to be taken-
e.g., when there is a long primary cemented flowing salt or swell-
ing shale formation above the zone to be isolated. Such formations
may prevent the formation of an outer microannulus even when
the slurry is not formulated to minimize shrinkage. The use of fillers
is not the only means of reducing shrinkage. Recently, a vibration
technique has been developed with the same objective. 11
As far as stopping gas migration through the cement is concerned,
the surfactant cement system has certain advantages: it is cheap,
easy to use, and effective. Other proprietary antimigration cements
were also tested and some gave equally good results.
Gas migration resulting from casing contraction is a common field
problem, and we believe that mechanical seal-ring devices should
be used to prevent it. It can be argued that these seals should be
fitted to the casing even though casing contraction is not expected
under initial production conditions. Annular gas-migration prob-
lems can develop in an old well owing to changes in pressure or
thermal conditions in the well. The compressible-seal concept re-
ferred to here is not the only one that will serve this purpose. Satis-
factory results were also obtained with an alternative design. 12
Acknowledgments
We express our appreciation to Shell Research B. V. in The Hague
for permission to publish this paper and to D.R. Davies, J.J. Hartog,
and E.A. Richardson for their contributions to the work published
here, and to P.C. de Roo and A. Uittenbroek, who conducted most
of the experimental work.
82
References
I. Sutton, D.L., Sabins, F., and Faul, R.: "Annular Gas Flow Theory
84-92.
2. Hartog, J.J., Davies, D.R., and Stewart, R.B.: "An Integrated Ap-
proach for Successful Primary Cementations," JPT (Sept. 1983)
1600-10.
3. Grachev, V.V. and Leonov, E.G.: "Pore Pressure and Skeletal Pres-
sure of a Cement Column During the Setting Period," Burenie (1969)
No.3, 17-21 (in Russian).
4. Davies, D.R., Hartog, J.1., and Cobett, J.S.: "Foamed Cement-A
Cement With Many Applications," paper SPE 9598 presented at the
1981 SPE Middle East Conference, Bahrain, March 9-12.
5. Cristian, W.W., Chaterji, J., and Ostroot, G.W.: "Gas Leakage in Pri-
mary Cementing-A Field Study and Laboratory Investigation," JPT
(Nov. 1976) 1361-69.
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nels in the Annular Spaces of Wells After Cementing," Gazov. Prom.
(1970) IS, No.2, 3-6 (in Russian).
8. Richardson, E.A.: "Process for Measuring the Volume Change of a
Nitrogen-Gas Stabilized Cement," U.S. Patent No. 4452898 (June
1984).
9. Marrast, J., Minssieux, L., and Blondin, E.: "Well Cementing Proc-
ess," U.S. Patent No. 3,926,257 (Dec. 1975).
10. Bol, G.M. et al.: "Flexible Seal Around a Well Casing," U.K. Patent
No. 8509320 (April 1985).
II. Cooke, C.E., Gonzalez, O.J., and Broussard, D.J.: "Primary Cement-
ing Improvement by Casing Vibration During Cement Curing Time,"
paper SPE 14199 presented at the 1985 SPE Annual Technical Con-
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12. Bearden, W.G., Spurlock, J.W., and Howard, G.C.: "Control and
Prevention ofInter-Zonal Flow," JPT(May 1965) 579-84; Trans.,
AIME,234.
51 Metric Conversion Factors
bar x 1.0* E+05 Pa
ft x 3.048* E-OI m
OF (OF-32)/1.8 °C
in. x 2.54* E+OO cm
psi x .6.894757 E+OO kPa
'Conversion factor is exact. SPEDE
Original SPE manuscript received for review Feb. 9,1986. Paper accepted for publication
July 27, 1987. Revised manuscript received Dec. 9, 1987. Paper (SPE 14779) first presented
at the 1986 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in Dallas, Feb. 10-12.
SPE Drilling Engineering, March 1988