History of Petroleum - Chapter 05

PETE
IKC-MH-27
History of Petroleum(3-0)3
2018-2019 Fall
İzmir
Chapter-05
Petroleum exploration (Par t - I I )
Dr. Tuna Eren
26/Oct/2018
IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 1
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Course Content
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https://drive.google.com/open?id=1Bed7w-_irHlfytz2pm2dLxP_Nh6YaCuO

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Course Content
Course Content
Week Topics
1 Introduction to the history of petroleum on 28/09/2018
2 Petroleum (General Information) on 05/10/2018
3 Hydrocarbon accumulation on 12/10/2018
4 Petroleum exploration (part-I) on 19/10/2018
5 Petroleum exploration (part-II)
6 Drilling preliminaries
7 Cornerstone concessions
8 Big bang and the growth of the markets (1950-1973)
9 Fixing the crude oil price structure
10 The growth of competition (1950-1970)
11 Enter OPEC: The early years (1960-1968)
12 The Tehran and Tripoli Agreements (1971)
13 The struggle for control (1971-1973)

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Geological Surveying
In petroleum exploration geological surveying is the oldest

investigation method, applied since the second half of the
nineteenth century, when we began to understand that the
presence of oil and gas fields was related to rock geometry
and their lithological characteristics (traps) and that the
expression of deep geometries are sometimes reproduced in
outcrops.
Exploration in areas with these characteristics is already

almost mature, even if mapping large scale structural
alignments with satellite images is still very useful in
regional studies.
Nowadays geological mapping is carried out mainly as

integration to geophysical surveying.

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In particular, when exploration involves offshore regions,

where only indirect data are available (from seismic,
gravity, etc.) and wells have not yet been drilled, surface
geological studies, carried out in adjacent basins with
similar characteristics, are particularly useful (Fig. 7.18);
they allow the construction of models, "analogues”, that
simulate: what cannot be directly observed and give a more
realistic interpretation of the geophysical data.

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The aim of a geological survey is to define the distribution

and characteristics of outcropping geological formations and
envisages the study of:
 the different lithotypes present;

 their spatial position (attitude);
 the relationship between the various units (if in
stratigraphic or tectonic contact).
Visual investigation is normally accompanied by the

collection of samples on which all the necessary analyses
can be carried out in the laboratory.

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Geophysics
Geophysics is the science that studies the physical

characteristics of the Earth by quantitatively measuring
various properties, for example:
 atmospheric electricity;
 electric currents inside the Earth;
 seismology, earthquakes and elastic wave propagation;
 gravity and terrestrial gravitational field;
 magnetometry and terrestrial magnetic field.
The study aims and survey techniques involve: pure

geophysics, which aims to describe the general aspects of the
Earth's physical phenomena and interpret their causes;
applied geophysics, used to optimize the exploitation of the
Earth's energy sources (e.g. geothermal energy, tidal energy
and hydrocarbons) to better evaluate the terrain's
characteristics (e.g. land stability, seismic risk) and for
archaeological research.

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Geophysics
In petroleum exploration, geophysics is used as an indirect

methodology and together with geology to identifY and
localize subsurface structural and stratigraphic features in
sedimentary basins potentially favourable for hydrocarbons
accumulation.

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Gravity
From the early 40s to the mid 60s gravity and magnetometry
were the most widely used tools in the petroleum industry.
The subsequent growth of seismic technology relegated

gravity and magnetometry to a secondary role but the
development of new and more sophisticated tools has led to
their re-evaluation and they are once again fairly commonly
used.

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Gravity
In petroleum exploration, gravity is used to obtain

information about the areal distribution of subsurface rock
masses.

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Gravity
This discipline (Gravity) enables us to measure density

inside the Earth, providing indications on geological
aspects (density, heteropy, etc.) and structures relating
both to the sedimentary cover and the crystalline basement.
In this way it is possible to reconstruct the main features

of the studied area (e.g. extension of sedimentary basins,
presence of salt bodies, magmatic plutons, etc.) as well as
the connected structures (faults, discontinuities, etc.).

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Gravity
Gravimetric measurements are carried out systematically

onshore and offshore, with station points regularly
positioned in the area of interest, according to the size of
the target to be studied.
For some years it has also been possible to acquire data from
the air, with tools located on aircrafts.
Measuring is carried out using gravimeters, instruments that

allow us to measure the variation in gravity acceleration on
the Earth's surface between two or more points.
This variation is caused by the different attraction that the

subsurface masses exercise on the gravity body inside the
measuring instrument.

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Gravity
After appropriate corrections, the acquired data are used

to build maps of the so-called "Bouguer anomalies”) (Fig.
7. 19).

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Magnetometry
The instruments used in magnetic mapping are magnetometers

which measure the values of the magnetic field along a
series of profiles.

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Magnetometry
In petroleum exploration, magnetometry enables us to
interpret geological and structural features due to the
presence of basement susceptibility contrasts and/or
effusive or intrusive complexes inside the sedimentary
sequence.
In other words, it allows us to construct the deep

structural framework of the basement and identify intra-
sedimentary volcanic markers, providing their areal depth
and extension (Fig. 7.22).

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Seismic Surveying
The seismic method began to be developed in the years before

the Second World War, but it was only after 1945 that it
underwent rapid fine-tuning for widespread and systematic
application in the entire oil industry.
The possibility of investigating and reconstructing deep

geometries that are difficult to identify with surface
geology or other prospecting techniques, like gravity, is
the main reason for its enormous success.

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Seismic Surveying
Seismic surveying in petroleum exploration is mainly based

on the study of reflected waves; the methodology is
therefore called reflection seismics (Fig 7.30).

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Seismic data acquisition
The environment:
on land:
plains,
mountain areas,
inhabited areas,
woods,
forests,
at sea:
shallow water,
deep waters
determines the choice of seismic acquisition methodology and

above all the energy source.

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On land the main energy source is explosives (Fig. 7.31).
Dynamite is normally used and is placed in cylindrical

containers which are lowered into drill holes 10 to 40 m
deep.
The depth depends mainly on two factors: a) ground

characteristics, because the charges must be placed as close
as possible to the rock substratum to avoid dispersion of
the signal as happens in a non-consolidated surface soil; b)
the depth and characteristics of the hydrocarbon target.

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When this technique cannot be applied (in inhabited,

geologically usntable, and highly uneven topographical
areas, forests, etc.) a vibrator system is used (vibroseis)
(Fig. 7.31): in this case the energy transmitted to the soil
is not impulsive but continuous, i.e. a variable frequency
signal of a few seconds.

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In marine seismic acquisition, sources and receivers are

pulled along on a cable behind a ship (Fig. 7.33).

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To obtain continuous information on the reflecting horizons

the spread and source must be moved slowly.
In this way one subsurface point can be "illuminated" many

times, giving rise to the so-called "multiple coverage",
especially useful for improving signal quality and reducing
noise (Fig. 7.34).

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2D seismic surveys allow the construction of two-dimensional

sections under the acquired line, while 3D seismic surveys
provide three-dimensional reconstruction of subsurface
images (Fig. 7.35).

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In the last years a method known as 4D seismic survey, where

the fourth dimension is time, has been introduced: multiple
surveys carried out in successive times of the same field
allow us to monitor the evolution over time of some
petrophysical characteristics which could have changed
during hydrocarbon production (e.g. following gas production
and consequent water invasion of the pore volume).

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Seismic data processing
The acquired seismic data are not suitable for

interpretation but require careful processing by experts
using computers and mathematical algorithms.
The main aims of seismic data processing are: removal of

unwanted signals (the so-called "noises"), preservation of
the primary reflections associated with geological meaning
and conversion of the data recorded into seismic sections
(or volumes in 3D survey) which can be compared to
structural subsurface sections where the trend of the
sedimentary beds investigated is highlighted.
It can be said that the success of processing depends on the

correct choice of parameters for each mathematical operation
to be applied to the data and so numerous tests are carried
out both before and during each stage of the operatiOn.

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Cores and Cuttings
Sampling formations while drilling has the aim of allowing

the geologist to reconstruct the series crossed by the well,
to check for possible hydrocarbons shows and to gather
information about the petrophysical and mechanical
characteristics of the rock mechanically investigated.
The samples the geologist can use for this purpose are:
 bottomhole cores;
 sidewall cores;
 cuttings produced by the bit during well drilling.

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Bottomhole cores
Core is a direct survey

instrument of the subsurface
pattern. By mechanical
coring we mean the operation
of taking cylindrical rock
samples from the well,
commonly called bottomhole
cores.
The coring tool is a

drilling instrument that
uses a bit which does not
work on the entire front
surface but along its
circumference; the inside is
void and allows the
nondrilled cylindrical
section of rock to enter
(Fig. 7.43).

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Bottomhole cores

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Bottomhole cores
Taking cores permits us to determine the lithological and

paleontological characteristics of the formations drilled,
to perform petrophysical measurements (porosity,
permeability), geochemical analysis and absolute dating, to
ascertain the nature of the present fluids and, finally, to
measure the geometric characteristics of the planar events
(faults, stratification, attitude of the formations, etc.)
(Fig. 7.48).

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Bottomhole cores

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Cuttings
The cuttings, rock fragments

produced by the bit (Fig.
7.50) during drilling
activity, are brought to the
surface by the mud stream
which, pumped inside the drill
string, returns to the surface
through the annulus between
the drill string and the well-
bore walls and/or the casing.
The mud, has two main

purposes: it carries the
cuttings to the surface and,
thanks to its density,
supports the wellbore walls
until they are protected by
casing strings.

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Wireline Logs
Different physical
characteristics of the rock such
as electrical resistivity,
photons and neutrons absorption,
elastic wave velocity, etc. can
be recorded via a cable (Wireline
Log) (Fig. 7.51) through probes
equipped with sensors that are
run downhole at the end of a
section of the well.
Recording is carried out

continuously as the cable rises.
These recordings are used to
study lithology, porosity,
characteristics and distribution
of fractures, permeability, water
saturation, water table position,
etc.

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Wireline Logs

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Thanks
Questions
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QR (Quick Response) Code

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 2

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 3

In petroleum exploration geological surveying is the oldest

Exploration in areas with these characteristics is already

Nowadays geological mapping is carried out mainly as

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 4

In particular, when exploration involves offshore regions,

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 5

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 6

The aim of a geological survey is to define the distribution

 the different lithotypes present;

Visual investigation is normally accompanied by the

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 7

Geophysics is the science that studies the physical

The study aims and survey techniques involve: pure

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 8

In petroleum exploration, geophysics is used as an indirect

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 9

The subsequent growth of seismic technology relegated

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 10

In petroleum exploration, gravity is used to obtain

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 11

This discipline (Gravity) enables us to measure density

In this way it is possible to reconstruct the main features

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 12

Gravimetric measurements are carried out systematically

Measuring is carried out using gravimeters, instruments that

This variation is caused by the different attraction that the

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 13

After appropriate corrections, the acquired data are used

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 14

The instruments used in magnetic mapping are magnetometers

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 15

In other words, it allows us to construct the deep

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 16

The seismic method began to be developed in the years before

The possibility of investigating and reconstructing deep

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 17

Seismic surveying in petroleum exploration is mainly based

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 18

determines the choice of seismic acquisition methodology and

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 19

On land the main energy source is explosives (Fig. 7.31).

Dynamite is normally used and is placed in cylindrical

The depth depends mainly on two factors: a) ground

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 20

When this technique cannot be applied (in inhabited,

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 21

In marine seismic acquisition, sources and receivers are

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 22

To obtain continuous information on the reflecting horizons

In this way one subsurface point can be "illuminated" many

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 23

2D seismic surveys allow the construction of two-dimensional

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 24

In the last years a method known as 4D seismic survey, where

IKC-MH-27 (History of Petroleum) 25

The acquired seismic data are not suitable for

The main aims of seismic data processing are: removal of

It can be said that the success of processing depends on the