SCALARS AND VECTORS

All physical quantities in engineering mechanics are

measured using either scalars or vectors.

Scalar. A scalar is any positive or negative physical

quantity that can be completely specified by its
magnitude. Examples of scalar quantities include
length, mass, time, density, volume, temperature,
energy, area, speed.
VECTOR

A vector is any physical quantity that requires both a magnitude and

a direction for its complete description. Examples of vectors
encountered in statics are force, position, and moment. A vector is
shown graphically by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the
magnitude of the vector, and the angle q between the vector and a
fixed axis defines the direction of its line of action. The head or tip of
the arrow indicates the sense of direction of the vector
TYPES OF VECTORS

Physical quantities that are vectors fall into one of the three classifications as
free, sliding or fixed.

A free vector is one whose action is not confined to or associated with a

unique line in space. For example if a body is in translational motion, velocity
of any point in the body may be taken as a vector and this vector will describe
equally well the velocity of every point in the body. Hence, we may represent
the velocity of such a body by a free vector.

In statics, couple moment is a free vector.

A sliding vector is one for which a unique line in space must be
maintained along which the quantity acts. When we deal with the external
action of a force on a rigid body, the force may be applied at any point
along its line of action without changing its effect on the body as a whole
and hence, considered as a sliding vector.
A fixed vector is one for which a unique point of application is
specified and therefore the vector occupies a particular position in
space. The action of a force on a deformable body must be specified
by a fixed vector.
Principle of Transmissibility (Taşınabilirlik İlkesi)

The external effect of a force on a rigid body will remain

unchanged if the force is moved to act on its line of action.
Equality and Equivalence of Vectors

Two vectors are equal if they have the same dimensions, magnitudes and directions.

Two vectors are equivalent in a certain capacity if each produces the very same effect
in this capacity.
Addition of Vectors is done according to the parallelogram principle of
vector addition. To illustrate, the two “ component ” vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 are
added to form a “ resultant ” vector 𝑅.

Parallelogram law Triangle law

  
   A B  R
A B  R

  
B R R 
B
 
A A
 Subtraction of Vectors is done according to the parallelogram law.

 
    
R  A  B  A   B 
 B
A
 
R B

 Multiplication of a Scalar and a Vector

   
a U  aU abU   abU
      
a  bU  aU  bU aU  V   aU  aV
Vector Addition of Forces
Experimental evidence has shown that a force is a vector
quantity since it has a specified magnitude, direction, and sense
and it adds according to the parallelogram law. Two common
problems in statics involve either finding the resultant force,
knowing its components, or resolving a known force into two
components.
Finding a Resultant Force.

Finding the Components of a Force.

Addition of Several Forces
If more than two forces are to be added, successive
applications of the parallelogram law can be carried
out in order to obtain the resultant force.
 Vector Components and Resultant Vector Let the sum of 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 be 𝑅. Here, 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵

are named as the components and 𝑅 is named as the resultant.

   A B R
A B  R Sine theorem  
  sin  sin  sin 
R

 B Cosine theorem R 2  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 


A
(Magnitude of the resultant force can be determined using the law of cosines, and its
direction is determined from the law of sines.)

Note that
q
  Cosine theorem
B R
q R  A  B  2 AB cos q
2 2 2


A
The relationship between a force and its vector components must
not be confused with the relationship between a force and its
perpendicular (orthogonal) projections onto the same axes.

For example, the perpendicular projections of force F onto axes a
 
and b are Fa and Fb , which are parallel to the vector components of
 
F1 and F2 . a b
a //a
//b


 Fa  a
F1 F F
 
F2 b Fb b
Components: F1 and F2 Projections: Fa and Fb
It is seen that the components of a vector are not necessarily equal to
the projections of the vector onto the same axes. The components and

projections of F are equal only when the axes a and b are
perpendicular.

a b
a //a
//b


 Fa  a
F1 F F
 
F2 b Fb b
Components: F1 and F2 Projections: Fa and Fb
Unit Vector A unit vector is a free vector having a magnitude of 1 (one) as
 
 U U  
n   n or e 
U U

It describes direction. The most convenient way to describe a vector in a certain

direction is to multiply its magnitude with its unit vector.

  
U  Un
U U

n
1


U and U have the same unit, hence the unit vector is dimensionless.
CARTESIAN COORDINATES Cartesian Coordinate System is composed
of 90° (orthogonal) axes. It consists of x and y axes in two dimensional
(planar) case, x, y and z axes in three dimensional (spatial) case. x-y axes are
generally taken within the plane of the paper, their positive directions can be
selected arbitrarily; the positive direction of the z axes must be determined in
accordance with the right hand rule.
 y z

z
y
x
x
x y
z
Cartesian Unit Vectors In three dimensions, the set of
Cartesian unit vectors, 𝑖Ԧ , 𝑗Ԧ, 𝑘, is used to designate the
directions of the x, y, z axes, respectively.

 Vector Components in Two Dimensional (Planar) Cartesian Coordinates

  
U  Ux U y
y  
 U x  U xi
 
j Uy Uy j
   
 U U  U xi  U y j
Uy
U  Ux U y
2 2


q i x
tanq 
Uy

Ux Ux
 Vector Components in Three Dimensional (Spatial) Cartesian Coordinates

z  unit vector along the x axis, i ,

 U unit vector along the y axis, j ,

k unit vector along the y axis, k ,
y

    
 U  U xi  U y j  U z k
Uz  j
Uy U U x
2
U y Uz
2 2

 
Ux i
x
 Position Vector: It is the vector that describes the location of one point with respect
to another point. In three dimensional case
B (xB, yB, zB)
In two dimensional case z

B (xB, yB)
y 
rB/A
y
 
rB/A
k 
 j
j A (xA, yA, zA)
A (xA, yA) 
 i
i x
x
     
rB/A  xB  x A i   y B  y A  j

rB/A  xB  x A i   y B  y A  j   z B  z A k
* When the direction angles of a force vector are given;

The angles, the line of action of a force makes with the x, y and z axes are named as
direction angles. The cosines of these angles are called direction cosines; they
specify the line of action of a vector with respect to coordinate axes.

In this case, direction angles are qx, qy and qz.

Direction cosines are cos qx, cos qy and cos qz.

cos qx = l cos qy = m cos qz = n

 Fx  F cos q x 
 
 Fy  F cos q y   F  Fx2  Fy2  Fz2
 
 Fz  F cos q z 
   
F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k
   
F  F cos q x i  F cos q y j  F cos q z k
 
   
F  F cos q x i  cos q y j  cos q z k

   
F  F cos q x i  cos q y j  cos q z k 
   
nF  cos q x i  cos q y j  cos q z k
   
nF  li  mj  nk
F 2 Fx  Fy  Fz
2 2 2

F 2  Fx2  Fy2  Fz2  2

 2
1
F F

cos 2 q x  cos 2 q y  cos 2 q z  1  l 2  m2  n2  1

* When coordinates of two points along the line of action of a force are given;

 
F  FnF
  

FF
AB
F
x2  x1 i   y2  y1  j  z2  z1 k
AB x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2  z2  z1 2
* When two angles describing the line of action of a force are given;

First resolve F into horizontal and vertical components.

Fxy  F cos 
Fz  F sin 
Then resolve the horizontal component Fxy into x- and y-components.

Fx  Fxy cos q  F cos  cos q

Fy  Fxy sin q  F cos  sin q
 Addition of Cartesian Vectors
In two dimensional case
     
U  U xi  U y j V  Vx i  V y j
 
U  V  U x i  U y j  Vx i  V y j  U x  Vx i  U y  V y  j
     

In three dimensional case

       
U  U xi  U y j  U z k V  Vx i  V y j  Vz k
  
U  V  U x  Vx i  U y  V y  j  U z  Vz k
 
Dot (Scalar) Product A scalar quantity is obtained from the dot product of two vectors.

  
U V  a
V  
order of multiplica tion is irrelevant V U  a
 
    U V
 U V  U V cos  cos    
 UV
U
In terms of unit vectors in Cartesian Coordinates;
      
i  i  i i cos 0  1 , j  j 1, k k 1
       
i  j  i j cos 90  0 , j  k  0 , k i  0
       
U  U xi  U y j  U z k V  Vx i  V y j  Vz k
 
U V  U xVx  U yV y  U zVz
Normal and Parallel Components of a Vector with respect to a Line


 
n  U
U //
q 
U
Magnitude of parallel component: U //  U cos q
     
U  n  U n cos q  U cos q , U //  U  n

1
   
Parallel component: U //  U  n  n

  
Normal (Orthogonal) component: U  U  U
 //
 Cross (Vector) Product: The multiplication of two vectors in cross product
results in a vector. This multiplication vector is normal to the plane containing the
other two vectors. Its direction is determined by the right hand rule. Its magnitude
equals the area of the parallelogram that the vectors span. The order of
multiplication is important.
     
 U V  W , V  U  W
 
V      U V
U  V  U V sin q sin q   
q U UV
     
 aU  V   aU  V  U  aV 
      
W U  V  Y   U  V  U  Y

V
q 
 W
U
In terms of unit vectors in Cartesian Coordinates;

      
i  i  i i sin 0  0 , j j 0, k k  0

   
i  j  i j sin 90  1
        
i  j k , j k  i , k i  j
        
j  i   k , k  j  i , i k  j
  
z i i
+ + 
  y
k j    
k j j k
 x
i
 
   
    
U  V  U x i  U y j  U z k  Vx i  V y j  Vz k 
    
i j k i j
 
U V  U x U y U z U x U y
Vx V y Vz Vx V y

  
   
  

 i U yVz  j U zVx   k U xV y  j U xVz   i U zV y  k U yVx 
 
 
 

U  V  U yVz  U zV y i  U zVx  U xVz  j  U xV y  U yVx k


 Mixed Triple Product: It is used when taking the moment of a force about a line.
   
U  U xi  U y j  U z k
   
V  Vx i  V y j  Vz k
   
W  Wx i  W y j  Wz k
  
i j k
  
 

U  V  W   U x i  U y j  U z k  Vx V y Vz
 

Wx W y Wz
or
Ux U y Uz
  
U  V  W   Vx V y Vz
Wx W y Wz