Preliminary Eng

Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of municipal & Rural Affairs

Deputy Ministry for Technical Affairs
MOMRA
Bridges, Tunnels, Culverts and Pedestrian
Bridges Specifications in Urban Areas
Preliminary studies
MA 100-P-V1/1
2013
Introduction
As for the importance and vitality of road constructions and the need to control them
so as to perform their function in an appropriate way throughout their service age . So
many countries and Organizations had prepared specifications for design and
construction these structures. These Specifications were differed from one another
according to the environment and the nature of the climate. For instance some
organizations and societies in U.S.A. Such as the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). These organizations and societies
have improved and updated design specification. In the same way each state in U.S.A.
has developed its own specification mainly based on AASHTO specification and
refers to them In different situations , but they will be suitable for the circumstances
of the State that has improved them. As for K.S.A. which is one of the countries that has
a large transportation network and many road structures, so the necessity arose to
prepare suitable specification for these structures to suit the environmental
circumstances and the transportation policy that has adopted in K.S.A. So the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia representative in the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs has taken
the role of collecting the specification under the title Bridges ,Tunnels ,culverts ,
pedestrian bridges in the urban areas.
These specifications include the following:
1- Preliminary studies
2- Design specifications
3- Construction specifications
The ministry has also updated codes for both bridges and culverts manuals according to
the new specifications.
Specifications Books
1 Preliminary studies MA 100-P-V1/1
2 Construction specifications MA 100-C-V1/1
3 Design specifications MA 100- D- V1/2
4 Design specifications MA 100-D- V2/2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................I
SECTION 1. SURVEY WORKS ........................................................................ 1
1.1. IMPORTANCE AND TYPES OF SURVEYS ...................................................................1

1.1.1. Importance Surveys ..........................................................................................................1
1.1.2. Types of Surveys...............................................................................................................2
1.1.2.1. Control Survey ............................................................................................................2
1.1.2.2. Boundary Survey ........................................................................................................2
1.1.2.3. Topographic Survey ....................................................................................................3
1.1.2.4. Hydrographic Survey ..................................................................................................3
1.1.2.5. Mining Survey ............................................................................................................3
1.1.2.6. Construction Survey....................................................................................................3
1.1.2.7. Route Survey...............................................................................................................3
1.1.2.8. Photogrammetric Survey ............................................................................................3
1.2. EQUIPMENT CHECKING AND CALIBRATION..........................................................3
1.2.1. General ..............................................................................................................................3
1.2.2. Equipment .........................................................................................................................3
1.2.3. Electronic Survey Instruments Adjustments, Calibration or Repairs ...............................3
1.2.4. Equipment Types ..............................................................................................................4
1.2.5. Survey Crew Responsibilities ...........................................................................................4
1.2.6. Equipment Care and Protection ........................................................................................5
1.2.7. Routine Instrument Maintenance ......................................................................................5
1.2.8. Equipment Maintenance ...................................................................................................6
1.2.9. Calibrations .......................................................................................................................7
1.2.9.1. General ........................................................................................................................7
1.2.9.2. Calibration Baseline Check.........................................................................................7
1.3. PRELIMINARY SURVEY ..................................................................................................8
1.3.1. Presurvey Conference/Preliminary Survey .......................................................................8
1.3.2. Reconnaissance Survey .....................................................................................................9
1.3.2.1. Reconnaissance on Vertical Aerial Photographs ......................................................10
1.3.2.2. Reconnaissance on Existing Maps ............................................................................10
1.3.2.3. Reconnaissance on New Maps..................................................................................10
1.3.2.4. Comparison of Alternatives ......................................................................................10
1.3.3. Research ..........................................................................................................................11
1.3.3.1. General ......................................................................................................................11
1.3.3.2. Types of Research .....................................................................................................11
1.3.3.3. Office Research.........................................................................................................11
1.3.3.4. Field Search ..............................................................................................................12
1.3.4. Drainage Survey..............................................................................................................13
1.3.4.1. General ......................................................................................................................13
1.3.4.2. Aerial Photogrammetry Methods ..............................................................................13
1.3.4.3. Photographs ..............................................................................................................14
1.3.4.4. Guidelines .................................................................................................................14
1.3.5. Utility Survey ..................................................................................................................16
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.4. CONSTRUCTION SURVEY ............................................................................................ 16

1.4.1. Location Survey ............................................................................................................. 16
1.4.2. Centerline Survey ........................................................................................................... 16
1.4.3. Profile ............................................................................................................................. 17
1.4.4. Slope Stakes ................................................................................................................... 17
1.4.5. Structure Stakes .............................................................................................................. 18
1.4.6. Grade Stakes ................................................................................................................... 18
1.4.7. Earthwork Quantities...................................................................................................... 18
1.5. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (GPS) .................................................................. 18
1.6. SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS .................................................................... 18
1.6.1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 18
1.6.2. WEARING OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ........................................ 19
1.6.3. USE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES ................................................................... 20
1.6.3.1. WARNING SIGNS .................................................................................................. 20
1.6.3.2. Channelizing Devices............................................................................................... 21
1.6.3.3. Advance Warning Arrow Panel ............................................................................... 21
1.6.3.4. Variable Message Signs (VMS) ............................................................................... 21
1.6.3.5. Flagging Operations ................................................................................................. 21
1.6.3.6. Inspections................................................................................................................ 22
1.6.3.7. Vehicle Warning Lights ........................................................................................... 22
1.6.4. Safety Rules While Working in Traffic.......................................................................... 22
1.7. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY REQUIREMENTS AND REPORTING:......................... 23
1.7.1. Coordinates According to the Surface of the Geodetic Reference for GPS ................... 23
1.7.2. Topographic Survey Study Submittals: .......................................................................... 24
1.8. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 24
SECTION 2. HIGHWAY HYDROLOGY ....................................................... 25
2.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 25

2.2. DEFINITIONS.................................................................................................................... 25
2.3. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE ................................................................................................... 27
2.4. HYDROLOGY OF HIGHWAY STREAM CROSSINGS ............................................. 28
2.4.1. Elements of the Hydrologic Cycle Pertinent to Stream Crossings ................................. 28
2.4.2. Overview of Hydrology as Applied to Stream Crossings .............................................. 29
2.4.3. Diversions and Dam Construction ................................................................................. 30
2.4.4. Natural Disasters ............................................................................................................ 30
2.5. RAINFALL/RUNOFF PROCESSES ............................................................................... 31
2.5.1. Precipitation ................................................................................................................... 31
2.5.1.1. Forms of Precipitation .............................................................................................. 31
2.5.1.2. Types of Precipitation (by Origin) ........................................................................... 31
2.5.1.3. Characteristics of Rainfall Events ............................................................................ 31
2.5.2. Hydrologic Abstractions................................................................................................. 32
2.5.2.1. Evaporation .............................................................................................................. 32
2.5.2.2. Transpiration ............................................................................................................ 33
2.5.2.3. Interception .............................................................................................................. 33
2.5.2.4. Infiltration ................................................................................................................ 33
2.5.2.5. Depression Storage................................................................................................... 33
2.5.2.6. Detention Storage ..................................................................................................... 33
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.5.3. Characteristics of Runoff ................................................................................................33

2.5.3.1. Peak Discharge .........................................................................................................34
2.5.3.2. Time Variation (Hydrograph) ...................................................................................34
2.5.3.3. Stage -Discharge .......................................................................................................34
2.5.3.4. Total Volume ............................................................................................................35
2.5.3.5. Frequency..................................................................................................................35
2.5.3.6. Return Period ............................................................................................................36
2.5.4. Effects of Basin Characteristics on Runoff .....................................................................36
2.5.4.1. Drainage Area ...........................................................................................................36
2.5.4.2. Slope .........................................................................................................................36
2.5.4.3. Hydraulic Roughness ................................................................................................37
2.5.4.4. Storage ......................................................................................................................37
2.5.4.5. Drainage Density ......................................................................................................39
2.5.4.6. Channel Length .........................................................................................................39
2.5.4.7. Antecedent Moisture Conditions ..............................................................................40
2.5.4.8. Urbanization..............................................................................................................40
2.5.4.9. Other Factors.............................................................................................................40
2.6. HYDROLOGIC DATA ......................................................................................................40
2.6.1. Topographic Maps .......................................................................................................40
2.6.2. Photographs.....................................................................................................................41
2.6.3. Land Use .........................................................................................................................41
2.6.4. Water Use........................................................................................................................41
2.6.5. Rainfall Data ...................................................................................................................41
2.6.6. Gaging Station Data ........................................................................................................41
2.6.7. Highwater Marks ............................................................................................................42
2.7. HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS .............................................................................................42
2.7.1. Drainage Area .................................................................................................................42
2.7.2. Watershed Parameters .....................................................................................................42
2.7.2.1. Basin Length .............................................................................................................42
2.7.2.2. Basin Slope ...............................................................................................................42
2.7.2.3. Percent Impervious ...................................................................................................43
2.7.2.4. Infiltration .................................................................................................................43
2.7.2.5. Detention Depression Storage...................................................................................43
2.7.2.6. Drainage Basin Roughness Coefficients ...................................................................43
2.7.2.7. Channel or Conduit Slope .........................................................................................44
2.7.2.8. Channel or Conduit Cross Section ............................................................................45
2.7.2.9. Channel or Conduit Roughness ................................................................................45
2.7.3. Flood Estimates ...............................................................................................................49
2.7.3.1. Rational Equation......................................................................................................50
2.7.3.2. Gumbel Distribution .................................................................................................57
2.7.3.3. Indirect Estimates......................................................................................................60
2.7.3.4. Regression Equations ................................................................................................61
2.8. HIGHWAY CULVERTS DESIGN ...................................................................................63
2.8.1. Introduction .....................................................................................................................63
2.8.2. Design Considerations ....................................................................................................64
2.8.2.1. Design Discharge ......................................................................................................64
2.8.2.2. Headwater .................................................................................................................64
2.8.2.3. Tailwater ...................................................................................................................65
2.8.2.4. Outlet Velocity ..........................................................................................................65
2.8.3. Culvert Flow ...................................................................................................................65
2.8.3.1. Inlet Control ..............................................................................................................65
2.8.3.2. Outlet Control ...........................................................................................................66
2.8.4. Performance Curves ........................................................................................................67
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.8.5. Procedure for Selection of Culvert Size ......................................................................... 68

2.8.5.1. Step1- List Design Data ........................................................................................... 68
2.8.5.2. Step 2-Determine the first trial size culvert.............................................................. 68
2.8.5.3. Step 3-Find headwater depth for trial size culvert. .................................................. 69
2.8.5.4. Step 4- Try a culvert of another type or shape and determine size and HW by
the above procedure................................................................................................. 70
2.8.5.5. Step 5-Compute outlet velocities for size and types to be considered in selection
and determine need for channel protection ............................................................. 70
2.8.5.6. Step 6-Record final selection of culvert, the size, type required headwater,
outlet velocity, and economic justification. ............................................................. 70
2.8.6. Protection ....................................................................................................................... 75
2.8.6.1. Debris Control .......................................................................................................... 75
2.8.6.2. Buoyancy.................................................................................................................. 75
2.8.7. Sedimentation ................................................................................................................. 76
2.9. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 76
SECTION 3. GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES .................................................... 77
3.1. PROJECT GEOTECHNICAL PLANNING ................................................................... 77

3.1.1. General ........................................................................................................................... 77
3.1.1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 77
3.1.1.2. Objective .................................................................................................................. 77
3.1.1.3. Reports ..................................................................................................................... 77
3.1.2. Geotechnical Project Elements ....................................................................................... 78
3.1.3. Geotechnical Input for Reconnaissance Phase ............................................................... 78
3.1.3.1. Objective .................................................................................................................. 78
3.1.3.2. Tasks ........................................................................................................................ 78
3.1.3.3. Report ....................................................................................................................... 79
3.1.4. Geotechnical Input for Preliminary Design Phase ......................................................... 80
3.1.4.1. Objective .................................................................................................................. 80
3.1.4.2. Tasks ........................................................................................................................ 80
3.1.4.3. Report ....................................................................................................................... 82
3.1.5. Geotechnical Input for Final Design Phase .................................................................... 83
3.1.5.1. Objective .................................................................................................................. 83
3.1.5.2. Tasks ........................................................................................................................ 83
3.1.5.3. Report ....................................................................................................................... 85
3.2. FIELD INVESTIGATION ................................................................................................ 87
3.2.1. Exploration Spacing and Layout .................................................................................... 87
3.2.1.1. Structure-Specific Borings ....................................................................................... 87
3.3. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND ROCK ............................................... 88
3.3.1. Engineering Properties of Soils ...................................................................................... 88
3.3.1.1. Permeability ............................................................................................................. 88
3.3.1.2. Elasticity ................................................................................................................... 88
3.3.1.3. Plasticity ................................................................................................................... 89
3.3.1.4. Cohesion ................................................................................................................... 89
3.3.1.5. Angle of Internal Friction (Φ) .................................................................................. 89
3.3.1.6. Moisture Content ...................................................................................................... 89
3.3.1.7. Density ..................................................................................................................... 89
3.3.1.8. Shrink/Swell Potential .............................................................................................. 89
3.3.1.9. Compressibility ........................................................................................................ 89
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.3.1.10. Grain Size Distribution ...........................................................................................90

3.3.2. Grain Size Distribution Chart .........................................................................................90
3.3.3. Engineering Properties of Rocks.....................................................................................91
3.3.3.1. Density ......................................................................................................................91
3.3.3.2. Strength and Hardness ..............................................................................................91
3.3.3.3. Durability ..................................................................................................................91
3.3.3.4. Joints and Faults........................................................................................................91
3.4. SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS......................................................................................92
3.4.1. Overview .........................................................................................................................92
3.4.1.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................................92
3.4.2. Analysis and Design .......................................................................................................97
3.4.2.1. Overview ...................................................................................................................97
3.4.3. Slope Repair ....................................................................................................................99
3.4.3.1. Overview ...................................................................................................................99
3.5. REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................100
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
vi 3 October 2013
Importance and Types of Surveys Section 1: Survey Works
SECTION 1. SURVEY WORKS
1.1. IMPORTANCE AND TYPES OF SURVEYS
1.1.1. Importance Surveys

Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of features on or
near the surface of the earth. Surveying is a prerequisite to civil engineering design and
Right of Way acquisition. In transportation engineering, surveying provides the
foundation and continuity for route control, location, photogrammetry, design, Right of
Way mapping, land acquisition, access issues, Geographical Information Systems
(GIS), and all other preliminary engineering including traffic, hydraulics and bridges.
Surveys also set a basic "framework" of stakes in which are used by contractors and
state engineers in building and inspecting highway projects. Surveying is the single
function that ties all the elements of a project, from conception through design, Right of
Way mapping, land acquisition, and construction to final Right of Way monumentation
and Geographical Information Systems data. To a large degree, the acceptability and
cost effectiveness of planning, Right of Way mapping, land acquisition, design and
construction is dependent upon properly performed surveys.
Surveying is one of the oldest activities of the civil engineer, and remains a primary
component of civil engineering. It is also one field that continues to undergo
phenomenal changes due to technological developments in digital imaging and satellite
positioning. These modern surveying tools are not only revolutionizing regular
surveying engineering tasks but are also impacting a myriad of applications in a variety
of fields where near-real-time positioning is of great value.
Surveying and engineering are closely related professional activities. The area of
surveying and mapping is in many countries a discipline by itself, and taken in total, it
is almost as broad in scope as civil engineering.
Engineering surveying is also defined as those activities involved in the planning
and execution of surveys for the location, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of civil and other engineered projects. Such activities include the
preparation of survey and related mapping specifications; execution of
photogrammetric and field surveys for the collection of required data, including
topographic and hydrographic data; calculation, reduction, and plotting of survey data
for use in engineering design; design and provision of horizontal and vertical control
survey networks; provision of line and grade and other layout work for construction
and mining activities; execution and certification of quality control measurements
during construction; monitoring of ground and structural stability, including alignment
observations, settlement levels, and related reports and certifications; measurement of
material and other quantities for inventory, economic assessment, and cost accounting
purposes; execution of as-built surveys and preparation of related maps and plans and
profiles upon completion of construction; and analysis of errors and tolerances
associated with the measurement, field layout, and mapping or other plots of survey
measurements required in support of engineering projects. Engineering surveying may
be regarded as a specialty within the broader professional practice of engineering and,
with the exception of boundary, right-of-way, or other cadastral surveying, includes all
surveying and mapping activities required to support the sound conception, planning,
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Section 1: Survey Works Importance and Types of Surveys
design, construction, maintenance, and operation of engineered projects. Engineering

surveying does not include surveys for the retracement of existing land ownership
boundaries or the creation of new boundaries.
Modern surveying engineering encompasses several specialty areas, each of which
requires substantial knowledge and training in order to attain proper expertise. The
most primary area perhaps is planem surveying because it is so widely applied in
engineering and surveying practice. In plane surveying, we consider the fundamentals
of measuring distance, angle, direction, and elevation. These measured quantities are
then used to determine position, slope, area, and volume — the basic parameters of
civil engineering design and construction. Plane surveying is applied in civil
engineering projects of limited areal extent, where the effects of the earth’s curvature
are negligible relative to the positional accuracy required for the project. Geodesy, or
higher surveying, is an extensive discipline dealing with mathematical and physical
aspects of modeling the size and shape of the earth, and its gravity field. Since the
launch of earth-orbiting satellites, geodesy has become a truly three-dimensional
science. Terrestrial and space geodetic measurement techniques, and particularly the
relatively new technique of satellite surveying using the Global Positioning System
(GPS), are applied in geodetic surveying.
GPS surveying has not only revolutionized the art of navigation but has also
brought about an efficient positioning technique for a variety of users, prominent
among them the engineering community. GPS has had a profound impact on the
fundamental problems of determining relative and absolute positions on the earth,
including improvements in speed timeliness, and accuracy.
It is safe to say that any geometry-based data collection scheme profits to some
degree from the full constellation of 24 GPS satellites. In addition to the obvious
applications in geodesy, surveying, and photogrammetry, the use of GPS is applied in
civil engineering areas such as transportation (truck and emergency vehicle monitoring,
intelligent vehicle and highway systems, etc.) and structures (monitoring of
deformation of structures such as water dams). Even in other areas such as forestry and
agriculture (crop yield management) GPS provides the geometric backbone of modern
(geographic) information systems. Survey data is portrayed graphically by the
construction of maps, profiles, cross sections, and diagrams.
1.1.2. Types of Surveys

The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the earth. These
surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.
The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a
plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to horizontal distances
and directions.
1.1.2.1. Control Survey

Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points.
1.1.2.2. Boundary Survey

Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and to establish the
position of these lines on the ground.
2 3 October 2013
Equipment Checking and Calibration Section 1: Survey Works
1.1.2.3. Topographic Survey

Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the configuration of the
terrain and the location of natural and man-made objects.
1.1.2.4. Hydrographic Survey

The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of navigation, water supply, or
subaqueous construction.
1.1.2.5. Mining Survey

Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works related to mining
operations.
1.1.2.6. Construction Survey

Made to layout, locate and monitor public and private engineering works
1.1.2.7. Route Survey

Refers to those controls, topographic and construction surveys necessary for the
location and construction of highways, railroads, canals, transmission lines, and
pipelines.
1.1.2.8. Photogrammetric Survey

Made to utilize the principles of aerial photogrammetry. in which measurements
made on photographs are used to determine the positions of photographed objects.
1.2. EQUIPMENT CHECKING AND CALIBRATION
1.2.1. General
Equipment must be properly maintained, regularly checked, and calibrated for
accuracy at the beginning of any survey project to ensure that the equipment is
operating properly. Errors due to poorly maintained or malfunctioning equipment will
not be accepted. If any equipment errors are found to exist they must be reported to the
Region Survey Coordinator prior to the start of the survey. These errors will need to be
verified and eliminated prior to performing any survey. For surveys lasting longer than
six months, the checking, and calibration of equipment shall be repeated once every six
months to show that the equipment is staying within acceptable tolerances. Any
variation from the specifications shall have the prior approval of the Region Survey
Coordinator.
1.2.2. Equipment
Equipment is defined as any and all types of survey and or office survey equipment
used to perform the functions of land surveying. The specifications and procedures as
stated in this chapter shall apply to any and all makes and models of equipment. The
specific maintenance, adjustment, care, use and, repair information is contained in the
owners/operating manual for your instrument.
1.2.3. Electronic Survey Instruments Adjustments, Calibration or Repairs

All electronic survey instruments shall be repaired, adjusted, or calibrated only by
an authorized equipment vendor or manufacturers service department.
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Section 1: Survey Works Equipment Checking and Calibration
1.2.4. Equipment Types

There are many types of equipment used to perform the functions of land surveying.
The types of equipment include but are not limited to the following:
 Global Positioning System receivers, antennas, cables, poles, height rods, etc
 Electronic total stations with on-board data collectors
 Hand-held data collectors
 Electronic theodolites
 Electronic digital bar-code levels (First and Second Order)
 Automatic levels
 Electronic distance meters
 Bar code level and automatic level rods
 Hand-held calculators
 Lap-top computers
 Cellular telephones
 Battery chargers
 Cables / accessories
 Tribrachs
 Prisms
 Steel and fiberglass tapes
 Adjustable and fixed height tri-pods
 Chaining pins, poles, plumb-bobs, right angle prisms
 Prism poles
 Magnetic locators
 Power tools such as saws, grinders, jackhammers, etc.
 Hand tools such as sledge hammers, shovels, drivers etc.
 Hand-held two way radios
 Cameras
 Barometers / thermometers
 Traffic control devices
 First aid kits
 Vehicles
1.2.5. Survey Crew Responsibilities

The survey crew chief is responsible for the crew's equipment and shall assure that
all members are trained to properly care for the equipment and shall delegate the
responsibilities accordingly. The crew chief shall also see that the equipment is used for
4 3 October 2013
its intended purpose. Members of a crew must understand the absolute necessity of
using the proper equipment, in the proper condition, for the given tasks. Proper care
and respect for all equipment is required of every survey crew member.
1.2.6. Equipment Care and Protection

For the care and protection of equipment the following rules shall be observed:
1. Care shall be taken when moving survey instruments. Manufacturer's
recommendations shall be followed.
2. Instruments such as total stations or theodolites should never be lifted by the
standard or horizontal axis, rather by their base or handle.
3. When equipment is being moved to or from its case or tripod, it should be lifted
by the base or handle
4. Never point an instruments telescope directly at the sun as the sun’s rays will
damage the diodes in the EDM, and may also result in permanent eye damage
of the user.
5. Never carry an instrument on its tripod over your should except as indicate by
the instruments owners/operating manual.
6. When equipment is being set up, the leveling screws should never be tightened
any more than necessary to eliminate looseness. Over tightening damages, the
fine threads of the leveling screws, and sets up stresses that makes observations
erratic and often will deform vital parts of the instrument.
7. Instruments shall be protected from rapid change in temperature. Instruments
shall be allowed to acclimatize prior to use in accordance with the
manufacturers requirements.
8. All equipment is designed to withstand use in a wide range of weather
conditions, but will not withstand forces that stress the parts beyond their elastic
limit. Care needs to be taken to not overstress equipment beyond the intended
use.
9. Electronic equipment should not be subjected to extended periods in wet
weather due to possible damage to the electronics.
10. Equipment left set up during rain showers will be covered with a waterproof
covering. Equipment that becomes wet shall be allowed to dry prior to storing
in its case.
11. Equipment should never be left unattended in areas where it might be knocked
over or disturbed by pedestrians, animals, motor vehicles, wind, falling rocks,
tree limbs or other causes.
12. Whenever possible, select instrument setup locations to minimize the exposure
of the instrument operator, other members of the crew, and the instrument to
danger. Select stable ground for the tripod feet.
13. All instruments shall be stored in a safe, secure area when not in use.
1.2.7. Routine Instrument Maintenance

Before using any survey instrument, visually inspect it for damage. Check all
machined surfaces including the polished faces of lenses and mirrors. Snug up all
clamps and check tangent motions for smooth operation. These should move freely
with the absence of binding or gritty sounds.
Clean the instrument exterior frequently. Accumulation of dirt and dust can scratch
or mar machined polished surfaces and cause friction and sticking in the motions.
Remove dust with a camel’s-hair brush and clean soiled non-optical parts with a soft
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Section 1: Survey Works Equipment Checking and Calibration
cloth or with a clean chamois. Clean the external surfaces of lenses with a fine lens
brush. If necessary, use lens tissue. Do not use silicone treated tissue that can damage
coated optics. Do not use any liquids other than pure alcohol. Take care not to scratch
lenses or their coating. Never touch optical glass with your fingers. Always use a lens
cover when storing in the instrument case. Do not loosen or attempt to clean the
internal surface of any lens.
If any instrument or equipment has become wet, unpack it at the end of the day and
after wiping it dry with a soft towel or cloth, leave the instrument and any of its
accessories outside of the case to dry. Also leave the case open to dry. If the foam
inserts for the case are wet, also remove them for drying. Do not replace the instrument
in the case until completely dry.
1.2.8. Equipment Maintenance

At the beginning of any survey all survey equipment needed to perform the survey
shall be checked and adjusted by the professional land surveyor in responsible charge
of the survey under his/her direct supervision and/or checking. All survey equipment
shall be checked once every six months thereafter and as needed during the course of
the survey, whichever comes first.
Checks shall include but are not limited to the following:
1. GPS equipment – No cracks or visible signs of damage to the receivers or any
cabling.
2. Electronic Total Stations and Distant Meters/ Theodolites – No cracks or visible
signs of damage. Leveling screws and tangent screws are in adjustment and
operate smoothly. Level bubbles are in adjustment and operational. Optical sights
are clear, clean, not cracked or chipped. Optical plummet is in adjustment.
Bottom of base mount is smooth and not damaged. Horizontal and vertical
columniations shall be checked daily adjusted as needed.
3. Electronic / Automatic Levels – No cracks or visible signs of damage. Leveling
screws and tangent screws are in adjustment and operate smoothly. Level bubbles
are in adjustment and operational. Optical sights are clear, clean, not cracked or
chipped. Two Peg test or other test as recommended in the manufacturers
owners/operating manual should be performed and adjustments made as neede.
4. Level Rods - Maintain level rods as you do other precise equipment. Accurate
leveling is as dependent on the condition of rods as on the condition of levels.
5. Prism Poles - Level bubbles are checked and are in adjustment, rod is not bent or
damaged, height of rod is correct as reportedly measured, and adjustable rod
height clamps are secure.
6. Tribrachs - Optical plummet is in adjustment, level bubble is in adjustment, no
lose legs, no loose or missing screws, bottom head is flat and not damaged.
7. Adjustable Leg Tripods - Nuts and bolts are tight, no loose or broken legs, tripod
head is tight, flat, and not damaged. A tripod is the base on which your instrument
sits and should be kept in good condition so that the instrument can be depended
on for the accuracy that it was built to obtain. When the tripod is not in use, the
tripod head cap should be used to protect the tripod head.
8. Fixed Height Tripods - Level bubbles are in adjustment, rod is not bent or
damaged, height of rod is correct as reportedly measured, legs are secure.
9. Collimators - Level bubble is in adjustment, top and bottom heads are both flat
with no damage.
10. Cables - No cuts, breaks, pinch marks or damage.
6 3 October 2013
11. Steel Tapes (Chains) - A steel tape is a precision tool manufactured under rigid
specifications and should be treated as such. The steel tape should never be pulled
around a post, stake, or wound on a reel so tightly that the tape will stretch
beyond the elastic limit. Vehicles should not be allowed to run over steel tapes.
The kinks and bends that result will make the tapes inaccurate. Wet or muddy
steel tapes should be wiped dry and clean, oiled lightly, and dried again.
12. Hand Levels - The hand level should be kept in adjustment per manufactures
guidelines.
13. Power and hand tools such as hammers, shovels, picks, axes, brush hooks,
hatchets, etc., should be kept sharp, clean, and the handles in good repair. Broken
or cracked handles are to be replaced. Mushroomed heads on chisels and punches
must be ground off as flying pieces of steel can cause serious, even fatal injuries.
Each member of the survey crew shall assure that all miscellaneous tools are
returned to the vehicle and put in their proper place prior to leaving the work site.
14. Vehicles - The care, organization, and general housekeeping of a vehicle are good
indications of the attitude of the entire crew. Keep the cab and passenger
compartment free of unnecessary clutter and equipment. Store all equipment in
designated places in compartments. Any equipment or material stored in the
passenger compartment should be neatly and firmly secured. A good rule to
follow is "A place for everything and everything in its place." Vehicles must be
kept in good running condition. A regular maintenance program for the vehicle is
essential. Needed repairs should be taken care of as soon as possible. Driving in a
safe and defensive manner is required of employees operating state vehicles and
of contract consultant survey crews.
1.2.9. Calibrations
1.2.9.1. General
A calibration check on all types of electronic survey instrumentation is essential to
obtain and maintain the tolerances required in this manual. At the beginning of any
survey all survey equipment needed to perform the survey shall be calibrated by the
professional land surveyor in responsible charge of the survey under his/her direct
supervision and/or checking. All survey equipment shall be calibrated once every six
months thereafter and as needed during the course of the survey, whichever comes first.
1.2.9.2. Calibration Baseline Check

There is a cooperative program that provides surveyors with a means for checking
and calibration of errors in electronic distances meters (EDM). Publications are
available for the procedures for checking of EDM against a Calibrated Baselines. The
unadjusted baseline length accuracy tolerances shall meet or exceed the manufacturers
ratings for the equipment used when checked against a calibrated baseline length for
both horizontal and vertical.
The checking and calibration of an EDM involves the determination or verification
of instrument constants and the assurance that the measured distances meet required
accuracy specifications. Although it is not necessary to utilize a measured distance to
determine or verify instrument constants, the verification effort is reduced when an
accurately measured distance can be used. However, to assure that the measuring
capabilities of an instrument have not significantly deteriorated, a known distance of
high accuracy or, preferably, a sequence of distances forming a calibration range or
base line is required. Experience shows that a base line consisting of four on-line
3 October 2013 7
Section 1: Survey Works Preliminary Survey
monuments spaced at intervals of 150 m, 400 to 430 m, and 1000 to 1400 m will meet
the needs of users for the checking and calibration of EDM.
The basic procedures to perform a calibrated baseline check of GPS equipment in
RTK mode is as follows:
1. A base receiver is setup on any one of the calibrated baseline marks.
2. A rover receiver collects data at each calibrated baseline mark with the same
equipment configuration (i.e. elevation mask, epochs, sync time, maximum PDOP,
satellite tracking, session duration, etc.) and methods that will be used for
performing the survey.
3. After the rover has collected data at each calibrated baseline mark the base receiver
is moved and setup on each calibrated baseline mark and the rover collects data at
each calibrated mark.
4. This procedure is repeated as many times as needed until both a base and a rover
receiver have occupied all calibrated baseline marks and data has been collected at
all calibrated baseline marks.
5. The data is downloaded into the GPS processing software with the same procedures
and settings that will be used for the survey.
6. The unadjusted baselines lengths and vertical differences are calculated and
compared to the published calibrated baseline lengths and vertical differences.
7. For the equipment to be considered as being in adjustment the final unadjusted
baselines lengths and vertical differences shall meet or exceed the manufacturers
ratings for the equipment.
1.3. PRELIMINARY SURVEY

When a project has been identified to be built, a survey has to be completed to
select the route, to locate existing features of the route, to identify areas of
environmental impacts, to identify areas of Right of Way acquisition, to help to
determine the costs of the project and to design the project. There are several types of
preliminary surveys that may need to be completed prior to design and construction of
the project as follows:
1. Reconnaissance Survey
2. Control Survey
o Horizontal
o Vertical
 Right of Way Survey
 Preliminary Right of Way
 Final Right of Way
 Topographic Survey
1. Drainage Survey
2. Utility Survey
3. Staking for appraisal
1.3.1. Presurvey Conference/Preliminary Survey

Prior to beginning any preliminary survey activities a Presurvey Conference for
Preliminary Surveys shall be held. Any known error or oversight on the plans or
specifications shall be discussed at the presurvey conference. The project manager shall
notify all parties listed below at least two weeks prior to the presurvey conference. The
following individuals should attend the Presurvey Conference for Preliminary Surveys:
8 3 October 2013
Preliminary Survey Section 1: Survey Works
 Region Survey Coordinator or designee

 Region Right of Way Plans Coordinator or designee
 Design Engineer or designee
 Project Manager or assistant Project Manager
 Hydraulic Engineer or designee
 Bridge Engineer or designee
 Environmental Manager or designee
 Resident Engineer or designee
 Survey Crew Chief
 Any appropriate subcontractor personnel
If the preliminary survey work is to be performed by a contract consultant, either as
a prime or sub-contractor, the professional land surveyor who will be responsible for
the survey work performed shall attend the presurvey conference. If the contract
includes design processes, the contract consultant should be strongly urged to send the
design engineer who will be responsible for that portion of the work.
The presurvey conference should be held at the site of the proposed project, or a
tour of the area to be surveyed should be scheduled in a timely manner that is mutually
convenient to all attendees. All those attending the presurvey conference shall sign the
Presurvey Conference Agenda and indicate whether or not they toured the site of the
proposed work.
The surveyor in responsible charge for the survey work shall have the following
reference materials at the Presurvey Conference for Preliminary Surveys:
 Project Plans if available.
 Preliminary Survey Scope of work
 Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction.
 Right of Way Manual if Right of Way is required
 Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)
One of the primary purposes of the presurvey conference is to delineate the
requirements and limits of the upcoming survey. While precise horizontal and vertical
control may not be necessary for a simple pavement overlay, it may not be obvious that
this control may be required for the design and construction of structures. The
presurvey conference provides an opportunity to determine the type and amount of
survey activities to be done, and will prevent over-surveying as well as under-surveying
of the project.
1.3.2. Reconnaissance Survey

A reconnaissance survey in highway engineering is divided into two parts, a survey
of the area and an evaluation of the feasible route alternatives. The recon naissance
survey of the area is the examination of a large area to determine the feasible highway
corridors between the designated termini. The evaluation of the feasible route
alternatives is a comparison of those corridors in sufficient detail to select the corridor
along which the highway should be built. For reconnaissance, horizontal and vertical
3 October 2013 9
information about the area is needed as well as information about cover and culture.
This information can be obtained by field surveys; or it can be extracted from aerial
photographs, from existing maps, or from maps compiled specifically for the project.
1.3.2.1. Reconnaissance on Vertical Aerial Photographs

The most efficient method of highway reconnaissance is done directly on vertical
aerial photographs at scales in the general range of 1:10,000 to 1:50,000. New
photography may be taken for the purpose, or existing photography may be used,
supplemented by new photography where coverage is incomplete or where details have
changed significantly. Although a vertical aerial photograph is not a map because of
displacement due to relief, it represents the surface of the earth accurately enough to
find the best corridor for the highway.
Topography, geology, land use, soils, ecology and other features are immediately
evident or are readily interpreted by stereoscopic examination of the photographs.
Elevations are easily derived from parallax measurements on the photographs.
Horizontal distances measured on the photographs are converted to ground distances
using local scales determined by parallax measurements. If topographic maps of the
area are available, elevations and distances may be extracted from them.
The locating engineer studies the area carefully and finds each feasible route by
which the designated termini may be connected. Using qualitative and quantitative
information he extracts from the photographs, the locating engineer delineates on the
photographs the best location along each alternative. After the reconnaissance is
complete and the alternatives have been drawn in stereoscopic correspondence on the
photographs, a set of the photographs is assembled into a mosaic which becomes the
record of this part of the work.
1.3.2.2. Reconnaissance on Existing Maps

Topographic maps prepared by some other agency for general use or for other
purposes, at scales as small as 1:20,000, may be useful for reconnaissance, depending
on the planimetric detail of the map as compared with the complexity of terrain and
land use. Such maps may be supplemented by existing vertical aerial photography.
1.3.2.3. Reconnaissance on New Maps

Maps at scales of 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 may be compiled especially for
reconnaissance of an area. Such maps are useful, but it is difficult to justify the effort
and cost of producing them unless they will also serve other purposes, since the
reconnaissance could have been done directly on the photography from which the maps
were compiled.
1.3.2.4. Comparison of Alternatives

After all feasible highway corridors between the project termini have been
determined by use of aerial photography and/or topographic maps, the alternatives are
compared. For each section, an estimate is made of construction cost, maintenance cost,
and vehicle operation cost. The service afforded by each alternative is evaluated as well
as environmental, economic, and social impacts. Based on all of these factors-impacts,
service, and cost--one alternative is chosen, the corridor along which the highway will
be designed and built. Only when two alternatives are so nearly equal in all factors that
a choice is difficult, is it necessary to refine the calculations by compiling preliminary
maps and making preliminary designs. In urban areas, preliminary mapping and design
10 3 October 2013
may be necessary to fully evaluate the service afforded by each alternative and to
assess the impacts.
1.3.3. Research
1.3.3.1. General
The location, re-establishment, and perpetuation of land corners involving highway
Right of Way are of the utmost importance to the department and to the public. If any
of these corners are incorrectly positioned, the resulting disruption of property
boundaries could result in costly litigation. The research performed before and during
the preliminary phases of a project will determine the quality of the finished product
and the costs related to the project. Improper research may result in needless delays and
add substantially to the costs of a project. For CDOT purposes, the following
requirements for research shall apply:
1. Investigate thoroughly
2. Perform a careful and diligent search
3. Make studious inquiry or examination; investigation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new
facts or practical applications of such new or revised theories or law.
1.3.3.2. Types of Research

It cannot be overstated that the proper research will result in a better all around
project and it will make your survey analysis more secure. You may find in your
research that you may not utilize information or monuments currently in use, or will
end up working with a completely different set of data and monuments as the
requirements of research implies. Always keep an open mind to allow for the inclusion
of new data and information discovered by your research. Research can be broken into
two phases as follows:
 Office Research (e.g. records)
 Field Search (e.g. physical evidence)
The office phase is that portion of the research performed in your office or
somebody else's office to gain information of record regarding boundaries, Public Land
Survey System (PLSS), Rights of Way, property boundary, easements, points etc. The
field search is the recovering and locating of physical evidence of these items by
finding and locating survey monuments such as PLSS, Right of Way, property
boundary, easement, etc.
1.3.3.3. Office Research

As much of the office research should be conducted by the surveyor in responsible
charge as possible. The office phase of the research consists of contacting various
agencies that may have information of record such as deeds, subdivision plats, land
survey plats, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) plats, mining claim maps,
monument records, etc for the area affecting the project.
The primary source of property records is the county office of the clerk and recorder
in which the subject property is located. Although limited, some county offices are
making their records available online through the Internet. Once the researcher has
been to this office, the following county agencies will usually be able to provide useful
information:
3 October 2013 11
 Assessor’s office: current landowner’s information with their address and a

brief description of the property.
 Clerk and recorders office: copies and original deeds, documents, subdivision
plats, land survey plats and monument records.
 County commissioners records: information on road petitions, commission
decisions, rulings, agreements, etc.
 Court records: information on court decisions, rulings, and court ordered
surveys, etc.
 Engineering records: information on public works projects involving Right of
Way.
 County surveyor’s office: information on Right of Way, easements, land
survey plats, boundary disputes, etc.
Some cities and counties have their own engineering departments and/or survey
crews. These municipalities have information on Right of Way, easements, section
corner locations, benchmark, block and lot corners within a subdivision, etc.
Title companies also have some of the above stated information that the county
clerk has.
Utility companies have information on their Right of Ways, easements, type of
utility and purpose.
Irrigation companies have information on ditch names, flow quantities, capacities,
names of individuals served by ditches in their area.
Landowners, surveyors, consultant firms, and other individuals may have a vast
knowledge of land corners, surveys, subdivisions, and other engineering projects.
All of these sources and others not mentioned are potential research sources for the
project. This list should be used as a tool to check possible research sources, avoid
overlooking obvious sources, and identify new sources. As many of these potential
sources as possible should be checked prior to any fieldwork. Sometimes the checking
of one source may lead you to another source and so on.
1.3.3.4. Field Search

After the office research is conducted a field search shall be performed to locate all
possible physical evidence that may exist in the field. The field search shall consist of a
search for existing survey monuments identified by the office research. A few examples
of the office research material used during the field search are as follows:
 Ties from previous surveys (e.g. subdivision plats, land survey plats, deeds,
easements, mining claim maps, Work Program of America (WPA) ties, etc)
 BLM notes and plats
 Monument records
 Right of Way plans
 Construction plans
 Railroad maps
 Topographic maps
 Aerial photos
 Assessors maps
 Other maps
 Parole evidence
12 3 October 2013
All found monuments and physical evidence found shall be located and tied into the
Primary Control Monumentation for the project in accordance with the appropriate
Minimum Horizontal and Vertical Accuracy Tolerance for the type of survey being
performed.
The following should be used as a guide in field search:
 Reference / accessory ties from monument records for PLSS land corners to
verify the corner. Any discrepancy shall be noted.
 If nothing is found using ties, check for the point using a metal detector. A
search of road intersections, fence corners and other areas where land or
property corners may exist is sometimes productive.
 If nothing is found excavation of the area may be necessary. Excavation
should be such that either the point is recovered or determined not to exist at
that location. Whatever means are used; care should be exercised to prevent
damage to the point. Excavation should be limited unless evidence indicates a
corner may exist, such as reference ties on poles or by metal detector. Photos
should be taken of any recovered evidence and should show the found
evidence’s relationship to occupation lines and other physical evidence to help
aid in the re-establishment of the monument in the event it is lost in the future.
Any damage caused by excavation shall be repaired immediately.
1.3.4. Drainage Survey
1.3.4.1. General
The purpose of a drainage survey is to ensure that the necessary information needed
for hydraulic design will be included in the topographic survey. The following
guidelines shall be followed when drainage surveys are conducted:
The Preliminary Survey Scope Form shall include all drainage structure
requirements of the survey. This form shall be supplemented or confirmed through
direct contact with the hydraulic engineer. The project manager should contact the
hydraulic engineer at least two weeks prior to the presurvey conference. After the
survey requirements have been determined and included on the survey scope, a
transmittal of the requirements will be submitted to the Region Survey Coordinator.
Following these guidelines will provide the hydraulic engineer with an adequate
drainage survey.
If there are any questions about the needed information, the hydraulics engineer
should be contacted before starting the survey. The hydraulics engineer will be able to
supply predicted design flows, special survey requirements, and potential use of
upstream area for detention ponding.
Good drainage surveys are necessary for complete hydraulic designs. Channel
locations and changes, bridge skew, water stage, and structure relocations are all
determined from the drainage survey.
1.3.4.2. Aerial Photogrammetry Methods

An aerial photogrammetry survey method utilizes photographic, electronic, digital
or other data obtained from an airborne station (e.g. a airplane or helicopter). The
advantage or obtaining topographic data by aerial survey methods is the efficiency in
which large areas of the Earth can be mapped and large volumes of topographic and
planimetric data can be obtained. The disadvantage of aerial mapping is that it requires
more advanced planning and lead time than conventional or GPS survey methods. The
3 October 2013 13
accuracy of aerial surveys are typically much less than that of conventional or GPS
survey methods, particularly when there is heavy vegetation or areas of drastic changes
in elevation such as mountainous terrain.
Drainage surveys are performed to supplement aerial surveys. The purpose of the
supplemental survey is to locate those features that require a higher level of accuracy
than that of the aerial survey, to locate those features that can not be located by the
aerial survey, and to collect information not apparent to the photogrammetrist from the
aerial survey.
1.3.4.3. Photographs
If the hydraulic engineer deems photographs necessary, they will be requested in
the drainage survey requirements transmittal. When requested, photographs shall show
existing inlet and outlet configurations, areas of erosion, structures that experience
distress during floods, and natural features of the drainage basin. Photographs shall be
labeled with the project number, date of photo, description of photo, orientation of the
camera, and the photographer's name.
1.3.4.4. Guidelines
Guidelines for the extent of a drainage survey upstream and downstream are as
follows:
 Large Bridges [Design flows greater than 566 m3 spans greater than 76 m]
a. Consult with the hydraulics engineer before scoping the survey.
Requirements will be further discussed at the presurvey conference.
b. Aerial surveys should be considered for these sites.
 Large Culverts/Medium Bridges [Design flows of 56.6 to 566.3 m3 or
6 m×3 m Cross-section of Box Culvert (CBC) to 76 m Total Span Bridge]
o The survey shall extend 365.8 m upstream and 365.8 m downstream from the
existing roadway centerline.
o Additional survey data must be taken near the upstream and downstream edges of
the existing structure including the abutments.
o The elevations of the existing structures lowest girders or clearance must be
included.
o The width of the survey will be determined by the hydraulic engineer.
o Survey requirements will be discussed at the presurvey conference.
 Medium to Large Culverts [Design flows of 5.7 to 56.7 m3 or 1.8 m Pipe to
6.1 m×3 m CBC (openings of 2.6 m2 to 18.6 m2.)]
o The survey shall extend 152.4 m upstream and 152.4 m. downstream from the
roadway centerline.
o Additional survey data must be taken near the upstream and downstream end of the
existing structure.
o The width of the survey will be determined by the hydraulic engineer.
o Survey requirements will be discussed at the presurvey conference.
 Small Culverts [Design flows less than 5.7 m3 or pipes smaller than 1.83 m
(less than 2.6 m2 openings)]
o The survey shall extend 30.5 m upstream and 30.5 m downstream from the
roadway centerline.
14 3 October 2013
o Survey data must also be taken at each end of the culvert to determine the
structure centerline, the depth of silt, headwall dimensions or type of end
section, condition of the present structure, type of flow, vegetation and soil type
of banks and bottom.
o Discuss further needs at the presurvey conference.
 Irrigation Canals
o The water surface profile and the channel invert must both be surveyed. This
may result in two separate surveys, unless the surveyors could mark the water
surface elevation during flow and take the measurements at a later date when
the canal is not in operation.
o The survey shall extend 305 m upstream and 610 m down stream from the
roadway centerline. The downstream portion of the survey will not need to
extend the full 610 m if a difference in the water surface elevation of 152 mm
has been achieved. Measurements of the water surface profile shall be taken at
30.5 m intervals to +/- of 15 mm. The date and time of the water surface profile
shall be recorded.
o Name and address of the ditch owner should be noted. Inquire as to the
discharge at the time of the water surface profile. This information should be
available from the ditch rider.
o If the Department's liability is lessened by using the ditch company’s water flow
information this should be the procedure used to determine the water surface
profile.
 Storm Drains
o Survey data must be taken of the profile grade and gutter flow line elevations
of the main roadway. The survey must cover all areas of the roadway that
contribute drainage. This may entail surveying beyond the project limits. For
example, if the project ends in the middle of a vertical curve, the survey must
continue to the top of the curve.
o Survey data must be taken of the profile grade and gutter flow line elevations
of all cross streets or road approaches. The survey shall extend up the road
approach or cross street 152.4 m or to it's highest point, whichever is less.
o The location of all curbs, gutters, inlets, culverts, and manholes must be
determined. Indicate inlet and pipe depths and sizes (rim and invert
elevations). Note the direction of flow in the pipes.
o The location of all utilities must be determined. Indicate the type, size, and
depth of the utilities.
 Existing Upstream Detention Ponds

 Detention pond surveys must be accurate enough to draw a contour map with
three to five contours.
 The survey data shall extend up to an elevation equal to the pond overflow
elevation.
Show any significant topography within the ponding area, such as building
foundations, ground floor elevations, and outlet structures.
3 October 2013 15
Section 1: Survey Works Construction Survey
1.3.5. Utility Survey

The purpose of a utility survey is to gather data of underground and above ground
utilities. This is typically accomplished during the topographic survey.
Utility surveys include both above, and below ground utilities as required on the
Preliminary Survey as follows:
 Gas
 Transmission
 Electric
 Telephone
 Water
 Sanitary
 Television
 Pipelines
 Irrigation
 Fiber Optics
 Etc.
Architects, engineers, or other persons designing excavation shall obtain general
information as to the description, nature, and location of underground facilities in the
area of such proposed excavations and include such general information in the plans or
specifications to inform an excavation contractor of the existence of such facilities.
1.4. CONSTRUCTION SURVEY

The construction survey delineates the designed highway on the ground as
construction proceeds and provides measurements to compute quantities for payment.
1.4.1. Location Survey

Once the highway& bridges has been designed, the horizontal and vertical
alignment and cross-section data in the plans must be transferred to the ground so the
highway can be constructed. The location survey does this by placing enough properly
marked stakes in the ground to delineate the highway as designed.
If full use has been made of photogrammetry, this is the first time that a surveyor
with an instrument has been on the project since completion of the basic control survey.
The location survey includes the centerline survey, profiling the line, slope staking,
staking of structures, and placing of grade stakes.
1.4.2. Centerline Survey

The centerline survey marks on the ground the horizontal position of the highway
centerline. Unlike the basic control survey, which is a determining survey (see
Introduction, Ground Surveys), the centerline survey is an establishing survey. The
basic control survey determines the coordinate position of station markers placed in the
ground; the centerline survey establishes points representing the designed centerline by
transferring to the ground (at 1:1 scale) the alignment information furnished by the
plans. The centerline survey is a traverse survey controlled by the basic control survey.
16 3 October 2013
Construction Survey Section 1: Survey Works
Points of intersection (PI) are located by angle and distance from basic control point
monuments (backsighting on other basic control survey monuments). Tangent distances
and angles at points of intersection are checked. If they meet the standard of accuracy
of the location survey, the ends of the centerline tangent are established and station
marking stakes are placed at regular intervals. Spirals and circular curves are then
staked. Referencing of centerline points, as required, completes the centerline survey.
Centerlines cannot be established to the accuracy of geodetic traverse surveys. To
establish a point, a backsight is taken, the required angle is turned on the instrument,
and the line of sight is marked, with the telescope "upright" or "direct." The same
procedure is repeated with the telescope "inverted" or "reversed." This complete
procedure may be done a second time to isolate blunders. The point is established
halfway between the two marks or at a point representing the average of the set of
marks. Further repetitions of the process add little to the accuracy.
The points along the centerline which define a curve are established in line with a
transit or theodolite and in stationing by chaining with a steel tape or by an electronic
distance measuring instrument. When using the steel tape, the point is usually
established by a first measurement and checked by a second measurement. When using
an electronic distance measuring instrument, two points are established, one ahead of
and one behind the curve point, and its final position is established by graphical
interpolation.
Setting of station stakes along the curve is usually to a lower standard of accuracy
than that used for establishing of the points which define the curve. A single
measurement with a steel or reinforced cloth tape usually is sufficient.
1.4.3. Profile
Level circuits for the centerline profile are run between basic control survey bench
marks. Ground elevation is measured at each centerline stake. In areas where the
ground surface is not well defined or where it may change rapidly, as in swamps or in
loose sand, a stake or hub, long enough to be firm when flush to the ground surface, is
driven in front of the centerline stake, and its elevation is used as ground elevation.
From the ground elevation at the centerline stake is subtracted the designed centerline
grade for the station to compute the cut or the fill at that point. The cut or fill is usually
written on the back of the centerline stake.
Stakes must be added where there are abrupt changes in the ground level or changes
in the designed cross sections. Stakes must also be added where earthwork at a shoulder
line changes from cut to fill or from fill to cut.
1.4.4. Slope Stakes

Slope stakes delineate the designed highway on the ground for construction. The
actual setting of the slope stakes may be done concurrently with the measuring of the
profile or it may be a separate operation. If the ground is fairly level, the same
instrument and setup which was used to measure centerline profile elevations may be
used to measure the elevations necessary to set the slope stakes. In rougher terrain,
elevation may be transferred from centerline station to slope stake position by hand
level, reducing arc, or a "total station" type instrument.
Two slope stakes are set for each section, at the toe of the fill slope or the top of the
cut slope on each side. An approximate location is usually available or can easily be
computed from the design data-the plotted or computed cross sections. A point is found
on a line perpendicular to the centerline and at the distance shown by the design data.
3 October 2013 17
Section 1: Survey Works Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
The cut or fill of this point is measured. If it agrees with the computed cut or fill, the
slope stake is driven there; if it does not agree, other trial points are measured until the
location of the toe of the fill or the top of the cut slope is found.
1.4.5. Structure Stakes

Special staking is necessary for each structure -bridge, tunnel, culvert, retaining
wall, or others. These range in complexity from high order traverses for a major bridge
or tunnel to simple marking of grade and location of entrance and outlet for a pipe
culvert.
1.4.6. Grade Stakes

Grade stakes are needed as earthwork nears finished grade, for exact finishing of the
roadway, and for pavement. Grade stakes are driven to define the predetermined
elevation of the road surface at a particular spot. This requires first a resurvey to
establish the centerline and its stationing. This survey IS based on basic control survey
points or monumented or referenced centerline points if such are available. At regularly
spaced intervals, stakes are offset on each side at the required distance from the
centerline. Level loops originating and closing on basic control survey bench marks are
then run to control driving the grade stakes to plan grade at the offset positions. Grade
stakes for finish grading of earthwork and for base courses are usually at the shoulder
and driven to the grade of the finished surface. Grade stakes for paving must be located
horizontally and vertically according to the equipment to be used.
1.4.7. Earthwork Quantities

Work pay quantities are based on ground survey data, the survey is usually
concurrent with the slope staking, using the same instruments and instrument setups.
Distance from centerline and cut or fill are measured and recorded for centerline,
shoulder line, ditch line, slope stakes, and for each break in terrain along the cross
section.
1.5. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (GPS)

The Global Positioning System is a network of satellites in orbit above the earth. A
GPS unit is basically a radio receiver. The satellites transmit to the GPS unit which
interpolates the signals into latitude and longitude which are displayed on the unit.
Typically signals from three satellites are needed to identify a specific position and a
fourth to interpolate altitude. GPS units are accurate to within a few hundred feet of
your actual location. Although they can be used to very accurately determine your
location and establish compass courses, don't rely on a GPS unit in place of solid
knowledge of map and compass. Battery failure, damage to the GPS unit, or even
leaving it behind at a rest stop could leave you lost if you don't have good map and
compass skills. GPS units are particularly useful in locations where there a few
landmarks to identify your location (for example long canoeing trips in northern
Canada). GPS units are available as hand held units easily transportable in the
backcountry.
1.6. SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS
1.6.1. INTRODUCTION
18 3 October 2013
SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS Section 1: Survey Works
The purpose of this section is to provide information regarding acceptable safety

and health standards in the performance of assigned, contracted, and permitted
operations within areas under the jurisdiction of the MOMRA. Survey personnel should
have a fundamental understanding of basic safety requirements. They should be
competent to recognize possible serious problems that should be corrected to protect
their employees as well as the public. Accidents do not happen without cause. The
identification, isolation, and control of these causes are underlying principles of all
accident prevention techniques. Education and training "Just as safety engineering" is
the most effective way to prevent environmental accident causes (unsafe conditions),
safety education is the most effective tool in the prevention of unsafe acts by humans.
Through adequate instruction, personnel gain useful knowledge and develop safe
attitudes. Safety consciousness developed through education will be supplemented and
broadened by specific additional instruction in safe working habits, practices and skills.
Training is a particularly important accident prevention control, by developing habits of
safe practice and operation.
This section is a brief overview of the safety regulations with which you must
become familiar. Please also read the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices,
Roadway and Traffic Design Standards (Index Series 600) and other Safety Standards
which may be adopted by the Ministry. This section of the Survey Safety was taken
largely from Standards for Work Zone Traffic Control of the Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) Federal Standards. Work duration is a major factor
in selecting the proper Typical Application of Traffic Control Through Work Zones.
Work duration, work location and highway type are major factors in determining the
number and types of devices used in temporary traffic control zones.
1.6.2. WEARING OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The rule, as stated in the Safe Work Practices and Compliance Standards
Handbook, requires all personnel to wear the appropriate personal protective equipment
during all operations where exposure to hazardous conditions exists. Frequently,
surveyors operate tools which, if not used correctly, could cause harm. Where there is a
possibility that an eye injury could occur during the performance of assigned duties, the
Department is required to supply its employees suitable face shields or goggles.
However the contractor is not required to provide individuals with prescription safety
glasses. Steel-toe safety boots are not required and are not furnished by the contractor.
High-top leather work boots provide the most protection and should be worn. All
personnel working or visiting locations designated by the resident engineer as "Hard
Hat Areas" shall wear approved protective helmets. Helmets shall meet or exceed
specifications contained in the Safe Work Practices and Compliance Standards
Handbook. These helmets will be inspected on a regular basis and shall be replaced
immediately if found to be defective. Personnel are required to wear high-visibility
safety vests of approved color, or yellow and orange rain coats, whenever working
within the right-of-way, at any time when exposed to traffic such as driveways, parking
lots, construction sites, etc., and at any other time deemed necessary by the supervisor
on-site. In addition, during night operations the safety vests must be reflectorized. If
raingear or other outer garment is being worn the reflectorized vest must be worn as the
outer layer.
3 October 2013 19
Section 1: Survey Works SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS
1.6.3. USE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

Basically, there are two categories: warning signs and channelizing devices.
1.6.3.1. WARNING SIGNS

Warning signs shall be installed prior to the start of all survey work that is on
pavement and within 15 feet of the edge of the traveled way. They shall be used all the
time you are working in traffic. Since surveyors are constantly moving on the highway,
it is important that warning signs be moved as the work progresses. When you are
through for the day, or at any time work ceases, these devices shall be turned, removed
or covered. This simple procedure will prevent a host of potential problems for
surveyors as well as motorists. Whenever the activities are changed such that a
particular sign or other warning device is no longer appropriate, the sign or device shall
be turned, removed or covered, and replaced if necessary with the appropriate device.
There are four signs used most frequently; WORKERS AHEAD, SURVEY CREW,
FLAGGERS AHEAD, and STAY IN YOUR LANE. Signs warning of lane closings
ahead may be used also.
The SURVEY CREW AHEAD symbol or legend shall be the principle advance
warning sign used for traffic control through survey work zones and may replace the
ROADWORK AHEAD sign when lane closures occur, at the discretion of the party
chief. Type B light or dual orange flags shall be used at all times to enhance the
SURVEY CREW AHEAD sign, even with mesh signs. When survey crew members
are working between active traffic lanes, a STAY IN YOUR LANE sign shall be added
as the second immediate sign from the work area. Advance Warning Signs shall be
used at extended distance of one-half Kilometer or more when limited sight distance or
the nature of the obstruction may require a motorist to bring the vehicle to a stop.
Extended distance Advance Warning Signs may be required on any type roadway, but
particularly on multi-lane divided highways where vehicle speed is generally in the
higher range (70 Km/h or more). Signs shall have a black legend and border with a high
visibility orange background (reflectorized for night operations). Color, sizes, wording
and placement of signs shall conform with approved standards as specified in the
Roadway and Traffic Design Standards), and other Safety Standards which may be
adopted by the Ministry. The placement of warning signs is critical to the effectiveness
of their individual messages and shall therefore be customized to meet roadway design
and alignment. All signs should be mounted at right angles to the direction of and
facing the traffic they are to serve. Proper positioning will give the driver adequate time
to adjust to rapidly changing traffic conditions. Where open roadway conditions exist
on the approach to the work site, advance warning signs shall be placed approximately
1500 feet in advance of the condition to which they are calling attention. Under certain
conditions, it may be necessary to use a series of advance warning signs. In these
instances, the warning sign nearest the work site should be placed approximately 500
feet from the point of restriction with additional signs placed at 500 to 1000 foot
intervals. On high-speed highways, the advance warning distance should be increased
to one mile or more. On city streets where more restrictive conditions generally exist,
warning signs in the immediate vicinity of the work area may be placed at closer
intervals to meet the needs of individual survey crews.
20 3 October 2013
SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS Section 1: Survey Works
1.6.3.2. Channelizing Devices

There are five types of channelization devices available: cones, vertical panels,
plastic drums, and Type I and Type II barricades. Vertical panels and cones are to be
used only when a portable device is needed for lane closure operation that will last only
one day or when the more durable Type I or Type II barricades are not available. Type
I & II barricades should be used whenever appropriate. They are, however, difficult to
carry and stack. Cones are orange in color and shall meet Department requirements. For
the most part, cones are used to channel traffic through and around a work area.
Occasionally, the need arises for the surveyor to close off or separate traffic. Cones are
used to accomplish this. Plastic drums should be used only when other types of devices
are not available. Drums are not practical on a daily basis because of their size.
Generally, they should be used only during heavy construction and maintenance
operations. If it is necessary to place an instrument or other tripod within the traveled
way or within 15 feet of the traveled way, the tripod will be protected by cones
according to field conditions. For horizontal control surveys between active traffic
lanes or within shared left turn lanes, cones shall be used to protect tripods at 50 feet
intervals for at least 200 feet towards the flow of traffic. For Elevation Surveys between
active traffic lanes or within shared left turn lanes, cones may be used at the discretion
of the party chief to protect prism holder and flagger(s) at up to 50 feet intervals along
the break line throughout the work zone. These cone placements for surveying between
active traffic lanes or shared left turn lanes apply to main roadway traffic control work
zones. When the survey work zone includes intersections, cones shall be adjusted by
the party chief to fit roadway and traffic conditions.
1.6.3.3. Advance Warning Arrow Panel

Advance Warning Arrow Panels are intended to supplement other traffic control
devices when closing a lane on a multilane, divided or undivided, highway. For
stationary lane closures, the arrow panel should be placed on the shoulder at the
beginning of the taper or where there are narrow shoulders in the closed lane. The panel
shall be located behind any channelizing devices used to transition traffic from the
closed lane. Advance Warning Arrow Panel placement and specifications shall conform
to the Roadway and Traffic Design Standards.
1.6.3.4. Variable Message Signs (VMS)

Variable Message Signs may be used by surveyors to advise the traveling public of
survey work being done on the highway. The information on these signs should make
the driver more aware of surveyors on the highway and increase the surveyors' safety.
They are used to supplement the standard signing in the survey work zone.
1.6.3.5. Flagging Operations

When operations are such that signs, signals, and barricades do not provide
adequate protection on or adjacent to a highway or street, flaggers or other appropriate
traffic control shall be provided. Flaggers shall be located far enough ahead of the work
space so that approaching traffic has sufficient distance to stop before entering the work
space. Stop/Slow Paddles are the primary hand-signaling device. Flag use is limited to
Immediate Emergencies, Intersections, and when working on centerline or shared left
3 October 2013 21
Section 1: Survey Works SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS
turn lanes where two (2) flagmen are required and there is opposing traffic in the
adjacent traffic lanes. Where flagmen are used, a FLAGMAN symbol or Legend sign
shall replace the WORKERS symbol or Legend sign. The party chief may at his
discretion use a staffed state police car. A staffed state police car with flashing lights at
the beginning of the work zone is the most effective way to reduce speed in the work
zone and get the attention of drivers.
1.6.3.6. Inspections
To ensure that surveyors and consultants are following the proper safety procedures
for each job, the Engineer will make random safety inspections of all Contractor survey
crews and consultants. The Ministry Safety Program Administrator or his designee will
be making these inspections. The inspector has the right to tell the crew chief to pull the
crew off the road until all safety requirements are met. If a party chief repeats safety
procedure violations, disciplinary action may be taken. It is important to note that this
rule is for consultants as well as Ministry personnel. Violating safety procedures and
rules could constitute a breach of contract by a consultant. Fines can be levied against
those consultants found to be habitually violating safety procedures and rules. It may
also affect his qualification grade since it adversely reflects the consultant's willingness
to cooperate and abide by the Ministry's policies and procedures.
1.6.3.7. Vehicle Warning Lights

The use of flashing amber lights is another tool used by surveyors to let motorists
know that they are working in the area. During daytime amber lights should be used
during the following conditions:
1. When your vehicle is parked in the median without closure of the adjacent
traffic lane.
2. When your vehicle is parked on the shoulder and work is being done in the
immediate vicinity.
3. When your vehicle is accelerating to move from the shoulder, median, or lane
closure into traffic. These lights should also be used when your vehicle is
slowing down in preparation to pull off the road onto a shoulder, median or lane
closure.
4. When highway conditions exist which, in the operator's opinion, warrant the use
of amber warning lights to protect workers and the public during conditions of
reduced visibility such as fog or heavy rain.
5. Use of amber lights can be required at any other time at the discretion of the
supervisor on site.
1.6.4. Safety Rules While Working in Traffic

Here are some safety rules that will be beneficial for you and your crew while
working in traffic.
1. Always face traffic when working on the traveled way of a divided road or on
shoulders of highways. If you cannot do this yourself, have a co-worker act as a
lookout. When working in a zone between two-way traffic stand parallel to the
traveled way and again use a lookout.
22 3 October 2013
Topographic Survey Requirements and
Reporting: Section 1: Survey Works
2. Do not make sudden movements that might confuse a motorist and cause him to
take evasive action that could result in injury to the motorist as well as to
surveyors.
3. Avoid interrupting traffic as much as possible. There are several ways to do
this. One of the best ways is to use offset lines as much as possible. This
procedure should keep you and your crew safe from oncoming traffic. Minimize
the crossing of traffic lanes on high speed heavily traveled highways. Do not try
to walk or run across traffic lanes. On highways with wide shoulders and
medians the best way to cross is with your vehicle. If necessary go around by
way of a ramp or service road to assure a safe crossing. If traffic lanes must be
crossed on foot, wait for a natural break in traffic. A break in traffic in this
instance is defined as all lanes being clear.
4. Protect your crew with the use of an approved barrier to shield them from
traffic. Whenever possible, place a truck mounted attenuator between your
workers and traffic.
5. Proper equipment carrying procedures: When working near a heavily traveled
highway, or when working parallel to traffic, be careful to keep level rods,
range poles, etc., from extending into a lane of traffic.
6. Wet Pavement: avoid working on wet pavement in an active traffic area, except
for the emergency survey of a danger area which poses grave hazards to the
public. This would probably involve the declaration of an emergency by the
appropriate government agency and the presence of law enforcement for the
safety of surveyors and the public.
1.7. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY REQUIREMENTS AND REPORTING:

Associated with The design accuracy of the roads and intersections to a large extent
are related precisely and adequacy of available information on topography and natural
features, industrial, therefore, the survey work is a main factor for providing this
information which relates to the accuracy and the size of topographic survey study
required according to the type of engineering study and the nature of the terrain and the
size and importance of the project and the areas that the road passed it.
Therefore the study should include spatial decision to define the limits and areas of
conflict of these properties with the Right of Way and levels and the area of conflicts
with the road, with each property, and possible options to deal with those conflicts, and
the study should include all of the geographic information and features on the site.
1.7.1. Coordinates According to the Surface of the Geodetic Reference for GPS
The method of apparatus installation and the guidance and monitoring the timing,
duration and site conditions and the number and distribution of the observed satellites,
provides all the basics of corrective data are very important to determine the
coordinates of reference points. Depending on the surface of the geodetic reference
Saudi Arabia (SGD 2000 epoch 2004), developed by the Ministry, based on rotational
stereo (WGS 84 Ellipsoid) in the system (ITRF2000) for global positioning.
3 October 2013 23
Section 1: Survey Works REFERENCES
1.7.2. Topographic Survey Study Submittals:

Topographic Survey plans should be prepared in details including the contours lines
and the sections of the intersections and all road connections of the study area and all
related features and existing utilities networks and future plans include the following:
- Plan show the bench marks points of reference and spatial observatories and all points
which fixed by the consultant in the filed by the scale of 1/25000.
- Key plan showing the topographic plans number and numbers of the project parts as
needed to the scale of 1/25000.
- Plan of the utilities lines, existing and future one.
- Preparation of data files of digital spatial data for all parts of the project.
1.8. REFERENCES
Survey Manual ,Chapter 1 – "Introduction to CDOT", Colorado Department of

Transportation October, 2003.
Survey Manual , Chapter 2 -"General Procedures", Colorado Department of

Survey Manual , Chapter 6 -"Construction Surveys" Colorado Department of

24 3 October 2013
Introduction Section 2: Highway Hydrology
SECTION 2. HIGHWAY HYDROLOGY
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Hydrology is often defined as the science that addresses the physical properties,
occurrence, and movement of water in the atmosphere, on the surface of, and in the
outer crust of the earth.
For the highway designer, the primary focus of hydrology is the water that moves
on the earth's surface and in particular that part that ultimately crosses transportation
arterials (i.e., highway stream crossings). A secondary interest is to provide interior
drainage for roadways, median areas, and interchanges.
Hydrologists have been studying the flow or runoff of water over land for many
decades, and some rather sophisticated theories have been proposed to describe the
process. Unfortunately, most of these attempts have been only partially successful, not
only because of the complexity of the process and the many interactive factors
involved, but also because of the stochastic nature of rainfall, snowmelt, and other
sources of water. Hydrologists have defined most of the factors and parameters that
influence surface runoff. However, for many of these surface runoff factors, complete
functional descriptions of their individual effects exist only in empirical form. Their
qualitative analysis requires extensive field data, empirically determined coefficients,
and sound judgment and experience.
By application of the principles and methods of modern hydrology, it is possible to
obtain solutions that are functionally acceptable and form the basis for the design of
highway drainage structures.
2.2. DEFINITIONS
Portions of the total rainfall that do not contribute to direct runoff,
including rainfall intercepted by vegetation, rain water stored in
Abstractions
depressions, and water that enters the watershed surface and remains
beyond the duration of the storm.
Alluvial Soil and rock material deposited from flowing water.
Annual maximum
The largest instantaneous peak discharge in a year.
discharge
Bankfull discharge The discharge rate when a stream just overflows its natural banks.
rate There is usually no frequency associated with the discharge rate.
Base flow Stream flow arising from the depletion of ground-water storage.
Celerity Propagation speed of a flood wave.
The multiplication-translation-addition process used to route a
Convolution rainfall-excess hyetograph using the unit hydrograph as the routing
model.
3 October 2013 25
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Definitions
An index that represents the combined effects of soil characteristics,

Correlation
the land cover, the hydrologic condition, and antecedent soil
coefficient
moisture conditions.
The velocity where streamflow passed from turbulent to laminar
Critical velocity
conditions or from laminar to turbulent conditions.
An average depth of runoff assumed to be constant over the entire
Depth of runoff watershed area. Computed as the ratio of the total volume of rainfall
excess to the watershed area
A hypothetical flood hydrograph that results from the routing of a
design storm rainfall excess and a synthetic unit hydrograph. A
Design flood
return period is usually associated with the design flood, often
assumed to be the frequency of the design storm.
A hypothetical storm event used in design. It is assumed to
Design storm
represent average or most likely conditions..
Direct runoff The total runoff hydrograph minus base flow.
An index of the concentration of streams in a watershed, as
Drainage density measured by the ratio of the total length of streams to the drainage
area.
The probability that the magnitude of the random variable (e.g.,
Exceedence
probability annual maximum flood peak) will be equalled or exceeded in any
one time period, often one year
The ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces, usually expressed as the
ratio of the flow velocity to the square root of the product of gravity
Froude number
and a linear dimension (normally depth), i.e., V/(gL)0.5. The Froude
number is used in the study of fluid motion.
A graph that shows the frequency of occurrence of a random
variable within class intervals as a function of the value of the
Histogram random variable. The frequency is the ordinate and the value of the
random variable is the abscissa, which is divided into class
intervals.
The sum of the pressure and elevation heads. Since in an open
channel the pressure head can be neglected, the hydraulic grade line
Hydraulic grade line
is the water surface. This assumption may not be the case in conduit
flow.
Hydrograph A graph of the time distribution of discharge at a point on a stream.
A representation of the physical processes that control the
Hydrologic cycle
distribution and movement of water.
Hyetograph A time-dependent function of the rainfall intensity versus time.
A peak discharge estimation method that quantifies a peak discharge
for a specific exceedence probability by the product of a peak
Index-flood method
discharge estimated with a regression equation for the index flood
and an index ratio.
26 3 October 2013
Hydrologic Cycle Section 2: Highway Hydrology
Instantaneous unit The hydrologic response of the watershed to 1-cm of rainfall excess
hydrograph concentrated in an infinitesimally small period of time.
Intensity Volume per unit time.
Intensity-duration- A graph or mathematical equation that relates the rainfall intensity,
frequency curve storm duration, and exceedence frequency.
A line on a map of equal rainfall depth for the same duration,
Isohyet
usually the duration of a storm.
The portion of rainfall that causes direct flood runoff. It equals the
Rainfall excess
total rainfall minus the initial abstraction and losses.
2.3. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Water, which is found everywhere on the earth, is one of the most basic and
commonly occurring substances. Water is the only substance on earth that exists
naturally in the three basic forms of matter (i.e., liquid, solid, and gas). The quantity of
water varies from place to place and from time to time. Although at any given moment
the vast majority of the earth's water is found in the world's oceans, there is a constant
interchange of water from the oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the
ocean. This interchange is called the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrologic cycle, is a description of the transformation of water from one phase
to another and its motion from one location to another. In this context, it represents the
complete descriptive cycle of water on and near the surface of the earth.
Beginning with atmospheric moisture, the hydrologic cycle can be described as
follows: When warm, moist air is lifted to the level at which condensation occurs,
precipitation in the form of rain, hail, sleet, or snow forms and then falls on a
watershed. Some of the water evaporates as it falls and the rest either reaches the
ground or is intercepted by buildings, trees, and other vegetation. The intercepted water
evaporates directly back to the atmosphere, thus completing a part of the cycle. The
remaining precipitation reaches the ground's surface or onto the water surfaces of
rivers, lakes, ponds, and oceans.
The water that reaches the earth's surface evaporates, infiltrates into the root zone,
or flows overland into puddles and depressions in the ground or into swales and
streams. The effect of infiltration is to increase the soil moisture. Field capacity is the
moisture held by the soil after all gravitational drainage. If the moisture content is less
than the field capacity of the soil, water returns to the atmosphere through soil
evaporation and by transpiration from plants and trees. If the moisture content becomes
greater than the field capacity, the water percolates downward to become ground water.
The part of precipitation that falls into puddles and depressions can evaporate,
infiltrate, or, if it fills the depressions, the excess water begins to flow overland until
eventually it reaches natural drainageways. Water held within the depressions is called
depression storage and is not available for overland flow or surface runoff.
Before flow can occur overland and in the natural and/or manmade drainage
systems, the flow path must reach its storage capacity. This form of storage, called
detention storage, is temporary since most of this water continues to drain after rainfall
ceases. The precipitation that percolates down to ground water is maintained in the
hydrologic cycle as seepage into streams and lakes, as capillary movement back into
the root zone, or it is pumped from wells and discharged into irrigation systems,
3 October 2013 27
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrology of Highway Stream Crossings
sewers, or other drainageways. Water that reaches streams and rivers may be detained
in storage reservoirs and lakes or it eventually reaches the oceans.
Throughout this path, water is continually evaporated back to the atmosphere, and
the hydrologic cycle is repeated.
2.4. HYDROLOGY OF HIGHWAY STREAM CROSSINGS

In highway engineering, the diversity of drainage problems is broad and includes
the design of pavements, bridges, culverts, siphons, and other cross drainage structures
for channels varying from small streams to large rivers. Stable open channels and
stormwater collection, conveyance, and detention systems must be designed for both
urban and rural areas. It is often necessary to evaluate the impacts that future land use,
proposed flood control and water supply projects, and other planned and projected
changes will have on the design of the highway crossing. On the other hand, the
designer also has a responsibility to adequately assess flood potentials and
environmental impacts that planned highway and stream crossings may have on the
watershed.
2.4.1. Elements of the Hydrologic Cycle Pertinent to Stream Crossings

In highway design, the primary concern is with the surface runoff portion of the
hydrologic cycle. Depending on local conditions, other elements may be important;
however, evaporation and transpiration can generally be discounted. The four most
important parts of the hydrologic cycle to the highway designer are:
o Precipitation,
o Infiltration,
o Storage, and
o Surface runoff.
Precipitation is very important to the development of hydrographs and especially in
synthetic unit hydrograph methods and some peak discharge formulas where the flood
flow is determined in part from excess rainfall or total precipitation minus the sum of
the infiltration and storage. As described above, infiltration is that portion of the rainfall
that enters the ground surface to become ground water or to be used by plants and trees
and transpired back to the atmosphere. Some infiltration may find its way back to the
tributary system as interflow moving slowly near the ground surface or as ground-water
seepage, but the amount is generally small. Storage is the water held on the surface of
the ground in puddles and other irregularities (depression storage) and water stored in
more significant quantities often in human-made structures (detention storage). Surface
runoff is the water that flows across the surface of the ground into the watershed's
tributary system and eventually into the primary watercourse.
The task of the designer is to determine the quantity and associated time distribution
of runoff at a given highway stream crossing, taking into account each of the pertinent
aspects of the hydrologic cycle. In most cases, it is necessary to make approximations
of these factors. In some situations, values can be assigned to storage and infiltration
with confidence, while in others, there may be considerable uncertainty, or the
importance of one or both of these losses may be discounted in the final analysis.
Thorough study of a given situation is necessary to permit assumptions to be made and
often only acquired experience or qualified advice permit solutions to the more
complex and unique situations that may arise at a given crossing.
28 3 October 2013
Hydrology of Highway Stream Crossings Section 2: Highway Hydrology
2.4.2. Overview of Hydrology as Applied to Stream Crossings

In many hydrologic analyses, the three basic elements are:
o measurement, recording, compilation, and publication of data;
o interpretation and analysis of data; and
o application to design or other practical problems.
The development of hydrology for a highway stream crossing is no different. Each
of these tasks must be performed, at least in part, before an actual hydraulic structure
can be designed. How extensively involved the designer becomes with each depends
on:
o importance and cost of the structure or the acceptable risk of failure;
o amount of data available for the analysis;
o additional information and data needed;
o required accuracy; and
o time and other resource constraints.
These factors normally determine the level of analysis needed and justified for any
particular design situation. As practicing designers will confirm, they may be
confronted with the problems of insufficient data and limited resources (time,
manpower, and money). It is impractical in routine design to use analytical methods
that require extensive time and manpower or data not readily available or that are
difficult to acquire. The more demanding methods and techniques should be reserved
for those special projects where additional data collection and accuracy produce
benefits that offset the additional costs involved. Examples of techniques requiring
large amounts of time and data include basinwide computer simulation and rainfall-
runoff models.
There are, however, a number of simpler but equally sound and proven methods
available to analyze the hydrology for some common design problems. These
procedures enable peak flows and hydrographs to be determined without an excessive
expenditure of time and that use existing data or, in the absence of data, synthesize
methods to develop the design parameters. With care, and often with only limited
additional data, these same procedures can be used to develop the hydrology for the
more complex and/or costly design projects.
The choice of an analytical method is a decision that must be made as each problem
arises. For this to be an informed decision, the designer must know what level of
analysis is justified, what data are available or must be collected, and what methods of
analysis are available together with their relative strengths and weaknesses in terms of
cost and accuracy.
Exclusive of the effects a given design may have upstream or downstream in a
watershed, hydrologic analysis at a highway stream crossing requires the determination
of either peak flow or the flood hydrograph. Peak discharge (sometimes called the
instantaneous maximum discharge) is critical because most highway stream crossings
are traditionally designed to pass a given quantity of water with an acceptable level of
risk. This capacity is usually specified in terms of the peak rate of flow during passage
of a flood, called peak discharge or peak flow.
Associated with this flow is a flood severity that is defined based on a predictable
frequency of occurrence (i.e., a 10-year flood, a 50-year flood, etc.).
Generally, the task of the highway designer is to determine the peak flows for a
range of flood frequencies at a site in a drainage basin. Culverts, bridges, or other
3 October 2013 29
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrology of Highway Stream Crossings
structures are then sized to convey the design peak discharge within other constraints
imposed on the design. If possible, the peak discharge that almost causes highway
overtopping is estimated, and this discharge is then used to evaluate the risk associated
with the crossing.
Hydrograph development is important where a detailed description of the time
variation of runoff rates and volumes is required. Similarly, urbanization, storage, and
other changes in a 1-5 watershed affect flood flows in many ways. Travel time, time of
concentration, runoff duration, peak flow, and the volume of runoff may be changed by
very significant amounts. The flood hydrograph is the primary way to evaluate and
assess these changes. Additionally, when flows are combined and routed to another
point along a stream, hydrographs are essential.
Neither peak flow nor hydrographs present any real computational difficulties
provided data are available for their determination. A problem faced by the highway
designer is that insufficient flow data, or often no data, exist at the site where a stream
crossing is to be designed. Although data describing the topography and the physical
characteristics of the basin are readily attainable, rarely is there sufficient time to
collect the flow data necessary to evaluate peak flows and hydrographs. In this case, the
designer must resort to synthetic methods to develop design parameters. These methods
require considerably more judgment and understanding in order to evaluate their
application and reliability.
Finally, the designer must be constantly alert to changing or the potential for
changing conditions in a watershed. This is especially important when reviewing
reported stream flow data for a watershed that has undergone urban development, and
channelization, diversions, and other drainage improvements. Similarly, the
construction of reservoirs, flow regulation measures, stock ponds, and other storage
facilities in the basin may be reflected in stream flow data. Other factors such as change
in gauge datum, moving of a gauge, or mixed floods (floods caused by rainfall and
snowmelt or rainfall and hurricanes) must be carefully analyzed to avoid
misinterpretation and/or incorrect conclusions.
2.4.3. Diversions and Dam Construction

The highway designer needs to be aware of the construction or planned construction
of diversions or dams on the watershed because these works will significantly affect the
magnitude and character of the runoff reaching the highway crossing. The designer
should make a point to become informed of proposed projects being studied by the
various water resources agencies active in their part of the country. Local agencies such
as power utilities, irrigation boards, and water supply companies should be canvassed
whenever a major highway drainage structure is designed. The methods of channel and
reservoir routing can be used to assess the effects that such projects will have on
highway drainage. Recently, the practice of decommissioning dams has increased.
Effects on drainage of highways downstream need to be considered.
2.4.4. Natural Disasters

Highways are considered permanent structures. Although it is rarely economically
feasible to design a highway drainage structure to convey extremely rare discharges
unimpeded, the occurrence of such events should not be ignored. Many highway
departments have adopted policies that require drainage structures to be designed for a
specified recurrence interval, but checked for a higher recurrence interval (often the
100-year discharge, the overtopping flood or the flood of record).A drainage structure
30 3 October 2013
Rainfall/Runoff Processes Section 2: Highway Hydrology
will be subjected to a discharge equal to or greater than the 100-year discharge. The
longer the design life of a structure, the more likely it will be subjected to a discharge
much greater than the design discharge. This risk can be quantified based upon the laws
of probability, and this is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4 (risk assessment).
Checking for the effects of a rare event is one method of focusing the designer's
attention upon this aspect of design. However, factors other than discharge must be
evaluated. These include the occurrence of earthquakes, forest fires, dam breaks, and
other unlikely but possible events.
The designer needs to assess the vulnerability of the particular site with respect to
the effects of these occurrences and consider secondary outlets for the flows. It is very
difficult to assign a recurrence interval to such natural disasters, but their impacts need
to be assessed.
The effects of forest fires upon the rainfall-runoff response of a watershed can be
estimated based upon previous experience.
After a natural disaster strikes, detailed studies of the effects may be made and
reports generated that can serve as guidance to the designer.
2.5. RAINFALL/RUNOFF PROCESSES
2.5.1. Precipitation
Precipitation is the water that falls from the atmosphere in either liquid or solid
form. It results from the condensation of moisture in the atmosphere due to the cooling
of a parcel of air. The most common cause of cooling is dynamic or adiabatic lifting of
the air. Adiabatic lifting means that a given parcel of air is caused to rise with resultant
cooling and possible condensation into very small cloud droplets. If these droplets
coalesce and become of sufficient size to overcome the air resistance, precipitation in
some form results.
2.5.1.1. Forms of Precipitation

Precipitation occurs in various forms. Rain is precipitation that is in the liquid state
when it reaches the earth. Snow is frozen water in a crystalline state, while hail is
frozen water in a 'massive' state. Sleet is melted snow that is an intermixture of rain and
snow. Of course, precipitation that falls to earth in the frozen state cannot become part
of the runoff process until melting occurs. Much of the precipitation that falls in
mountainous areas and in the northerly latitudes falls in the frozen form and is stored as
snowpack or ice until warmer temperatures prevail.
2.5.1.2. Types of Precipitation (by Origin)

Precipitation can be classified by the origin of the lifting motion that causes the
precipitation. Each type is characterized by different spatial and temporal rainfall
regimens. The three major types of storms are classified as convective storms,
orographic storms, and cyclonic storms. A fourth type of storm is often added, the
hurricane or tropical cyclone, although it is a special case of the cyclonic storm.
2.5.1.3. Characteristics of Rainfall Events

The characteristics of precipitation that are important to highway drainage are the
intensity (rate of rainfall); the duration; the time distribution of rainfall; the storm
shape, size, and movement; and the frequency.
3 October 2013 31
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Rainfall/Runoff Processes
Intensity is defined as the time rate of rainfall depth and is commonly given in the
units of millimeters per hour). All precipitation is measured as the vertical depth of
water (or water equivalent in the case of snow) that would accumulate on a flat level
surface if all the precipitation remained where it fell. A variety of rain gauges have
been devised to measure precipitation. All first-order weather stations use gauges that
provide nearly continuous records of accumulated rainfall with time. These data are
typically reported in either tabular form or as cumulative mass rainfall curves.
The location of a localized storm in the drainage basin also affects the time
distribution of the surface runoff. A storm near the outlet of the watershed will result in
the peak flow occurring very quickly and a rapid passage of the flood. If the same
storm occurred in a remote part of the basin, the runoff at the outlet due to the storm
would be longer and the peak flow lower due to storage in the channel.
Storm movement has a similar effect on the runoff distribution particularly if the
basin is long and narrow.
Frequency is also an important characteristic because it establishes the frame of
reference for how often precipitation with given characteristics is likely to occur. From
the standpoint of highway design, a primary concern is with the frequency of
occurrence of the resulting surface runoff, and in particular, the frequency of the peak
discharges. While the designer is cautioned about assuming that a storm of a given
frequency always produces a flood of the same frequency.
Precipitation is not easily characterized although there have been many attempts to
do so. References and data sources are available that provide general information on
the character of precipitation at specified geographic locations. It is important,
however, to understand the highly variable and erratic nature of precipitation. Highway
designers should become familiar with the different types of storms and the
characteristics of precipitation that are indigenous to their regions of concern. They
should also understand the seasonal variations that are prevalent in many areas. In
addition, it is very beneficial to study reports that have been prepared on historic storms
and floods in a region.
Such reports can provide information on past storms and the consequences that they
may have had on drainage structures.
2.5.2. Hydrologic Abstractions

The collective term given to the various processes that act to remove water from the
incoming precipitation before it leaves the watershed as runoff is abstractions. These
processes are evaporation, transpiration, interception, infiltration, depression storage,
and detention storage.
The most important abstractions in determining the surface runoff from a given
precipitation event are infiltration, depression storage, and detention storage.
2.5.2.1. Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which water from the land and water surfaces is
converted into water vapor and returned to the atmosphere. It occurs continually
whenever the air is unsaturated and temperatures are sufficiently high. Air is 'saturated'
when it holds its maximum capacity of moisture at the given temperature. Saturated air
has a relative humidity of 100 percent. Evaporation plays a major role in determining
the long-term water balance in a watershed. However, evaporation is usually
insignificant in small watersheds for single storm events and can be discounted when
calculating the discharge from a given rainfall event.
32 3 October 2013
2.5.2.2. Transpiration
Transpiration is the physical removal of water from the watershed by the life
actions associated with the growth of vegetation. In the process of respiration, green
plants consume water from the ground and transpire water vapor to the air through their
foliage. As was the case with evaporation, this abstraction is only significant when
taken over a long period of time, and has minimal effect upon the runoff resulting from
a single storm event for a watershed.
2.5.2.3. Interception
Interception is the removal of water that wets and adheres to objects above ground such
as buildings, trees, and vegetation. This water is subsequently removed from the
surface through evaporation. Interception can be as high as 2 mm during a single
rainfall event, but usually is nearer 0.5 mm. The quantity of water removed through
interception is usually not significant for an isolated storm, but, when added over a
period of time, it can be significant.
2.5.2.4. Infiltration
Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground by percolation through the earth's
surface. The process of infiltration is complex and depends upon many factors such as
soil type, vegetal cover, antecedent moisture conditions or the amount of time elapsed
since the last precipitation event, precipitation intensity, and temperature. Infiltration is
usually the single most important abstraction in determining the response of a
watershed to a given rainfall event. As important as it is, no generally acceptable model
has been developed to accurately predict infiltration rates or total infiltration volumes
for a given watershed.
2.5.2.5. Depression Storage

Depression storage is the term applied to water that is lost because it becomes
trapped in the numerous small depressions that are characteristic of any natural surface.
When water temporarily accumulates in a low point with no possibility for escape as
runoff, the accumulation is referred to as depression storage. The amount of water that
is lost due to depression storage varies greatly with the land use. A paved surface will
not detain as much water as a recently furrowed field. The relative importance of
depression storage in determining the runoff from a given storm depends on the amount
and intensity of precipitation in the storm. Typical values for depression storage range
from 1 to 8 mm with some values as high as 15 mm per event. As with evaporation and
transpiration, depression storage is generally not directly calculated in highway design.
2.5.2.6. Detention Storage

Detention storage is water that is temporarily stored in the depth of water necessary
for overland flow to occur. The volume of water in motion over the land constitutes the
detention storage. The amount of water that will be stored is dependent on a number of
factors such as land use, vegetal cover, slope, and rainfall intensity. Typical values for
detention storage range from 2 to 10 mm, but values as high as 50 mm have been
reported.
2.5.3. Characteristics of Runoff

Water that has not been abstracted from the incoming precipitation leaves the
watershed as surface runoff. While runoff occurs in several stages, the flow that
3 October 2013 33
becomes channelized is the main consideration to highway stream crossing design since
it influences the size of a given drainage structure. The rate of flow or runoff at a given
instant, in terms of volume per unit of time, is called discharge. Some characteristics of
runoff that are important to drainage design are: (1) the peak discharge or peak rate of
flow; (2) the discharge variation with time (hydrograph); (3) the stage-discharge
relationship; (4) the total volume of runoff; and (5) the frequency with which
discharges of specified magnitudes are likely to be equaled or exceeded (probability of
exceedence).
2.5.3.1. Peak Discharge

The peak discharge, often called peak flow, is the maximum rate of runoff passing a
given point during or after a rainfall event. Highway designers are interested in peak
flows for storms in an area because it is the discharge that a given structure must be
sized to handle. Of course, the peak flow varies for each different storm, and it
becomes the designer's responsibility to size a given structure for the magnitude of
storm that is determined to present an acceptable risk in a given situation. Peak flow
rates can be affected by many factors in a watershed, including rainfall, basin size, and
the physiographic features.
2.5.3.2. Time Variation (Hydrograph)

The flow in a stream varies from time to time, particularly during and in response to
storm events. As precipitation falls and moves through the watershed, water levels in
streams rise and may continue to do so (depending on position of the storm over the
watershed) after the precipitation has ceased. The response of an affected stream
through time during a storm event is characterized by the flood hydrograph. This
response can be pictured by graphing the flow in a stream relative to time. The primary
features of a typical hydrograph are illustrated in Figure 2.1 and include the rising and
falling limbs, the peak flow, the time to peak, and the time base of the hydrograph.
There are several types of hydrographs, such as flow per unit area and stage
hydrographs, but all display the same typical variation through time.
Figure 2.1: Elements of a flood hydrograph
2.5.3.3. Stage -Discharge

The stage of a river is the elevation of the water surface above some arbitrary
datum. The datum can be mean sea level, but can also be set slightly below the point of
34 3 October 2013
zero flow in the given stream. The stage of a river is directly related to the discharge,
which is the quantity of water passing a given point (Figure 2.2). As the discharge
increases, the stage rises and as the discharge decreases, the stage falls. Generally,
discharge is related to stage at a particular point by using a variety of techniques and
instrumentation to obtain field measurements of these (and related) parameters.
Figure 2.2: Relation between stage and discharge
2.5.3.4. Total Volume

The total volume of runoff from a given flood is of primary importance to the
design of storage facilities and flood control works. Flood volume is not normally a
consideration in the design of highway drainage crossing structures. However, flood
volume is used in various analyses for other design parameters. Flood volume is most
easily determined as the area under the flood hydrograph (Figure 2.1) and is commonly
measured in units of cubic meters. The equivalent depth of net rain over the watershed
is determined by dividing the volume of runoff by the watershed area.
2.5.3.5. Frequency
The exceedence frequency is the relative number of times a flood of a given
magnitude can be expected to occur on the average over a long period of time. It is
usually expressed as a ratio or a percentage. By its definition, frequency is a
probabilistic concept and is the probability that a flood of a given magnitude may be
equaled or exceeded in a specified period of time, usually 1 year. Exceedence
frequency is an important design parameter in that it identifies the level of risk during a
specified time interval acceptable for the design of a highway structure.
3 October 2013 35
2.5.3.6. Return Period

Return period is a term commonly used in hydrology. It is the average time interval
between the occurrence of storms or floods of a given magnitude. The exceedence
probability p and return period T are related by:
1
T  (0.1)
p
For example, a flood with an exceedence probability of 0.01 in any one year is
referred to as the 100-year flood. The use of the term return period is sometimes
discouraged because some people interpret it to mean that there will be exactly T years
between occurrences of the event. Two 100-year floods can occur in successive years
or they may occur 500 years apart. The return period is only the long-term average
number of years between occurrences.
2.5.4. Effects of Basin Characteristics on Runoff

The spatial and temporal variations of precipitation and the concurrent variations of
the individual abstraction processes determine the characteristics of the runoff from a
given storm. These are not the only factors involved, however. Once the local
abstractions have been satisfied for a small area of the watershed, water begins to flow
overland and eventually into a natural drainage channel such as a gully or a stream
valley. At this point, the hydraulics of the natural drainage channels has a large
influence on the character of the total runoff from the watershed.
A few of the many factors that determine the hydraulic character of the natural
drainage system are drainage area, slope, hydraulic roughness, natural and channel
storage, drainage density, channel length, antecedent moisture conditions, urbanization,
and other factors. The effect that each of these factors has on the important
characteristics of runoff is often difficult to quantify. The following paragraphs discuss
some of the factors that affect the hydraulic character of a given drainage system.
2.5.4.1. Drainage Area

Drainage area is the most important watershed characteristic that affects runoff. The
larger the contributing drainage area, the larger will be the flood runoff Figure 2.3a.
Regardless of the method utilized to evaluate flood flows, peak flow is directly related
to the drainage area.
2.5.4.2. Slope
Steep slopes tend to result in rapid runoff responses to local rainfall excess and
consequently higher peak discharges Figure 2.3b. The runoff is quickly removed from
the watershed, so the hydrograph is short with a high peak. The stage-discharge
relationship is highly dependent upon the local characteristics of the cross-section of
the drainage channel and, if the slope is sufficiently steep, supercritical flow may
prevail. The total volume of runoff is also affected by slope. If the slope is very flat, the
rainfall will not be removed as rapidly. The process of infiltration will have more time
to affect the rainfall excess, thereby increasing the abstractions and resulting in a
reduction of the total volume of rainfall that appears directly as runoff.
Slope is very important in how quickly a drainage channel will convey water and,
therefore, it influences the sensitivity of a watershed to precipitation events of various
time durations. Watersheds with steep slopes will rapidly convey incoming rainfall and,
if the rainfall is convective (characterized by high intensity and relatively short
36 3 October 2013
duration), the watershed will respond very quickly with the peak flow occurring shortly
after the onset of precipitation. If these convective storms occur with a given frequency,
the resulting runoff can be expected to occur with a similar frequency. On the other
hand, for a watershed with a flat slope, the response to the same storm will not be as
rapid and, depending on a number of other factors, the frequency of the resulting
discharge may be dissimilar to the storm frequency.
2.5.4.3. Hydraulic Roughness

Hydraulic roughness is a composite of the physical characteristics that influence the
depth and speed of water flowing across the surface, whether natural or channelized. It
affects both the time response of a drainage channel and the channel storage
characteristics. Hydraulic roughness has a marked effect on the characteristics of the
runoff resulting from a given storm. The peak rate of discharge is usually inversely
proportional to hydraulic roughness (i.e., the lower the roughness, the higher the peak
discharge). Roughness affects the runoff hydrograph in a manner opposite of slope. The
lower the roughness, the more peaked and shorter in time the resulting hydrograph will
be for a given storm Figure 2.3c.
The stage-discharge relationship for a given section of drainage channel is also
dependent on roughness (assuming normal flow conditions and the absence of artificial
controls). A higher roughness results in a higher stage for a given discharge.
The total volume of runoff is virtually independent of hydraulic roughness. An
indirect relationship does exist in that higher roughness slows the watershed response
and allows some of the abstraction processes more time to affect runoff. Roughness
also has an influence on the frequency of discharges of certain magnitudes by affecting
the response time of the watershed to precipitation events of specified frequencies.
2.5.4.4. Storage
It is common for a watershed to have natural or manmade storage that greatly
affects the response to a given precipitation event. Common features that contribute to
storage within a watershed are lakes, marshes, heavily vegetated overbank areas,
natural or manmade constrictions in the drainage channel that cause backwater, and the
storage in the floodplains of large, wide rivers. Storage can have a significant effect in
reducing the peak rate of discharge, although this reduction is not necessarily universal.
There have been some instances where artificial storage redistributes the discharges
very radically, resulting in higher peak discharges than would have occurred had the
storage not been added. As shown in Figure 2.3d, storage generally spreads the
hydrograph out in time, delays the time to peak, and alters the shape of the resulting
hydrograph from a given storm.
3 October 2013 37
Figure 2.3: Effects of basin characteristics on the flood hydrograph
The stage-discharge relationship also can be influenced by storage within a

watershed. If the section of a drainage channel is upstream of the storage and within the
zone of backwater, the stage for a given discharge will be higher than if the storage
were not present. If the section is downstream of the storage, the stage-discharge
relationship may or may not be affected, depending upon the presence of channel
controls.
38 3 October 2013
The total volume of runoff is not directly influenced by the presence of storage.
Storage will redistribute the volume over time, but will not directly change the volume.
By redistributing the runoff over time, storage may allow other abstraction processes to
decrease the runoff (as was the case with slope and roughness).
Changes in storage have a definite effect upon the frequency of discharges of given
magnitudes. Storage tends to dampen the response of a watershed to very short events
and to accentuate the response to very long events. This alters the relationship between
frequency of precipitation and the frequency of the resultant runoff.
2.5.4.5. Drainage Density

Drainage density can be defined as the ratio between the number of well-defined
drainage channels and the total drainage area in a given watershed. Drainage density is
usually assumed to equal the total length of continuously flowing streams divided by
the drainage area. It is determined by the topography and the geography of the
watershed.
Drainage density has a strong influence on both the spatial and temporal response of
a watershed to a given precipitation event. If a watershed is well covered by a pattern of
interconnected drainage channels, and the overland flow time is relatively short, the
watershed will respond more rapidly than if it were sparsely drained and overland flow
time was relatively long. The mean velocity of runoff is normally lower for overland
flow than it is for flow in a well-defined natural channel. High drainage densities are
associated with increased response of a watershed leading to higher peak discharges
and shorter hydrographs for a given precipitation event (Figure 2.3e).
Drainage density has a minimal effect on the stage-discharge relationship for a
particular section of drainage channel. It does, however, have an effect on the total
volume of runoff since some of the abstraction processes are directly related to how
long the rainfall excess exists as overland flow. Therefore, the lower the density of
drainage, the lower will be the volume of runoff from a given precipitation event.
Changes in drainage density such as with channel improvements in urbanizing
watersheds can have an effect on the frequency of discharges of given magnitudes. By
strongly influencing the response of a given watershed to any precipitation input, the
drainage density determines in part the frequency of the response. The higher the
drainage density, the more closely related the resultant runoff frequency would be to
that of the corresponding precipitation event.
2.5.4.6. Channel Length

Channel length is an important watershed characteristic. The longer the channel, the
more time it takes for water to be conveyed from the headwaters of the watershed to the
outlet. Consequently, if all other factors are the same, a watershed with a longer
channel length will usually have a slower response to a given precipitation input than a
watershed with a shorter channel length. As the hydrograph travels along a channel, it
is attenuated and extended in time due to the effects of channel storage and hydraulic
roughness. As shown in Figure 2.3f, longer channels result in lower peak discharges
and longer hydrographs.
The frequency of discharges of given magnitudes will also be influenced by channel
length. As was the case for drainage density, channel length is an important parameter
in determining the response time of a watershed to precipitation events of given
frequency. However, channel length may not remain constant with discharges of
various magnitudes. In the case of a wide floodplain where the main channel meanders
3 October 2013 39
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Data
appreciably, it is not unusual for the higher flood discharges to overtop the banks and
essentially flow in a straight line in the floodplain, thus reducing the effective channel
length.
The stage-discharge relationship and the total volume of runoff are practically
independent of channel length. Volume, however, will be redistributed in time, similar
in effect to storage but less pronounced.
2.5.4.7. Antecedent Moisture Conditions

As noted earlier, antecedent moisture conditions, which are the soil moisture
conditions of the watershed at the beginning of a storm, affect the volume of runoff
generated by a particular storm event. Runoff volumes are related directly to antecedent
moisture levels. The smaller the moisture in the ground at the beginning of
precipitation, the lower will be the runoff. Conversely, the larger the moisture content
of the soil, the higher the runoff attributable to a particular storm.
2.5.4.8. Urbanization
As a watershed undergoes urbanization, the peak discharge typically increases and
the hydrograph becomes shorter and rises more quickly. This is due mostly to the
improved hydraulic efficiency of an urbanized area. In its natural state, a watershed will
have developed a natural system of conveyances consisting of gullies, streams, ponds,
marshes, etc., all in equilibrium with the naturally existing vegetation and physical
watershed characteristics. As an area develops, typical changes made to the watershed
include:
o Removal of existing vegetation and replacement with impervious pavement
or buildings,
o Improvement to natural watercourses by channelization, and
o Augmentation of the natural drainage system by storm sewers and open
channels. These changes tend to decrease depression storage, infiltration
rates, and travel time. Consequently, peak discharges increase, with the
time base of hydrographs becoming shorter and the rising limb rising more
quickly.
2.5.4.9. Other Factors

There can be other factors within the watershed that determine the characteristics of
runoff, including the extent and type of vegetation, the presence of channel
modifications, and flood control structures. These factors modify the runoff by either
augmenting or negating some of the basin characteristics described above. It is
important to recognize that all of the factors discussed exist concurrently within a given
watershed, and their combined effects are very difficult to model and quantify.
2.6. HYDROLOGIC DATA
2.6.1. Topographic Maps

Maps are required in order to show how the proposed highway alignment crosses
individual watersheds. Other watershed parameters such as drainage areas, soil
classifications, and vegetation shall also be indicated on topographic maps. The
following Table 2.1 indicates which map scale shall be used on each project.
40 3 October 2013
Hydrologic Data Section 2: Highway Hydrology
Table 2.1: Map Scales

Basin Area Scale Contours
Rural Rolling & Flat Terrain <2,500 ha 1:25,000 5 m*
Rural Mountainous <2,500 ha 1:25,000 10m
Rural Rolling & Flat Terrain >2,500 ha 1:50,000 10 m*
Rural Mountainous >2,500 ha 1:50,000 20 m
Urban Storm Sewer Design All 1:2,000 0.5 m
*Mapping in the vicinity of the highway project shall show 1 m contours
2.6.2. Photographs
Upstream and downstream (non-aerial) photographs shall be taken of all crossings
whose design flow exceeds 20m3/sec. whenever possible, aerial photographs of
upstream watersheds shall also be included in the hydrologic report. These photographs
shall be of sufficient quality to enable the engineer to estimate channel roughness
characteristics, the nature and extent of vegetation cover, and land use. Photographs,
historic or recent, which support any hydrologic data, shall be included in the report.
These pictures can be placed in the text or referenced in the text and compiled at the
end of the report.
2.6.3. Land Use

Using the topographic maps and the photographs described above, the engineer
shall comment on the nature of the land use in the affected watersheds. Similarly, the
Engineer shall comment on the nature of vegetation and soil characteristic of the
basins. Individual types of land use, vegetation, and soil classifications shall be
indicated as percentages of basin area. The extent of anticipated changes within any of
these areas shall also be indicated.
2.6.4. Water Use

The Engineer shall comment on the use of the water within the affected drainage
basins. If reservoirs are within the watersheds, the operational procedures of these
reservoirs shall be described, including the volumes and dates of anticipated discharges.
This section of the report shall also contain comments on local uses or diversions of
wadis. Anticipated changes in water uses shall also be commented on.
2.6.5. Rainfall Data

Rainfall data within the study area shall be included in the report. The data shall
consist of a brief description, the length of record, the accuracy, and the source. The
Ministry of Agriculture and Water (AGWAT) has published 5-year summaries of
meteorologic data and is currently gathering additional hydrologic data.
2.6.6. Gaging Station Data

When the proposed highway crosses a wadi, the Engineer shall list any available
gaging station information pertaining to that watershed. If these data are not available,
the Engineer shall list gaging station data from neighboring watersheds. A brief
description of the gaging station data shall be included if this information is available.
This description shall include the length of record, the accuracy of the data, the source,
and dates of occurrences. AGWAT is placing gaging stations in many wadis and may
have information concerning previous flood flows.
3 October 2013 41
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
2.6.7. Highwater Marks

Often highwater marks can be used to estimate peak flows within a basin.
Whenever possible the Engineer shall prepare a brief flood history. This statement shall
include the dates of occurrence of the flooding and the elevations of highwater marks.
The Engineer shall also comment on the nature of the flooding and list any factors that
may have effects on the water level. Such factors may include highwater from other
wadis, releases from reservoirs, tidal effects, or other channel controls.
2.7. HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS
2.7.1. Drainage Area

This information is usually determined from available topographic mapping. A field
inspection of the drainage area is highly desirable since topographic maps are many
times not up-to-date. Although 5 m or 10 m contour interval maps may show many
areas as contributing to the basin runoff, a field inspection may show natural or
manmade features, such as agricultural terraces and dikes, which will intercept all of
the runoff from the drainage area. These may include highway or railroad
embankments that, with the corresponding culverts or bridges, may act as detention
structures. Once the boundaries of the contributing areas have been established, they
shall be delineated on a base map and the areas determined. This is commonly done
using a planimeter.
2.7.2. Watershed Parameters

Drainage basin characteristics shall be determined in the field or from available
maps. The list of parameters below is based on the information needed by the various
models used in the hydrologic analysis. Some parameters will be inserted directly into a
particular formula and others will be used in comparing one watershed to another for
use in transferring data.
2.7.2.1. Basin Length

This information can usually be, measured from available topographic mapping.
This parameter is important in that the length of the wadi channel has a direct impact
on the travel time from the upstream limits of the drainage area to the design point.
Shorter travel time usually results in a higher discharge. Longer travel time tends to
reduce the discharge at the design point. This parameter also helps define the overall
shape of a drainage basin. Long, narrow basins will generally produce lower discharges
than shorter, more compact drainage basins. Land development also affects travel time.
If development has occurred, a field inspection of the basin should be made to
determine changes in the basin length or travel distance. This is especially true for
small basins. Manmade channels may have straightened out the natural sinuous course
of a wadi or the pattern of streets may cause the flow path to be longer than the natural
straight course. These activities shall also be investigated and recorded.
2.7.2.2. Basin Slope

Basin slopes are usually estimated from contours on topographic maps or
determined by a field survey. This parameter is important in that steeper basins tend to
result in a quicker response time whereas flat basins decrease response time. Long
response time will tend to lower discharge while a short response time tends to increase
the discharge.
42 3 October 2013
Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
2.7.2.3. Percent Impervious

This parameter is important in that it reflects the area under which natural
infiltration and evaporation/transpiration will occur. A field inspection of the drainage
basin should be made to determine the portion of the total drainage area that should be
considered impervious. The most reliable method for calculating percent
imperviousness is to measure the impervious areas from an aerial photograph. An urban
area can usually be broken into typical zones, each with similar characteristics as far as
impervious percentage is concerned. A small area can then be selected from each
typical zone and the percent impervious area, such as rooftops, driveways, parking lots,
and streets, can be measured. Models that use small tributary areas may use input
directly from these small typical zones.
2.7.2.4. Infiltration
This parameter can be estimated by making field infiltration tests or using typical
infiltration rates for a particular soil type. Infiltration reflects the ability of the soil to
absorb moisture. This parameter shall be expressed in centimeters per hour. The
infiltration rate may also be expressed as a decay equation with infiltration rates being
high at the beginning of a storm and decreasing as the storm continues and the soil
becomes saturated.
2.7.2.5. Detention Depression Storage

These parameters reflect those losses caused by natural or manmade depressions
that decrease runoff. It is usually necessary to estimate these depths either through the
observation of previous runoff events or by making detailed field measurements.
Detention depression storage consists of those areas that are not drained other than by
infiltration or slow release. Included would be mud puddles, undrained street
depressions, depressions caused by ungraded fill areas, plugged storm drains,
depressions in grassed areas and other areas flooded by poor drainage even during
minor storms.
2.7.2.6. Drainage Basin Roughness Coefficients

This is defined as the average roughness coefficient for a defined drainage area.
These roughness coefficients may be in the form of Manning's "n". The importance of
this parameter is that it, along with many of the other parameters previously discussed,
affects the response time of a basin contributing to runoff via overland flow. Lower
roughness coefficients lead to a shorter response time and high discharges. High
roughness coefficients increase basin response time and lead to lower discharges. It has
been found that overland flow roughness coefficients for impervious areas are
considerably less than those for pervious areas. These roughness coefficients may range
from as low as 0.013 for parking lots up to 0.3 for lawns, pastures, etc. The following
roughness coefficients in Table 2.2 from overland flow areas are recommended.
3 October 2013 43
Table 2.2: Values of the Roughness Coefficient "n"

Surface Types Manning's "n" for Overland Flow
Asphalt 0.012
Concrete Paving 0.014
Highly Compacted Natural Materials 0.025
Loose Sand 0.027
Light Turf 0.02
Dense Shrubbery and Forest Litter 0.4
2.7.2.7. Channel or Conduit Slope

This parameter is usually determined from available topographic mapping. As is the
case with the basin slope, this parameter, along with channel 'roughness and channel
cross section has a significant effect on response time. Steep channels tend to have very
short response times. A field inspection is recommended to determine if average map
slope is representative of the channel slope. Typically, manmade channels, and often
natural channels, include drop structures, resulting in a flatter effective channel grade.
Rainfall-runoff models typically rely on the Manning equation to determine velocity
of flow without regard to Froude number. Caution should be applied to this assumption
in steep natural channels. It is generally held, although not universally accepted, that
natural channels seldom flow at supercritical velocity. Rather, they flow as a series of
hydraulic jumps, with average flow velocity equal to critical velocity. Normal flow
velocity in a channel with a 1.2 m bottom width, 2: 1 side slopes, n = 0.045, and slope
of 8 percent equals 2.9 m/s. The critical velocity for the same flow is only 2.1 m/s,
some 27 percent less. Clearly, the travel time for routing would be considerably
different for the two situations.
When steep channel slopes are involved, the Froude number of the flow shall be
checked before proceeding with use of the transport models. If it appears that normal
flow calculations would result in supercritical velocities, the roughness coefficient for
the channel, normally Manning's "n", should be increased until critical velocities result.
The Froude number is defined as:
V
FR= (0.2)
gd
where
V = the mean velocity of flow in meters per sec (m/s).
g = the acceleration of gravity in meters per sec2 (m/s2).
d = the hydraulic depth that is defined as the cross sectional area of the water normal to
the direction of flow in the channel divided by the width of the free surface.
Flow is supercritical when FR > 1.
44 3 October 2013
2.7.2.8. Channel or Conduit Cross Section

In the case of open channels, the channel cross section can have a tremendous effect
on the flood discharges. Channel storage, especially in channels with extremely wide
flood plains, can be very significant and can reduce discharges considerably. Runoff
models, however, do not usually include the effects of channel storage. It is, therefore,
very important that a field inspection of the channel be made to determine if channel
storage should be considered.
2.7.2.9. Channel or Conduit Roughness

Channel and conduit roughness usually has little effect on the predicted flood discharge
unless the channel or conduit roughness is very high. This condition may exist in
channels grown over with trees and brush or in conduits considered to have a
constrictive effect on water surface elevations. Channel and conduit roughness does,
however, have some effect on basin response time and should be considered in any
hydrologic analysis. Reasonable estimates of channel roughness can be made by visual
inspection of the channel or conduit being studied and comparison to roughness
factor,Table 2.3.
3 October 2013 45
Table 2.3: Values of the Roughness Coefficient "n"

Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
A. Closed Conduits Flowing Partly Full
A-1. Metal
a. Brass, smooth 0.009 0.010 0.013
b. Steel
1. Lockbar and welded 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. Riveted and spiral 0.013 0.016 0.017
c.Cast iron
1. Coated 0.010 0.013 0.014
2. Uncoated 0.011 0.014 0.016
d. Wrought iron
1. Black 0.012 0.014 0.015
2. Galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017
e. Corrugated metal
1. Subdrain 0.017 0.019 0.021
2. Storm drain 0.021 0.024 0.030
A-2. Nonmetal
a. Lucite 0.008 0.009 0.010
b. Glass 0.009 0.010 0.013
c. Cement
1. Neat, surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. Mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
d. Concrete
1. Culvert, straight and free of debris 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. Culvert with bends, connections, and
0.011 0.013 0.013
some debris
3. Finished 0.011 0.012 0.014
4. Sewer with manholes, inlet, etc.,
0.013 0.015 0.017
straight
5. Unfinished, steel form 0.012 0.013 0.014
6. Unfinished, smooth wood form 0.012 0.014 0.016
7. Unfinished, rough wood form 0.015 0.017 0.020
e. Wood
1. Stave 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. Laminated, treated 0.015 0.017 0.020
f. Clay
1. Common drainage tile 0.011 0.013 0.017
2. Vitrified sewer 0.011 0.014 0.017
3. Vitrified sewer with manholes,
0.013 0.015 0.017
inletetc.
4. Vitrified subdrain with open joint 0.014 0.016 0.018
g. Brickwork
1. Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. Lined with cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.017
46 3 October 2013
h. Sanitary sewers coated with sewage slimes, with

0.012 0.013 0.016
bends and connections
i. Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom 0.016 0.019 0.020
j. Rubble masonry, cemented 0.018 0.025 0.030
B. Lined or Built-up Channels
B-1. Metal
a. Smooth steel surface
1. Unpainted 0.011 0.012 0.014
2. Painted 0.012 0.013 0.017
b. Corrugated 0.021 0.025 0.030
B-2. Nonmetal
a. Cement
1. Neat, surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. Mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
b. Wood
1. Planed, untreated 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. Planed, creosoted 0.011 0.012 0.015
3. Unplaned 0.011 0.013 0.015
4. Plank with battens 0.012 0.015 0.018
5. Lined with roofing paper 0.010 0.014 0.017
c. Concrete
1. Trowel finish 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. Float finish. 0.013 0.015 0.016
3. Finished, with gravel on bottom 0.015 0.017 0.020
4. Unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
5. Gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023
6. Gunite, wavey section 0.018 0.022 0.025
7. On good excavated rock 0.017 0.020
8. On irregular excavated rock 0.022 0.027
d. Concrete bottom float finished with sides of
1. Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
2. Random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
3. Cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016 0.020 0.024
4. Cement rubble masonry 0.020 0.025 0.030
5. Dry rubble or rip rap 0.020 0.030 0.035
e. Gravel bottom with sides of
1. Formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
2. Random stone in mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
3. Dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
f. Brick
1. Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. In cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
g. Masonry
1. Cemented rubble 0.017 0.025 0.030
2. Dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
h. Dressed ashlar 0.013 0.015 0.017
i. Asphalt
1. Smooth 0.013 0.013
3 October 2013 47
2. Rough 0.016 0.016

j.Vegetal lining 0.030 ..... 0.500
C. Excavated or Dredged
a. Earth, straight and uniform
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense weeds or aquatic plants in
0.030 0.035 0.040
deep channels
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.028 0.030 0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Dragline-excavated or dredge
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e.Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2. Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
D. Natural Wadis
D-1. Minor wadis (top width at flood stage < 30m)
a. Wadis on plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts
0.025 0.030 0.033
or deep pools
2. Same as above, but more stones
0.030 0.035 0.040
and weeds
3. Clean, winding, some pools and
0.033 0.040 0.045
shoals
4. Same as above, but some weeds
0.035 0.045 0.050
and stones
5. Same as above, lower stages, more
0.040 0.048 0.055
ineffective slopes and sections
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep
0.050 0.070 0.080
pools
8. Very weedy reaches, deep
pools, or flood ways with heavy 0.075 0.100 0.150
stand of timber and underbrush
48 3 October 2013
b. Mountain wadis, no vegetation in channel, banks

usually steep, trees and brush along banks
submerged at high stages
1. Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and

0.030 0.040 0.050
few boulders
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
D-2. Flood plains

a. Pasture, no brush
1. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
b. Cultivated areas
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees, in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no
0.030 0.040 0.050
sprouts
3. Same as above, but with heavy
0.050 0.060 0.080
growth of sprouts
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down
trees, little undergrowth, flood stage 0.080 0.100 0.120
below branches
5. Same as above, but with flood
0.100 0.120 0.160
stage reaching branches
D-3. Major wadis (top width at flood stage > 30 m).

The n value is less than that for minor wadis of
similar description, because banks offer less
effective resistance.
a. Regular section with no boulders or brush 0.025 ..... 0.060

b. Irregular and rough section 0.035 ..... 0.100
2.7.3. Flood Estimates

Listed below are several methods for use in estimating peak runoff from drainage
areas. The first method, the Rational Equation, utilizes existing rainfall data and land
use in estimating discharge. Its use shall be limited to small drainage areas. The next
method, the Gumbel Distribution, uses existing gaging station information in a
statistical analysis. This method bases its flood estimates on the statistical distribution
of previous flood peaks. The Indirect Estimate methods shall be used on ungaged
watersheds where runoff data does not exist or exists in very limited quantities.
3 October 2013 49
Discharge estimates employing these indirect methods are based on the correlation
between peak runoff values and measurable watershed parameters. The last method,
Regression Equations, is formulas that were developed for use in the State of Arizona
of the United States of America. Sections of Arizona closely resemble parts of Saudi
Arabia. Where either rainfall or gaging data is unavailable, this resemblence may be
used to establish a storm runoff.
The following Table 2.4 shall be used in selecting a particular flood estimate
procedure.
Table 2.4: Flood Estimating Methods

Method Basin Description
Rational Equation Areas less than 50 ha.
Gumbel Distribution Areas greater than 100 ha with gaging station data at the site.
Areas greater than 100 ha with gaging station data from neigh
Indirect Estimates
boring watersheds.
Regression Equations rainfall data.
Whether one of these methods or any other method is chosen to estimate the
watershed runoff, the Engineer shall include in the final design report a copy of sample
computations and any references used.
The recurrence intervals for use with hydrologic computations shall be as follows in
Table 2.5:
Table 2.5: Recurrence Interval

Design Class Recurrence Interval
Expressway 100-year (1 percent)
Arterials 50-year (2 percent)
Collectors 50-year (2 percent)
Local 25-year (4 percent)
Storm Sewer 5-year (20-percent)
2.7.3.1. Rational Equation

This formula states that the rate of runoff is proportional to the rate of supply
(rainfall excess) if the rain lasts long enough to permit the entire area to contribute.
The equation takes the following form:
CIA
Q (0.3)
360
where
Q = flow in cubic meters per second for a return period equal to that of the rainfall
intensity, I.
50 3 October 2013
C = A runoff coefficient expressing the fraction of the rainfall that is assumed to become
direct runoff.
I = The rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour for a duration corresponding to the
catchment area and having a recurrence period appropriate to the project conditions.
A = The drainage area in hectares.
This method has several important limitations:

 It yields only a peak flow, not a hydrograph.
 It assumes that runoff is linearly related to rainfall.
 It assumes the rainfall excess for a given return period will produce the runoff
for the same return period.
1. Runoff Coefficient
Typical values of runoff coefficients for use in either rural or urban areas are listed
in Table 2.6 and Table 2.7.
3 October 2013 51
Table 2.6: Typical C Coefficients Urban Areas

Description of Area Runoff Coefficients
Business
Downtown Areas 0.70-0.95
Neighborhood Areas 0.50-0.70
Residential
Single-Family Areas 0.30-0.50
Multiunits, Detached 0.40-0.60
Multiunits, Attached 0.60-0.75
Residential (Suburban) 0.25-0.40
Apartment Dwelling Areas 0.50-0.70
Industrial
Light Areas 0.50-0.80
Heavy Areas 0.60-0.90
Parks, Cemeteries 0.10-0.25
Playgrounds 0.20-0.35
Railroad Yard Areas 0.20-0.40
Unimproved Areas 0.10-0.30
Streets
Asphaltic 0.70-0.95
Concrete 0.80-0.95
Brick 0.70-0.85
Drives and Walks 0.75-0.85
Roofs 0.75-0.95
Lawns; Sandy Soil
Flat, 2% 0.05-0.10
Average, 2-7% 0.10-0.15
Steep, 7% 0.15-0.20
Lawns; Heavy Soil
Flat, 2% 0.13-0.17
Average, 2-7% 0.18-0.22
Steep, 7% 0.25-0.35
52 3 October 2013
Table 2.7: Typical C Coefficients Rural Areas

Watershed Characteristics
A B C D
Relief Soil Infiltration Vegetal Cover Surface Storage
0.40 0.20 0.20 0.20
No effective soil Negligible; surface

cover; either rock or No effective plant depression few and
Steep rugged terrain;
thin soil mantle cover; bare or very shallow; drainage
average slopes
negligible infiltration sparse soil cover ways steep and
greater than 30%
small, no ponds or
capacity marshes
0.30 0.15 0.15 0.15
Slow to take up Poor to fair; clean
Low; well defined
water; clay, or other cultivated crops or
Hilly with average system of small
soil of low poor natural cover;
slopes of 10 to 30% drainage ways, no
infiltration capacity less than 10% of area
ponds or marshes.
such as heavy gumbo under good cover
0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10
Normal; considerable
surface depression
Fair to good; about storage; typical of
Rolling with average 50% of area in good prairie lands; lakes,
Normal, deep loam
slopes of 5 to 10% grass land, woodland
ponds, and marshes
or equivalent cover
less than 20% of
area
0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05
High; surface
depression storage
Good to excellent;
High, deep sand or high; drainage
Relatively flat land about 50%
other soil system not sharply
average of area in good grass defined, large flood
that takes up water
slopes 0 to 5 % land; woodland or plain storage; large
readily and rapidly
equivalent cover number of ponds and
marshes
Note: Runoff coefficient is equal to sum of coefficients from the appropriate block in Rows A, B, C, and
D. These runoff coefficients shall be proportioned to the percentage of area covered.
Example: A watershed consists of 20 ha of light industrial areas, 30 ha of apartment

dwelling areas and 15 ha of residential single family areas.
Total Area = 65 ha
3 October 2013 53
Area Type Percent of Total Coefficient

20 ha Light industrial 20/65=0.31 0.65
30 ha Apartment dwelling 30/65=0.46 0.60
15 ha Residential single family 15/65=0.23 0.40
Runoff Coefficient C = (0.31 × 0.65) + (0.46 × 0.60) + (0.23 × 0.40) = 0.57
2. Rainfall Intensity
The rainfall intensity value used in the Rational Equation is based on essentially
three items. These are: the amount of rainfall that occurs, the time it takes for this
amount of rainfall to occur, and the recurrence interval associated with each design
class. These three factors are brought together in an intensity-duration frequency curve
(IDF). These curves may be available from AGWAT. If not available locally, they can
be developed with local rainfall data using the following steps.
 Using the rainfall data, list the maximum depth of rainfall (mm) for a specific
duration for each year of record. This list shall be made for the following
durations: 10, 20, 30 minutes; 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, and 24 hours.
 These data are then ranked from lowest to highest and assigned a plotting
position. The formula for the plotting position is
100m
Plotting Position  (0.4)
N 1
where
N = the total number of ranked rainfall data.
m = the rank value of the rainfall data.
 The rainfall data are then plotted versus their plotting positions on standard
probability paper. These points are then fitted with a curve. This procedure is
repeated for all rainfall durations.
 Once these data have been plotted and the appropriate curves drawn, the
Engineer then determines the rainfall depths for the 25, 50, and 100 year
events from these curves. This is done by first computing the nonexceedance
probability for each event. The following formula is used:
1
Nonexceedance Probability  100(1  ) (0.5)
Tr
where
Tr = the return interval for each event.
This nonexceedance probability is then located along the horizontal axis. By
drawing a line vertically through this point and intersecting the rainfall curve, the
rainfall depth for that particular return interval is obtained. These rainfall depths are
then converted to rainfall in tensities (mm/hr) by multiplying by 60 minutes and
dividing by the appropriate rainfall duration.
54 3 October 2013
 This new set of data is then plotted on standard graph paper comparing
rainfall intensity versus duration. Curves are then drawn connecting points
with similar frequencies. This final graph is the Intensity Duration-Frequency
curve we need to complete our design.
In using this type of statistical approach in determining an IDF curve, one can see
the need for large amounts of rainfall data. The more information used in the analysis
the better the accuracy in the runoff estimation. Unfortunately, information does not
always exist where the Engineer would like to have it. In response to this problem,
AGWAT has established zones with similar hydrologic conditions. It is their intent that
rainfall data within a zone be considered homogeneous and independent and apply
uniformly throughout the zone. The zone boundaries are delineated on Figure 2.4
When using this assumption, the Engineer shall check the independence and correlation
of data by using standard statistical tests.
Figure 2.4 : Rainfall Zones in Saudi Arabia
3. Time of Concentration
The next step is to employ the information on the IDF curve and compute the time
of concentration of the runoff from the watershed. The time of oncentration (Tc) is
defined as the interval of time in minutes required for the flow at a given point to
become a maximum. This generally occurs when all parts of the drainage area are
contributing to the flow. In other words, the time of concentration is the interval of time
from the beginning of rainfall to the time when water from the most remote portion of
the drainage area reaches the inlet of the drainage structure. The time of concentration
for urban areas may be determined using Figure 2.5 when the flow is overland.
3 October 2013 55
Figure 2.5: Time of Concentration for Use with Rational Equation
56 3 October 2013
When the flow is concentrated in curb and gutters, drainage channels, or conduits,
the time of concentration can be determined using the flow velocity. The flow velocity
may be estimated by using the Manning equation:
X i Qi
1 2/3 1/2
b 2
V  R S (0.6)
X i n
where
V = Mean velocity in meters per second.
n = Manning coefficient of roughness.
R = Hydraulic radius in meters.
S = Slope in percent.
The time of concentration will then be the flow distances divided by the velocity of
flow.
The rainfall intensity can now be determined using the time of concentration and
the IDF curves. The duration of the storm is set equal to the time of concentration.
Using his duration value, the Engineer locates the proper value on the x-axis of the IDF
curve. He then draws a vertical line through the 25, 50, or 100 year recurrence interval
lines. Projecting these intersections horizontally to the y-axis he thus determines the
rainfall intensity for each recurrence interval for a given storm duration.
A study of the standard storm duration rainfall intensity curves indicates that, for
short duration storms, the rainfall intensity changes rapidly with a change in the storm
duration. Consequently, attention should be given to computing an accurate time of
concentration for small drainage areas.
4. Drainage Area
The drainage area is then determined for each particular segment of the watershed.
With these three factors; the runoff coefficient, the rainfall intensity, and the
drainage area, the Engineer can complete his design. Inserting these values into the
Rational Equation the peak discharge for the watershed is calculated.
Example:
Using the runoff coefficient (0.57) and the rainfall intensity (43 mm/hr) previously
developed and a drainage area measurement of 65 ha, the runoff from the basin would
be
CIA
Q (0.7)
360
Q50 = (0.57) (43) (65) /360 =4.43 m3/sec
2.7.3.2. Gumbel Distribution

The Gumbel Distribution can be applied to a series of annual flood peaks in two
different ways, graphically or analytically. The graphical solution is the easier to use
but its results are based on the judgment of the Engineer when he fits a curve to the
plotted data. The analytical approach yields a consistent result, but it is more complex
and requires the use of several equations.
The Engineer shall use both methods and compare results in order to make a
computation check.
3 October 2013 57
1. Graphical Solution
Often the simplest way to examine frequency relationships for a given set of gaging
station data is to plot the data on graph paper, fit a curve to the data, and predict future
flood flows from the curve.
To use this method, follow the steps listed below:
a. Select the annual flood peaks from the gaging station information listed
in Article 2.6.6. (Gaging Station Data). Array the annual series in
descending order and assign an order number "m" to each annual event.
b. Determine the plotting position (return interval) for each annual event.
The formula for the plotting position is
N 1
Tr  (0.8)
m
where
N = The total number of annual events.
m = The order number of each particular event.
Tr = The plotting position or return interval.
 The data are then plotted, discharge versus return interval, on Gumbel
Distribution paper.
 A straight line is then fitted through these points and flood flows for any given
frequency can be read from the graph.
2. Analytical Solution
Flood events are a succession of natural events that, as far as can be determined, do
not fit anyone specific statistical distribution. However, studies have shown that the
Gumbel Distribution closely approximates a natural series of flood events.
The recommended method for fitting the Gumbel Distribution to observed peaks is
to compute the mean and standard deviation of the data and substitute into the
following equation:
Q  X  K (T ,N )S (0.9)
Where X and S are defined below and K is a factor that is a function of the
recurrence interval. Values of K can be obtained from Table 2.8.
The mean and standard deviation of the data may be computed by using the following
equations:
X 
X i
(0.10)
N
S 
 (X i  X )2
(0.11)
N 1
58 3 October 2013
where
Xi = Annual peak flows
N = Number of items in data set
X = Mean
S = Standard deviation
K (T ,N ) = Coefficient dependent on T and N
T = Recurrence interval
Table 2.8: Frequency Factor K(T, N)

T
5 10 15 20 25 50 100
N
10 1.058 1.848 2.289 2.606 2.847 3.588 4.323
11 1.034 1.809 2.242 2.553 2.789 3.516 4.238
12 1.013 1. 777 2.202 2.509 2.741 3.456 4.166
13 0.996 1.748 2.168 2.470 2.699 3.405 4.105
14 0.981 1.724 2.138 2.437 2.663 3.360 4.052
15 0.967 1.703 2.112 2.410 2.632 3.321 4.005
16 0.955 1.682 2.087 2.379 2.601 3.283 3.959
17 0.943 1.664 2.066 2.355 2.575 3.250 3.921
18 0.934 1.649 2.047 2.335 2.552 3.223 3.888
19 0.926 1.636 2.032 2.317 2.533 3.199 3.860
20 0.919 1.625 2.018 2.302 2.517 3.179 3.836
21 0.911 1.613 2.004 2.286 2.500 3.157 3.810
22 0.905 1.603 1.992 2.272 2.484 3.138 3.787
23 0.899 1.593 1.980 2.259 2.470 3.121 3.766
24 0.893 1.584 1.969 2.247 2.457 3.104 3.747
25 0.888 1.575 1.958 2.235 2.444 3.088 3.729
26 0.883 1.568 1.949 2.224 2.432 3.074 3.711
27 0.879 1.560 1.941 2.215 2.422 3.061 3.696
28 0.874 1.553 1.932 2.205 2.412 3.048 3.681
29 0.870 1.547 1.924 2.196 2.402 3.037 3.667
30 0.866 1.541 1.917 2.188 2.393 3.026 3.653
31 0.863 1.535 1.910 2.180 2.385 3.015 3.641
32 0.860 1.530 1.904 2.173 2.377 3.005 3.629
33 0.856 1.525 1.897 2.166 2.369 2.996 3.618
34 0.853 1.520 1.892 2.160 2.362 2.987 3.608
35 0.851 1.516 1.886 2.152 2.354 2.979 3.598
36 0.848 1.511 1.881 2.147 2.349 2.971 3.588
37 0.845 1.507 1.876 2.142 2.344 2.963 3.579
38 0.843 1.503 1. 871 2.137 2.338 2.957 3.571
39 0.840 1.499 1.867 2.131 2.331 2.950 3.563
40 0.838 1.495 1.862 2.126 2.326 2.943 3.554
41 0.836 1.492 1.858 2.121 2.321 2.936 3.547
3 October 2013 59
42 0.834 1.489 1.854 2.117 2.316 2.930 3.539

43 0.832 1.485 1.850 2.112 2.311 2.924 3.532
44 0.830 1.482 1.846 2.108 2.307 2.919 3.526
45 0.828 1.478 1.842 2.104 2.303 2.913 3.520
46 0,826 1.476 1.839 2.100 2.298 2.908 3.513
47 0.824 1.474 1.836 2.096 2.294 2.903 3.507
48 0.823 1.471 1.832 2.093 2.290 2.898 3.501
49 0.821 1.469 1.830 2.090 2.287 2.894 3.496
50 0.820 1.466 1.827 2.086 2.283 2.889 3.491
51 0.818 1.464 1.824 2.083 2.280 2.885 3.486
52 0.817 1.462 1.821 2.080 2.276 2.881 3.481
53 0.815 1.459 1.818 2.077 2.273 2.875 3.474
54 0.814 1.457 1.816 2.074 2.270 2.873 3.471
55 0.813 1.455 1.813 2.071 2.267 2.869 3.467
56 0.812 1.453 1.811 2.069 2.264 2.865 3.462
57 0.810 1.451 1.809 2.066 2.261 2.862 3.458
58 0.809 1.449 1.806 2.064 2.258 2.858 3.454
59 0.808 1.448 1.804 2.061 2.256 2.855 3.450
60 0.807 1.446 1.802 2.059 2.253 2.852 3.446
65 0.801 1.437 1.796 2.048 2.241 2.837 3.429
70 0.787 1.430 1.788 2.038 2.230 2.824 3.413
75 0.792 1.423 1.780 2.029 2.220 2.812 3.400
80 0.788 1.417 1. 773 2.020 2.212 2.802 3.387
85 0.785 1.413 1.767 2.013 2.205 2.793 3.376
90 0.782 1.409 1.762 2.007 2.198 2.785 3.367
95 0.780 1.405 1. 757 2.002 2.193 2.777 3.357
100 0.779 1.401 1. 752 1.998 2.187 2.770 3.349
2.7.3.3. Indirect Estimates

More often than not, gaging station data will not exist at the location in the wadi
where a culvert or bridge is to be placed. When this occurs, the Engineer shall transfer
data either from within the same watershed or from neighboring basins, for use at the
crossing. Only those neighboring basins that have similar watershed parameters.
The prediction of peak flows from ungaged watersheds shall consist of two parts.
First, the data from upstream, downstream, or neighboring gaged watersheds shall be
analyzed for peak flows using the Gumbel Distribution described previously. Then the
Engineer shall transfer this information to the desired crossing using the graphical or
analytical approaches described below.
1. Graphical
Once the peak flows for the desired recurrence intervals have been determined for
the neighboring watersheds, these values are plotted versus a watershed parameter on
either normal or logarithmic graph paper. Plotting the discharge versus the drainage
area is recommended. After these points have been plotted, a curve is drawn through
them. The discharge for the desired site is then determined using this curve.
60 3 October 2013
2. Analytical
The discharges as determined by the Gumbel Distribution on the gaged watersheds
are listed in a tabular form along with several of the watershed parameters for each
basin used. A linear or multiple regression analysis, as described in any standard
statistical manual, can then be performed on the data. The results of this type of
analysis will enable the prediction of discharge from any watershed within that
particular region of the country.
An example of this method using only one parameter, a linear regression analysis, is
described as follows:
The equation for predicting the discharge would have the form
Q  a  bx (0.12)
Where
Q is the discharge, x is a basin parameter (possibly precipitation) and " a " and " b "
are coefficients to be estimated. These estimates are determined by the following
formulas:
X i Qi
b (0.13)
X i2
(Q i  b  X i )
a (0.14)
n
where
Xi = A basin parameter (precipitation)
Qi = The discharges corresponding to these parameters
n = The number of data points used in the analysis
Once " a " and " b " have been determined, the basin parameter for the particular site
to be crossed is substituted into the equation and the discharge is calculated. Using a
range of recurrence intervals from the other watersheds, a flood frequency relationship
can be determined.
2.7.3.4. Regression Equations

Regression equations similar to the one previously discussed has been developed
for use in the arid and desert. A very liberal translation of these equations will allow for
their use in Saudi Arabia. Where limited data are available, equations shall be
developed using the methods previously described. Where no data exist, the following
techniques can be used to estimate the basin discharge.
3 October 2013 61
Table 2.9: Regression Equations for Flood Magnitudes

Q = Flood magnitude in cubic meters per second for indicated recurrence interval.
A = Drainage area in square kilometers.
E = Mean basin elevation in thousands of meters above mean sea level.
P = Mean annual precipitation in millimeters.
Equation Standard Error of Estimate in Percent
Hydrologic Region 1
0.433
Q2 =1.63 A 76
0.462
Q5 =3.98 A 53
0.475
Q10 =6.34 A 53
0.487
Q25 =10.4 A 62
0.494
Q50 =14.4 A 72
Q100=9.4 A0.499 83
Q500 =34.9 A0.509 111
Hydrologic Region 2
Q2 =0.00147 A 0.673 E -0 605P1.03 81
Q5 =0. 00706 A 0.650 E -0 868 P0.987 64
Q10 =0.0152 A 0.638 E -1.00 P0.971 58
Q25 =0.0354 A 0.626 E -1.14 P0.944 58
Q50 =0.0594 A 0.617 E -1.22 P0.933 61
Q100 =0.0969 A 0.610 E -1.30 P0.915 66
Q500 =0.250 A 0.595 E -1.45 P0.886 78
Hydrologic Region 3
Q2 =0.355 A 0.491 E 2.25 83
Q5 =0.426 A 0.446 E 3.60 74
Q10 =0.453 A 0.423 E 4.31 75
Q25 =0.490 A 0.398 E 5.10 80
Q50 =0.499 A 0.383 E 5.60 85
Q100 =0.520 A 0.369 E 6.09 91
Q500 =0.544 A 0.342 E 7.04 107
Refer to Figure 2.6 for the location of each Hydrologic Region.

The standard error of estimate associated with each regression equation gives the
Engineer a hint as to the amount of confidence he shall have in the use of this method.
62 3 October 2013
Highway Culverts Design Section 2: Highway Hydrology
Figure 2.6: Hydrologic Regions
2.8. HIGHWAY CULVERTS DESIGN
2.8.1. Introduction
The function of a culvert is to convey surface water across or from the highway
right of way. In addition to this hydraulic function it must also carry construction and
highway traffic and earth loads, therefore, culvert design involves both hydraulic and
structural design.
Culverts are available in a variety of sizes, shapes, and materials. These factors,
along with several others, affect the capacity and overall performance of the culvert.
Culvert sizes may vary from 0.4 m circular pipes up to extremely large arch sections
which are sometimes used in place of bridges.
The most commonly used culvert shape is circular, but arch, box, and elliptical
shapes are also used. Pipe arch and elliptical shapes are generally used in lieu of
circular pipe where there is limited cover or overfill. Arch culverts have application in
locations where less obstruction to a waterway is a desirable feature, and where
foundations are adequate for structural support. Box culverts can be designed to pass
large flows and to fit nearly any site condition. A box or rectangular culvert lends itself
more readily than other shapes to low allowable headwater situations since the height
may be decreased and the total span increased to satisfy the location requirement.
The material selected for a culvert is dependent upon several factors such as
durability, structural strength, roughness, bedding conditions, abrasion and corrosion
resistance, and water tightness. The more common culvert materials used are concrete
and steel (smooth and corrugated).
Another factor that significantly affects the performance of a culvert is the culvert
inlet configuration. The culvert inlet may consist of a culvert barrel projecting from the
3 October 2013 63
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Highway Culverts Design
roadway fill or mitered to the embankment slope. Other inlets have headwalls,
wingwalls, and apron slabs or standard end sections of concrete or metal.
2.8.2. Design Considerations

The hydraulic design of a culvert consists of an analysis of the performance of the
culvert in conveying flow from one side of the roadway to the other. The designer shall
select a design flood frequency, estimate the design discharge for that frequency, and
set an allowable headwater elevation based on the selected design flood and headwater
considerations. The culvert size and type can be selected after the design discharge,
controlling design headwater, tail water, and allowable outlet velocity have been
determined.
2.8.2.1. Design Discharge

The design discharge used in culvert design is usually estimated on the basis of a
preselected recurrence interval and the culvert is designed to operate in a manner that is
in acceptable limits of risk at that flow rate. Culverts shall be designed to accommodate
the following minimum recurrence intervals:
Design Class Recurrence Interval
Expressway 100 Year (1 Percent)
Arterials 50 Year (2 Percent)
Collectors 50 Year (2 Percent)
Local 25 Year (4 Percent)
Urban Storm Sewers 5 Year (20 Percent)
Culverts shall be designed to pass floods greater than those noted above where
warranted by potential damage to adjacent property, to human life, or heavy financial
loss because of flooding.
2.8.2.2. Headwater
Culverts generally constrict the natural stream flow that causes a rise in the
upstream water surface. The elevation of this water surface at the culvert entrance is
termed headwater elevation and the total flow depth in the stream measured from the
culvert inlet invert is termed headwater depth. In selecting the design headwater
elevation, the designer should consider the following:
 Upstream property damage.
 Damage to the culvert and the roadway.
 Traffic interruption.
 Hazard to human life.
 Headwater/culvert depth (HW /D).
 Low point in the roadway grade line.
 Roadway elevation above the structure.
The headwater elevation for the design discharge shall be at least 0.5 m below the
edge of shoulder elevation. The designer should verify that the watershed divides are
higher than the design headwater elevations. In flat terrain drainage divides are often
64 3 October 2013
undefined or nonexistent and culverts should be located and designed for least
disruption of the existing flow distribution.
2.8.2.3. Tailwater
Tailwater depth is the flow depth in the downstream channel measured from the
invert at the culvert outlet. It can be an important factor in culvert hydraulic design
because a submerged outlet may cause the culvert to flow full rather than partially full.
A field inspection of the downstream channel should be made to determine whether
there are obstructions which will influence the flow depth. Tailwater depth may be
controlled by the stage in another stream, headwater from structures downstream of the
culvert, reservoir water surface elevations, or other downstream features.
2.8.2.4. Outlet Velocity

The outlet velocity of highway culverts is the velocity measured at the downstream
end of the culvert, and it is usually higher than the maximum natural stream velocity.
This higher velocity can cause stream bed scour and bank erosion for a limited distance
downstream from the culvert outlet. Permissible velocities at the outlet will depend
upon stream bed analysis.
If the outlet velocity of a culvert is believed to be detrimental, it may be reduced by
changing the barrel roughness or adjusting the barrel slope. If this does not give
satisfactory reduction it may be necessary to use some type of outlet protection or
energy dissipation device.
Variation in shape and size of a culvert seldom has a significant effect on the outlet
velocity. Slope and roughness of the culvert barrel are the principal factors affecting the
outlet velocity.
2.8.3. Culvert Flow

There are two major types of culvert flow:
 Flow with inlet control and
 Flow with outlet control.
For each type of control, a different combination of factors is used to determine the
hydraulic capacity of a culvert. The determination of actual flow conditions can be
difficult, therefore, the designer shall check for both types of control and design for the
most adverse condition.
2.8.3.1. Inlet Control

A culvert operates with inlet control when the flow capacity is controlled at the
entrance by the following factors:
 Depth of headwater.
 Culvert cross-sectional area.
 Culvert or headwall inlet edge configuration.
 Barrel shape.
Sketches to illustrate inlet control flow for unsubmerged and submerged entrances
are shown in Figure 2.7.
3 October 2013 65
Figure 2.7: Type of Inlet Control
When a culvert operates under inlet control, the roughness and length of the culvert
barrel and outlet condition (including tailwater) do not affect the culvert hydraulic
performance. Headwater depth and the inlet edge configuration determine the culvert
capacity with the culvert barrel usually flowing only partially full. An increase in barrel
slope reduces headwater to a small degree and any correction for slope can be
neglected for conventional or commonly used culverts flowing with inlet control.
2.8.3.2. Outlet Control

In outlet control, the culvert hydraulic performance is determined by the following
factors:
 Depth of headwater.
 Culvert cross-sectional area.
 Culvert of headwall inlet edge configuration.
 Barrel shape.
 Barrel slope.
 Barrel length.
 Barrel roughness.
66 3 October 2013
 Depth of tail water.

Culverts operating in outlet control may flow full or partly full depending on
various combinations of the above factors. In outlet control, factors that may affect
performance appreciably for given culvert size and headwater are barrel length and
roughness, and tail water depth. Typical types of outlet control flow are shown in
Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Types of Outlet Control
2.8.4. Performance Curves

Performance curves are plots of discharge versus culvert headwater or elevation
Figure 2.9, Performance curves aid in the selection of culvert type, including size,
shape, material, and inlet geometry that fulfills site requirements.
The designer shall plot performance curves for both inlet control and outlet control
conditions since control may shift from the inlet to the outlet.
3 October 2013 67
Figure 2.9: Culvert Performance Curve
2.8.5. Procedure for Selection of Culvert Size
2.8.5.1. Step1- List Design Data

 Design discharge, Q in cubic meters per second.
 Approximate length, L of culvert in meters.
 Slope of culvert (if grade is given in percent, convert to slope in meters per
meter).
 Allowable headwater depth, in meters, which is the vertical distance from the
culvert invert at the entrance to the water surface elevation permissible in the
headwater pool or approach channel upstream from the culvert.
 Allowable velocities in natural stream.
 Type of culvert for first trial selection, including barrel material, barrel cross-
sectional shape, and entrance type.
2.8.5.2. Step 2-Determine the first trial size culvert

If any trial size is too large in dimension because of limited height of embankment,
or availability of size, multiple culverts may be used by dividing the discharge equally
between the numbers of barrels used. Raising the embankment height or the use of pipe
68 3 October 2013
arch and box culverts with width greater than height should also be considered. Final
selections should be based on an economic analysis.
2.8.5.3. Step 3-Find headwater depth for trial size culvert.
1. Assuming Inlet Control

Using the trial size from Step 2, find the headwater depth (HW) by use of the
appropriate inlet control nomograph (Figure 2 10 through Figure 2.11). Tailwater (TW)
conditions are to be neglected in this determination. HW in this case is found by
multiplying HW /D obtained from the nomographs by the height of the culvert D.
If HW is greater or less than allowable, try another trial size until HW is acceptable
for inlet control before computing HW for outlet control.
2. Assuming Outlet Control

Approximate the depth of tailwater TW in meters above the invert at the outlet for
the design discharge in the outlet channel.
For tail water elevation equal to or greater than the top of the culvert at the outlet set
ho equal to TW and find HW by the following equation:
HW = H + ho - LSo (0.15)
where
HW = Vertical distance in meters from culvert invert at entrance to the pool surface.
H = Head loss in meters as determined from the appropriate nomograph (Figure
2.11).
ho = Vertical distance in meters from culvert invert at outlet to the culvert hydraulic
grade line.
So = Slope of barrel in meters per meter.
L = Culvert length in meters.
For tail water TW elevations less than the top of the culvert at the outlet, find
headwater HW by the above equation, except that:
ho = dc+ D /2 (0.16)
or
TW, whichever is the greater.
where
dc = Critical depth in meters (Note: dc cannot exceed D) (Figure 2.12).
D = Height of culvert opening in meters.
 Compare the headwaters found in Step3 (1) and Step3 (2), (inlet control and
outlet control). The higher headwater governs and indicates the flow control
existing under the given conditions for the trial size selected.
 If outlet control governs and HW is higher than is acceptable, select a larger
culvert size and find HW as instructed under Step3(2).
3 October 2013 69
2.8.5.4. Step 4- Try a culvert of another type or shape and determine size and HW
by the above procedure.
2.8.5.5. Step 5-Compute outlet velocities for size and types to be considered in
selection and determine need for channel protection
 If outlet control governs in Step 3(2) above, outlet velocity equals Q/Ao.
where
Ao = The cros-sectional area of the flow in the culvert barrel at the outlet.
 If dc or TW is less than the height of the culvert barrel, use Ao corresponding to

dc or TW depth, whichever gives the greater area of flow. Ao should not
exceed the total crosssectional area, A, of the culvert barrel.
 If inlet control governs in Step3(2), outlet velocity can be assumed to equal
mean velocity in open channel flow in the barrel as computed by Manning's
Equation for the rate of flow, barrel size, roughness, and slope of culvert
selected.
2.8.5.6. Step 6-Record final selection of culvert, the size, type required headwater,
outlet velocity, and economic justification.
Data can be compiled in a variety of ways and should include these items:
 Copies of all pertinent correspondence.
 Topography of site.
 Drainage area map.
 Stream profile and cross sections.
 Historical high water documentation.
 Information on existing structures in the vicinity.
 Hydrologic design computations.
 Hydraulic design calculations and culvert performance curves.
 Foundation investigation.
 Structure plans.
 Economic analysis of structure selection.
70 3 October 2013
Figure 2 10: Headwater Depth for Concrete Box Culverts Flowing Full , n = 0.012
3 October 2013 71
Figure 2.11: Head for box Culvert with Inlet Control
72 3 October 2013
Figure 2.12: Critical Depth Rectangular Section
3 October 2013 73
Table 2.10: Entrance Loss Coefficients, Outlet Control, Full or Partly Full Entrance Head Loss
V2
H e  Ce
2g
Type of Structure and Design of Entrance Coefficients Ce
Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from fill, socket end (groove-end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, square. cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls:
Socket end of pipe (groove-end ) 0.2
Square-edge 0.5
Rounded (radius = D/12 ) 0.2
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
*End-Section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7o or 45o bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Pipe. or Pipe-Arch. Corrugated Metal
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square-edge 0.5
Mitered to conform to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
*End-Section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7o or 45o bevels 0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls) :
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of D/12 or B/12 or beveled edges on 3
0.2
sides
Wingwalls at 30o to 75oto barrel :
Square-edged at crown 0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of D/12 or beveled top edge 0.2
Wingwall at 10oto 25o to barrel
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides)
74 3 October 2013
*Note: "End Sections conforming to fill slope," made of either metal or concrete, are the sections
commonly available from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests they are equivalent in operation to
a headwall in both inlet and outlet control. Some end sections, incorporating a closed taper in their
design have a superior hydraulic performance.
2.8.6. Protection
2.8.6.1. Debris Control

Accumulation of debris at a culvert inlet can result in the culvert not performing as
designed. The consequences may be damages from inundation of the road and upstream
property. The designer has three options for coping with the debris problem:
 retain the debris upstream of the culvert,
 attempt to pass debris through the culvert,
 or use a bridge.
If the debris is to be retained by an upstream structure or at the culvert inlet,
frequent maintenance may be required. If debris is to be passed through the structure or
retained at the inlet, a relief opening should be considered either in the form of a
vertical riser or a relief culvert placed higher in the embankment. It is often more
economical to construct debris control structures after problems develop, since debris
problems do not occur at all suspected locations.
The design of the debris control structure must be preceded by a thorough study of
the debris problem. Among the factors the designer must consider are the following:
 Type of debris.
 Quantity of debris.
 Expected changes in type and quantity of debris due to future land use.
 Stream flow velocity in the vicinity of culvert entrance.
 Maintenance access requirements.
 Availability of storage area.
 Standard plan maintenance for debris removal.
 Assessment of damage due to debris clogging, if protection is not provided.
2.8.6.2. Buoyancy
The forces acting on a culvert inlet during high flows are variable and highly
indeterminate. Vortexes and eddy currents cause scour which can undermine the
culvert inlet, erode the embankment slope, and make the inlet vulnerable to failure.
Flow is usually constricted at the inlet and inlet damage or lodged drift can accentuate
this constriction. The large unequal pressures resulting from this constriction are in
effect buoyant forces which can cause entrance failures, particularly on corrugated
metal pipe with mitered, skewed, or projecting ends. The failure potential will increase
with depth of the potential headwater (which may be increased by debris blockage),
flatness of the fill slope over the upstream end of the culvert, and the height of the fill.
Anchorage at the culvert entrance helps to protect against these failures by
increasing the dead load on the end of the culvert, protecting against bending damage,
and by protecting the fill slope from the scouring action of the flow. The following two
general approaches are recommended to prevent failure caused by buoyancy:
3 October 2013 75
Section 2: Highway Hydrology REFERENCES
 Provide a standard concrete headwall or endwall to counteract the hydrostatic

uplift.
 Provide a concrete anchor block, strapped to the inlet end of the culvert, to
counteract the buoyancy forces.
2.8.7. Sedimentation
Sediment may be deposited within the culvert barrels. This deposition usually
occurs at flow rates smaller than the design flow. The deposits may be removed during
larger floods dependent upon the relative transport capacity of flow in the stream and in
the culvert compaction and composition of the deposits, flow duration, ponding depth
above the culvert, and other factors.
Culvert location in both plan and profile is of particular importance to the
maintenance of sediment-free culvert barrels. Deposition occurs in culverts because the
sediment transport capacity of flow within the culvert is often less than in the stream.
The following factors contribute to deposition in culverts:
 At moderate flow rates the culvert cross section is larger than that of the
stream, thus the flow depth and sediment transport capacity is reduced.
 Point bars form on the inside of stream bends and culvert inlets placed at
bends in the stream will be subjected to deposition in the same manner. This
effect is most pronounced in multiple-barrel culverts with the barrel on the
inside of the curve often becoming almost totally plugged with sediment
deposits.
 Abrupt changes to a flatter grade in the culvert or in the channel adjacent to
the culvert will induce sedimentation. Gravel and cobble deposits are common
downstream from the break in grade because of the reduced transport capacity
in the flatter section.
2.9. REFERENCES
Federal Highway Administration, Hydraulic Design Series No. 2, Second Edition"

"Highway Hydrology".
Federal Highway Administration Hydraulic Design Series Number 5 "Hydraulic

Design Of Highway Culverts".
76 3 October 2013
Project Geotechnical Planning Section 3: Geotechnical Studies
SECTION 3. GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES
3.1. PROJECT GEOTECHNICAL PLANNING
3.1.1. General
3.1.1.1. Introduction
Geotechnical Engineering in this context is intended to include all tasks
concerning the exploration and utilization of soil and rock. The section describes
activities which form part of both the design phase and the construction phase, but
which, for convenience, have been grouped together here.
The importance of comprehensive and accurate geotechnical information cannot
be overemphasized. The objective of highway geotechnical work should be to seek,
interpret, and evaluate subsurface and surface data in order to predict the behavior of
the soils and materials along, and adjacent to, the alignment. The resulting information
should be presented in a logical and intelligible manner so that it can be used correctly
and efficiently by the nonspecialist, bearing in mind that geotechnics should not be
isolated from the planning, design and construction activities, but should form an
integral part of each.
3.1.1.2. Objective
The objective of this section is to provide an overall framework for geotechnical
work, to describe procedures for investigation, to describe the format for reporting
geotechnical information, and, as appropriate, to define the relationship between
geotechnical work and other planning, design and construction activities.
It is, however, intended to give a set of guidelines and not to take the role of a
design handbook. It has been written for practicing designers, and emphasis is placed
on what is required to be submitted to the Ministry, rather than how the work should be
done. Those seeking further information can consult the many textbooks on the subject
of geotechnics and materials or refer to the references given in the bibliography. In
addition, by the very nature of naturally-occuring materials, this section cannot provide
guidance for all geotechnical situations. It is assumed that the geotechnical work will
be undertaken by someone with specialist knowledge, who will be able to arrive at
economic and safe solutions based on theory and experience.
3.1.1.3. Reports
During the course of highway design, the Ministry will normally require the
production of the following reports:
1. Reconnaisance Report
2. Preliminary Design Report
3. Final Design Report
The remainder of this section describes the geotechnical input required for each.
Also included is a subsection on the role of geotechnical engineering during the course
of construction and later maintenance with, finally, a number of appendices dealing
3 October 2013 77
Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Project Geotechnical Planning
with ground investigations, soil and rock description and classification, hazards, and
data assessment.
For certain projects, one or more of the reports may not be required by the Ministry.
In these cases, the geotechnical input for the remaining report(s) may need to be
expanded.
3.1.2. Geotechnical Project Elements

The common project elements on transportation projects that are the subject of
engineering geologic investigation and geotechnical design for construction are:
1. Structure Foundations (bridges, viaducts, pumping stations, sound walls,
buildings, etc.).
2. Retaining walls over 1200 mm in height as measured from the base of the wall
footing to the top of the wall and any wall with a foreslope or backslope.
3. Cuts and embankments over 1200 mm in height.
4. Tunnels and underground structures.
5. Poles, masts and towers.
6. Culverts, pipes and conduits
3.1.3. Geotechnical Input for Reconnaissance Phase
3.1.3.1. Objective
The Reconnaissance Report will normally examine the feasibility of constructing a
particular highway in a particular area and, as a result, will encompass social,
economic, and environmental factors.
The resulting information will form part of the recommendations for the adoption
(or otherwise) of a particular corridor or corridors within which the future highway
should be located. The purpose of the geotechnical input to the reconnaissance phase is
to provide a summary of the geotechnical factors which could influence the evaluation
for the corridor(s), to define the potential geological hazards, and to provide a basis for
future more detailed geotechnical investigations.
3.1.3.2. Tasks
The geotechnical tasks can be summarized as:
1. Data Collection
a. Topographical Maps
Topographical maps are currently published by Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral
Resources. Scales range from 1:50,000 to 1:2,000,000.
b. Geological Reports
- Geological maps are currently published by the K.S.A. Geological Survey,
Jeddah and the by Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. These can
give a good indication of the general lithology, stratigraphy and structure within
a particular corridor, and range in scale from 1:100,000 to 1:10,000,000.
-
78 3 October 2013
c. Remote Sensing
Remote sensing includes both satellite imagery and air photography. The absence of
vegetation for much of the Kingdom means that remote sensing can play an important
role in providing useful information on potential geological hazards and materials
resources. Sources of imagery and photography include the Ministries of
Communications, Agriculture & Water, Petroleum and Mineral Resources,
Municipalities & Rural Affairs.
d. Agricultural Soils Reports

Limited areas of the Kingdom have been mapped to assess their agricultural
potential. These maps can provide useful information on the extent and disposition of
surface soils and may be available for inspection from the Ministry of Agriculture &
Water.
e. Other Studies
Other pertinent information related to other studies may be available and contained
in reports to the appropriate Ministries, in professional publications, or in conference
proceedings.
2. Site inspection
a. Geomorphology
The inspection should first be directed at comparing the geological and remote
sensing features with the physical features on the ground. The geomorphological
processes which formed these physical features should be studied and understood. The
present day effects of wind, water, seismicity, and temperature need to be assessed.
b. Potential Hazards
Local enquiries should be made to identify potential hazards. These might include
seismicity, sabkha deposits, collapsing soils, swelling soils, cavities, slope instability,
soft or loose ground, sand dunes, and aggressive groundwater. The occurrence and
potential effect of all such hazards should be evaluated.
3.1.3.3. Report
The Reconnaissance Report should include a section on the geotechnical work
carried out, giving a brief outline of the procedures followed and the sources consulted.
The following topics should be reviewed:
 The overall topography and regional and structural geology within the
proposed corridor(s).
 Geological features and hazards and their relationship to design, construction,
and maintenance. This should include a description of the physical properties
of the various strata. Features with a high cost or time impact should be
examined in more detail.
 The overall groundwater conditions.
 Corridor soils and materials resources.
A terrain evaluation map is required. For the purpose of the Reconnaissance Report
this need not be very detailed, but should at least include the geology, the locations of
3 October 2013 79
the various geological features and hazards, and the locations of potential materials
sources.
3.1.4. Geotechnical Input for Preliminary Design Phase
3.1.4.1. Objective
The approval of the Reconnaissance Report will normally result in the Ministry's
agreement to the adoption of a single corridor for the highway alignment. Input for the
Preliminary Design Phase includes the examination of various alignments within the
adopted corridor and the selection and staking of a final route.
In this phase, the geotechnical engineer expands upon the information and
recommendations presented in the Reconnaissance Report. The scope of the
geotechnical work narrows down from the broad general approach to more specific
topics. The objective is to provide information that can be used confidently by the
design team to produce preliminary design and cost estimates.
3.1.4.2. Tasks
The amount of geotechnical work required will vary according to the length and
geometrical standards of the highway, the geology, and the nature of the problems
identified in the Reconnaissance Phase. The lists of tasks which follow are given for
general guidance only:
1. Determine Needs of Designers
a. Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment will evolve from a number of considerations, some of
them conflicting. Road geometry, wadi locations, topography, centers of population,
geotechnical hazards such as sabkha and wind-blown sands, are some of the many
factors. In assessing a tentative center-line location or locations, a close liaison between
the remainder of the design team and the geotechnical engineer will be of prime
importance.
b. Vertical Alignment
A tentative vertical alignment will be required at an early stage so that the
geotechnical engineer can examine in more detail the areas where deep cuts, tunnels, or
high fills are proposed.
c. Structures
The location of major structures will require careful planning for optimal choice of
foundation type. In many cases, a simple site inspection may highlight locations where
foundation problems can be minimized.
2. Carry Out Ground Investigations

Site specific ground investigations may be required during the Preliminary Design
Phase in order to prepare accurate estimates of the proposed or alternative alignments.
However, a major program of investigation of the alignment soils is unlikely to be
required at this stage, although some selected sampling may be appropriate.
80 3 October 2013
a. Borings
Soil and/or rock borings may be necessary in areas where embankments are to be
constructed over suspected soft ground, where deep cuts are proposed, or to examine
major bridge foundations. Standard Penetration Tests, Field Vane Shear Tests, and
undisturbed sampling should be carried out, as appropriate.
b. Soundings
A supplement to borings would be to carry out soundings by hand portable or truck
mounted equipment. This method is not suitable in dense gravels, boulders, or bedrock.
c. Test Pits
Excavation of test pits can be carried out by hand or machine. This can be a very
cost effective way to determine the structure of the sub-soil and to retrieve disturbed
and undisturbed samples within a few meters of the ground surface. In certain types of
soils, such as collapsing soils, test pits are an essential aid to identification and
sampling of subsoils.
d. Geophysical Investigations
Two geophysical methods, seismic refraction and resistivity, have proved useful as
rapid means of obtaining sub-surface information and as cost-effective supplements to
borings. Such geophysical explorations need to be supervised and interpreted by a
specialist in geophysics.
e. Geological Mapping
Geological mapping may be required in rocky areas to determine structure; dip and
strike of the various strata, rippability, and potential cut slope instability.
3. Identify Ground Water Regime

Some or much of this work may be evaluated directly or indirectly during the
course of hydrological studies. In the context of geotechnical work, the prime purpose
of identifying the groundwater regime is to assess the availability of groundwater as a
construction resource and to assess its effect on the design and construction of
foundations. In the former case, the absence of easily exploitable groundwater could
have considerable construction cost implications and the necessity for, say, dry
compaction of earthworks and a stabilized roadbase. In the latter case, the difficulty in
dewatering excavations for shallow foundations in granular materials may make an
alternative foundation type more desirable. Potential changes in groundwater table
should be considered due to its effect on swelling and collapsing soils and soft
calcareous rock.
4. Evaluate Data and Prepare Preliminary Designs

Standard Penetration, vane shear, and static cone sounding tests in soils can be used
to estimate bearing capacity and pile shaft friction, and stability for embankments on,
and cuts in, soft ground. Examination of rock outcrops, rock cores, or rock exposures in
the base of pits and shafts may be sufficient to assess a presumptive bearing pressure
for structural foundations without the need for further testing at this stage.
3 October 2013 81
a. Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests may need to be carried out on selected disturbed and undisturbed
samples. Tests on disturbed samples are likely to include classification, moisture
content, moisture/density relationship and California Bearing Ratio tests. Tests on
undisturbed samples may include direct shear, unconfined compression,
unconsolidated-undrained or consolidated-un drained triaxial and consolidation tests.
All these tests should aim to provide the geotechnical engineer with sufficient
information so that he may estimate the geotechnical properties and parameters for
design with confidence.
5. Identify Features for Further Study

The timing of the design phases, or a choice of proposed alignments, may make it
impractical or uneconomical to carry out all but a brief investigation of the various
geotechnical factors. Features requiring further study should be identified at this stage,
so that once the Preliminary Design Report has been submitted and approyed, these
further studies can proceed without delay.
3.1.4.3. Report
The Preliminary Design Report should include an appendix on the geotechnical
work carried out comprising:
A description of the topography and regional and structural geology along the
proposed alignment(s), including a geological map.
A description of the geotechnical investigations conducted for this phase. A brief
summary of the results of the investigation should be included, as well as any
significant findings or conclusions.
A map showing the predominant soil and rock types along the proposed
alignment(s) and the locations of potential borrow areas for embankment and subgrade
materials.
Photographs of predominant and unusual features to highlight topography, hazards,
the selection of borrow areas, etc.
Logs of all borings, test pits, trenches, shafts and adits.
Cross-sections showing subsurface soil, rock, and groundwater profiles,
where appropriate.
A description of the type and extent of geotechnical analyses performed.
A description of any specific hazards together with recommendations for measures
to minimize their impact.
The location, estimated quantity, type, and suitability of locally naturally-occurring
construction materials. This should include sand, gravel, and rock, for granular road
bases, asphalt mixes and concrete, and water for earthworks and concrete.
An assessment of excavation problems likely to be caused by the vertical alignment
of the highway or by foundations of the structures.
Recommendations for measures to minimize embankment scour and erosion.
Details of planned investigations for the final phase of the study.
82 3 October 2013
3.1.5. Geotechnical Input for Final Design Phase
3.1.5.1. Objective
The objective of the geotechnical work carried out during the Final Design Phase is
to provide sufficient information to the design team so that the design can be completed
and an accurate cost estimate made, and to assess all geotechnical factors which could
have an impact on construction and maintenance.
3.1.5.2. Tasks
The geotechnical tasks can be summarized as:
1. Determine Needs of Designers
a. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

The horizontal and vertical alignment will usually have been fixed during the
Preliminary Design Phase although modifications may still be necessary. These
modifications could have significant geotechnical implications particulary where deep
cuts or high fills are proposed.
b. Structures
The precise geometry of the structures needs to be established at an early stage in
this phase so that final borings and test pits can be accurately located. The results of the
ground investigation may highlight the need for a re-appraisal of the geometry.
2. Carry Out/Complete Ground Investigation

Ground investigations carried out for the Final Design Phase will be required in
three main areas; investigations to examine specific sites such as deep cuts, retaining
walls, bridge foundations, etc. (The scope of the ground investigation for the Final
Design Phase must be agreed by the Ministry prior to the commencement of
fieldwork.) Detailed descriptions of the various types of investigations which may need
to be carried out are likely to include, but not limited to, most of the following:
a. Borings
Soil and/or rock borings will be required for all bridge foundations, deep cuts, and
suspected areas of soft ground. Standard Penetration Tests, field vane shear tests,
disturbed and undisturbed sampling should be carried out as appropriate.
b. Soundings
A supplement to borings would be to carry out soundings by hand-portable or truck
mounted equipment. This method is not suitable in dense gravels, boulders, or bedrock.
c. Test Pits
Excavation of test pits can be carried out by hand or machine. This can be a very
cost effective way to determine the structure of the subsoil and to retrieve disturbed and
undisturbed samples within a few meters of the ground surface. Hand-dug test pits are
often carried out to enable the subgrade soils to be sampled along the alignment,
particularly in areas where machine access is difficult. Test pits are of paramount value
where potentially hazardous soils such as collapsing or swelling soils are identified or
suspected.
3 October 2013 83
d. Geophysical Investigations
Geophysical investigations are more likely to have been carried out during the
Preliminary Design Phase than during the Final Design Phase. Such investigations have
proved useful as a rapid means of obtaining sub-surface information and as cost-
effective supplements to borings, but need to be supervised and interpreted by a
specialist in geophysics.
e. Groundwater Monitoring
Groundwater monitoring may be advisable in certain circumstances, particularly where
fluctuations in the groundwater table could affect construction. Measurement is usually
carried out by means of piezometers installed in borings.
3. Carry Out/Complete Laboratory Testing

Laboratory tests will be required on selected disturbed and undisturbed samples.
These will normally comprise:
a. Tests for Earthworks

Earthworks tests include field moisture content, classification and gradation tests on
disturbed samples of the alignment soils. Selected bulk samples will be required to
determine the moisture/density relationship and California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
Additional earth works tests will be required on selected borrow areas or on soil
modification if there is insufficient material adjacent to the alignment to satisfy the
requirements for embankments or subgrade .
b. Tests for Materials Resources

Material Resources tests on sands, gravels and rock include gradation, particle
shape, Los Angeles abrasion, sodium sulphate soundness, soluble salt content, index
tests, etc. In the event of an insufficiency of materials, tests on their suitability for
stabilization with lime, cement, or bitumen may be necessary. The quality of water for
concrete should be checked for total solids and sulphate and chloride ions.
c. Tests for Foundation Design and Slope Stability Analyses

Laboratory tests associated with foundations and slope stability encompass a wide
variety of methods and procedures. Amongst the more common are un consolidated-un
drained and consolidated-un drained triaxial tests, one dimensional consolidation tests,
and direct shear tests. Additional tests may be required on samples of the subsoil and
groundwater to check for the presence of deleterious minerals.
4. Identify Groundwater Regime

Much of this work will have been done during the Preliminary Design Phase. The
primary requirements are to assess the availability of groundwater as a construction
resource, and to assess its effect on the design and construction of foundations.
5. Evaluate Data and Prepare Final Designs

The first task under this sub-heading is to evaluate the data arising from the site
inspections, site investigations, laboratory testing, and any other historical or relevant
source. Having carried out this evaluation, cross sections should be prepared and the
evaluated engineering properties assigned to the various soil and rock types. Analyses
84 3 October 2013
of the various geotechnical components of the project should then be prepared and
these could include:
 Excavations
 Drainage (including dewatering)
 Cut Slopes (Soils and rock)
 Tunnels (including support systems)
 Lateral support (including retaining walls, reinforced earth, gabions, etc.)
 Foundations
 Soil Modification or Stabilization
3.1.5.3. Report
The Final Design Report should include a section or a volume on the geotechnical
work carried out, comprising:
An Introduction giving a brief description of the project and location. An area map
and a project map showing the route, major wadi crossings and intersecting highways
should also be included.
a Background section describing the general geology, topography, hydrology,
climate and any other overall factors that could affect the geotechnical aspects of the
project. A general geologic/topographic map of the project area should be included.
an Investigation Procedures section describing the scope and type of geotechnical
investigation performed for the project. This should include the number and type of
borings, test pits, geophysical surveys, field tests, etc.; the dates when the fieldwork
was performed; details about who performed the fieldwork, the equipment used, the
field procedures carried out, any unusual field or equipment conditions which could
affect the results, the amount and type of soil and rock laboratory testing, and the
laboratory procedures carried out.
a Findings section describing the findings and significant results of the geotechnical
investigation. This should include geological cross sections for specific sites, as
appropriate. Descriptions should be given of predominant soil types and depths, rock
types and bedding orientation, faults, weathered zones, groundwater conditions and any
other major conditions that could affect the design or construction of the project.
Except for those projects that are especially complex or lengthy, the Findings section
may be brief and concise.
an Analyses and Recommendations section describing the procedures used by the
geotechnical engineer to develop the design recommendations based upon the findings,
and a list of actions, procedures, or methods to be used by the highway designer in the
preparation of the contract documents. Concise recommendations are necessary to
ensure that there is no misunderstanding of the geotechnical engineer's intent, and to
simplify their implementation. Information on each of the following typical items shall
be provided, as appropriate:
3 October 2013 85
1. Earth works
a. Slope Stability
Cut and fill slope gradients in soil and rock. Proposed support measure for rock
cuts.
b. Drainage
Specific types and locations of any surface/ subsurface drainage systems.
c. Erosion and Scour Potential

Details of measures to mitigate erosion and scour.
d. Hazards
Details of measures to minimize the effects of large scale hazards such as sabkha,
sand dunes, soft or organic soils, etc.
2. Materials
a. Sources
Locations of sand, gravel, rock, and water sources, with quality and estimated
quantities.
3. Structures
a. Foundations
Foundation types, allowable bearing capacities, pile lengths, estimated settlements,
details of measures to mitigate aggressive soils and/or groundwater conditions,
requirements for pile load testing during construction.
b. Earth Pressure
Earth pressure coefficients and/or distribution for abutments and retaining walls.
Equivalent fluid pressures may also be given.
c. Excavations
Details of any special construction techniques likely to be necessary, including
dewatering and lateral support.
d. Site Specific Hazards

Methods recommended for the mitigation of site specific hazards such as cavities,
collapsing or swelling soils, etc.
4. Construction & Maintenance
a. Foreseeable problems
Details of potential problems which could occur during and after construction;
recommendations for surveillance and mitigation.
86 3 October 2013
Field Investigation Section 3: Geotechnical Studies
3.2. FIELD INVESTIGATION
3.2.1. Exploration Spacing and Layout
3.2.1.1. Structure-Specific Borings

The actual number and spacing for borings for specific structures varies greatly
depending on the predicted geologic conditions and the complexity of the site. In this
regard, nearby features such as streams and environmentally sensitive areas, geologic
hazards, and nearby structures will further prescribe the actual amount of exploration
required.
1. Bridges
For all bridges projects, at least one boring will be placed at each bent location.
Borings should be placed at opposite sides of adjacent bent locations when practical.
For bridges that are (30m) wide and larger, at least two borings will be placed at each
bent. When spread footings are proposed, two borings at opposing corners of the
footing are advisable. Spread footings located on the banks of rivers and streams should
be investigated with at least two borings - one on the down-slope and one on the
upslope side of the proposed footing. If wing walls greater than 6 meters long are to be
constructed, then a boring should be placed at the end of each wing wall and at (15m)
intervals from the end of the wing wall to the bridge abutment. Trestle type bridges
(usually for detours) should also be investigated at every bent. Preferably, the borings
should be staggered from opposite ends of adjacent bents. Where highly variable
conditions are anticipated, then a boring should be advanced at both ends of each bent.
For drilled shaft foundations, one boring should be placed at the location of each
proposed shaft of (1.8m) in diameter and larger.
2. Culverts
All proposed new and replacement culverts require some level of subsurface
investigation. Typically, culverts with a diameter of (1.8m) and larger are investigated
with test borings while smaller culverts are investigated with hand-dug test pits or hand
auger holes. However, judgments should be made regarding the actual site conditions
and the facility in question to determine the number and spacing of borings. Complex
geologic conditions merit a more intense investigation, while larger embankments,
adjacent facilities, and proximate unstable slopes may result in a more detailed
investigation for smaller-diameter culverts. At least two borings should be completed
for each culvert up to (30m) long. For culverts longer than (30m) borings should have a
maximum spacing of (15m). In complex geologic conditions, boring spacing may be
decreased to (6m). Borings will typically be located along the axis of the proposed
culvert. For culvert replacements, the borings should be located immediately outside or
partially within the excavation limits of the original culvert installation with particular
care to not locate a boring where it will penetrate the existing pipe. Box culverts (30m)
and longer require two borings at each end and at the prescribed interval between the
ends.
3. Retaining Walls
Retaining walls higher than (1.2m) and any wall with a foreslope and/or backslope
angle steeper than horizontal require a subsurface investigation. At least two borings
are required for every retaining wall regardless of length with the exception of retaining
walls less than (8m) long. The maximum borehole spacing along any retaining wall is
3 October 2013 87
Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Engineering Properties of Soil and rock
(30m). One boring is required at each end of the proposed wall. Where the proposed
wall is longer than (30m) long, and less than (61m), the third boring may be placed at
either the midpoint of the wall, or at the location of the maximum wall height.
Embankments supported by retaining walls on each side should be investigated as two
separate walls.
Borings are typically located on the wall alignment at the proposed location of the
wall face however; they may be staggered to either side of the wall line but should
remain within the wall footprint to evaluate the wall foundation conditions. For soil
nail, tieback, and similarly reinforced walls, additional borings should be completed in
the wall reinforcement zones. Borings should be located behind the wall in the
predicted bond/anchorage zones for tieback walls, or horizontally 1 to 1.5 times the
wall height back from the wall face. Borings for tiebacks/anchors should be
interspersed with the borings along the wall face. Thus, a (61m)-long wall would have
(at a minimum) 5 borings - 3 along the wall centerline at the ends and the midpoint and
2 in the prescribed locations behind the wall at the (15m) and (46m) points along the
wall centerline.
The preceding recommended borehole spacing should be halved for walls that will
be constructed to retain landslides. Landslide retaining walls should have a minimum of
2 borings along the wall line regardless of length. The maximum borehole spacing
along such walls is (15m) with corresponding holes interspersed between located in the
bond/anchorage zone. These boreholes are specifically for characterizing the
subsurface conditions at the location of the proposed retaining wall, and are in addition
to any borings advanced to characterize the landslide. Landslide investigation borings
may suffice for the retaining wall investigation only where they fall within the
prescribed locations.
3.3. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND ROCK
3.3.1. Engineering Properties of Soils

To the engineer engaged in the design and construction of bridge foundations, some of
the important physical and engineering properties of soils are:
3.3.1.1. Permeability
Permeability is a property indicating the ease with which water flows or passes
through a material. This water movement is called percolation. The knowledge and
extent of this condition is especially important in the design and construction of
underground excavations. Soil texture, gradation, degree of compaction, and primary
structure strongly influence the relative permeability of soil. Generally, coarse-grained
soils are much more permeable than fine-grained soils, although this is easily altered by
presence of fines or cementing agents, openings, etc.
3.3.1.2. Elasticity
Elasticity is a property indicating the ability of a material to return to its original
shape or form after having been deformed by a load for a short period of time. Any
load applied that exceeds the shear strength of a soil will also exceed the elastic limit of
the soil, and it will not return to its original shape or form but will fail by plastic
deformation. When a soil is disturbed by pile driving, the elastic limit of the soil must
be exceeded to advance the pile. For this reason, the soil structure and properties in the
vicinity of a pile may be radically changed.
88 3 October 2013
Engineering Properties of Soil and rock Section 3: Geotechnical Studies
3.3.1.3. Plasticity
Plasticity is a property indicating the ability of a material to be deformed
permanently without cracking or crumbling.
3.3.1.4. Cohesion
Cohesion is a very important property contributing to the shear strength of a soil,
and is the capacity to resist shearing stresses as indicated by Coulomb's equation.
Cohesion varies depending on water content, density, and plasticity of the soil.
3.3.1.5. Angle of Internal Friction (Φ)

The angle of internal friction is a measure of the natural angle of repose of a soil.
For dry sand, this is the angle of approximately 30 degrees observed on the sideslopes
of a stockpile. For a clayey or clay soil, this is not the case since negative pore
pressures generated by the low permeability of the soil matrix masks the expression of
the frictional properties of the soil. Moderate to high plasticity clays exhibit a typical
friction angle of approximately 15 degrees when pore pressures reach equilibrium.
The angle of internal friction is also the slope of the shear strength envelope, and
therefore, represents the effect that increasing effective normal stress has on the shear
strength of the soil.
3.3.1.6. Moisture Content

Moisture content is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given
volume of soil. Moisture contents can range from a few percent for rocks to several
hundred percent for very soft highly organic coastal clays. The consistency of clay may
be very soft or very hard depending upon the water content. Between these extremes,
the clay may be molded and formed without cracking or rupturing the soil mass.
3.3.1.7. Density
Dry density is the unit weight of the solid particles of soil or rock per unit volume.
Wet density is the unit weight of the solid particles and the natural moisture and is used
in computations for determining design values for foundations above the water table.
Submerged density is wet density less the unit weight of water and is used when the
foundation is below the water table. Typical values for wet density of soils range from
(1920-2160 kg/m3).
3.3.1.8. Shrink/Swell Potential

Shrinking/swelling is a property of fine-grained soils, especially clays, resulting
from buildup and release of capillary tensile stresses within the soil’s pore water and
the varying degree of affinity for water that certain clay minerals exhibit. If founding in
this type of material cannot be avoided, measures should be taken to reduce adverse
effects upon the structure. Differential movement can be minimized by placing all
footings with approximately equal bearing pressures within the same material.
3.3.1.9. Compressibility
Compressibility is a property greatly influenced by soil structure and the load
history of the deposit. Drilled shafts or footings should not bear in a material that is
susceptible to a high degree of compression (consolidation). Negative friction, in which
the soil pulls down (down-drag) on the shaft or piling instead of supporting load, often
occurs in regions of incompletely consolidated soft clay, silt and organic soil, but may
3 October 2013 89
Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Engineering Properties of Soil and rock
also be the result of soils shrinking during extended dry periods. The best solution is to
found in a material below the point of possible moisture fluctuation, deep enough to
cancel out any negative skin friction. It is also recommended that all foundations for a
particular structure element, such as a bridge abutment, be founded at roughly the same
elevation.
3.3.1.10. Grain Size Distribution
1. Soil Permeability
The grain size distribution or range of particle sizes in a sample influence several
soil properties. One of these properties is the permeability of the soil. A granular soil
with a wide range of grain sizes (Well Graded) especially in the finer ranges will be
less permeable than a granular soil with most of the particle sizes within a narrow
range. As a result, soils with low permeability drain much slower, which in turn may
lead to difficulties in obtaining proper compaction in the field.
2. Soil Compactability
While the compactability is indirectly influenced by permeability, it is also directly
influenced by grain size distribution. Soils consisting solely of particles within a narrow
size range (Uniformly or Poorly Graded) may be difficult to compact due the lack of
other particles to interlock with the predominate particle size. The result is that density
is difficult to achieve at the surface of the soil.
3.3.2. Grain Size Distribution Chart

Figure 3.1 is a grain size distribution chart showing some typical gradations. Well
graded refers to the size of the particles being distributed over a wide range of sizes.
Uniformly graded refers to the size of particles being distributed over a narrow range of
sizes. Gap graded refers to several distinct size ranges within a sample.
Figure 3.1: Typical Particle size gradations (grain size distribution chart)
90 3 October 2013
Engineering Properties of Soil and rock Section 3: Geotechnical Studies
3.3.3. Engineering Properties of Rocks

When rock is exposed to the weathering process, the rock is ultimately broken down
by physical and chemical agents into loose, unconsolidated material or soil. Therefore,
the physical properties of a rock depend to a large extent upon the degree of
weathering. If the rock is fresh or unweathered, the physical properties are affected by
 Constituent minerals.
 Degree to which the grains are bound together.
 Size and arrangement of the grains which produce such structures as banding
and foliation.
 Degree of fracture, jointing and bedding of the rock mass.
For igneous rocks, the physical properties are the least variable, excluding the
effects of fracturing. Sedimentary rocks, on the other hand, are so variable that it is
difficult to characterize their physical properties. Consequently, each deposit must be
evaluated individually. Some of the important engineering properties of rocks are
 Density
 Strength and hardness
 Durability
 Joints and faults
3.3.3.1. Density
The strength of rock is in direct proportion to its crystalline makeup and compaction
or cementation. In general, the strongest rocks are the densest. However, rock with
ferrous constituents may have a high density and low strength.
3.3.3.2. Strength and Hardness

These properties are a relationship between various physical constituents that make
up an individual rock. Some of these physical properties are
 Density
 Bonding
 Cementation
The strongest rocks are, in general, igneous or metamorphic in origin. Sedimentary

rocks are variable and range from hard to the very soft.
3.3.3.3. Durability
A rock’s physical and chemical characteristics determine its durability. The
crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks (such as granite, basalt, quartzite and
gneiss) are the most durable. Sedimentary rock, which is the least durable, is greatly
affected by weathering; a typical example is limestone or sandstone with carbonate
cement.
3.3.3.4. Joints and Faults

The next paragraphs cover
3 October 2013 91
Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Slope Stability analysis
 Joint description
 Fault description
 Cut stability
1. Joint Description
Joints are fractures in rock resulting from previous stresses to which the rock mass
has been subjected. Joints are normally nearly vertical, but they may occur at almost
any orientation. Joints differ from faults in that little or no displacement is present
along the joint. Joints typically occur at fairly regular intervals in a rock mass.
2. Fault Description
Faults are breaks in rock where movement has occurred. The movement can range
from a few inches (50 mm) to hundreds meters. Faults with large displacements
typically have a zone of fractured and weathered rock on each side of the fault that is
unstable and behaves more like soil than rock. They are normally not vertical but
inclined at an angle.
3. Cut Stability
Joints and faults impact the stability of cuts in rock. Since these features divide the
rock mass into discrete pieces, the pieces may fall out of the cut face. If these features
are inclined downward into a cut, large masses of rock can fail unexpectedly into a cut
with little warning. If these conditions occur, rock bolting or nailing to stabilize the
face should be considered.
3.4. SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
3.4.1. Overview
3.4.1.1. Introduction
Slope stability addresses the tendency of soil masses to attain an equilibrium state
between the strength of the soil and the force of gravity. Extremely strong soils can
stand vertically for years while very weak soils cannot support short fills with gentle
slopes for even a few days. This is best observed in the coastal region of the state where
the topography is relatively flat and the soils fairly weak. Attempts to build
embankments with the native soft soils often fail as the soil attempts to resume its
natural relatively level state.
Areas considered here under the purview of slope stability are:
 Slopes, whether they be cut or fill
 Retaining walls which are the special case of a locally stable vertical slope
This subsection offers a brief discussion on:
 Soil properties
 Slope external and internal stability
 Slope considerations
 Failure modes
 Slope protection
92 3 October 2013
Slope Stability analysis Section 3: Geotechnical Studies
1. Soil Properties
Soils possess a number of properties that can be measured in the laboratory. These
properties include index properties that describe the character of the soil (Atterberg
limits), grain size distribution, and strength parameters.
a. Atterberg Limits
The Atterberg limits define the transitions between the liquid, plastic, and solid
states. These limits are:
 Liquid limit
 Plastic limit
 Plasticity index
The liquid limit (LL) is the transition from liquid to plastic states, and the plastic
limit (PL) the transition from plastic to semi-solid states. The plasticity index (PI) is the
difference between the liquid and plastic limits. All the limits are stated in the percent
moisture content in the soil to attain the specific state.
The plasticity index is a commonly used indicator for the long-term stability of a
soil. Sand exhibits a zero or a very low plasticity index and is very stable with time.
Sand would be a very good construction material if not for a lack of cohesion. This
leads to a very high potential for erodibility. Clays may exhibit plasticity indices well in
excess of 100. The highest values typically found in Texas are in the upper eighties.
Soils with high plasticity indexes exhibit poor slope stability and high shrink-swell
potential. Sand or silt clay mixtures typically exhibit plasticity indexes in the 10 to 40
range. Soils with plasticity indexes of less than 25 tend to be relatively stable.
b. Grain Size Distribution

The grain size distribution for a soil is found by sieving a soil sample to determine
the distribution of particle sizes present. The portion of a sample, which passes the 200
sieve, can be subjected to hydrometer testing to determine the size distribution for the
silt and clay sized particles. For slope stability, this fine fraction is very important. If
more than 50 percent is passing the 200 sieve, the soil exhibits clay-like properties and
may be unstable.
c. Strength Parameters
The strength of a soil is the combination of the cohesion between the soil particles
and the frictional interaction of the particles. These two components are time dependent
for fine grained soils such as clays. When fine-grained soils are rapidly loaded, the low
permeability of the soil matrix does not allow water in the pore spaces to escape. As a
result, when fully saturated clay is rapidly loaded, the cohesion is the primary
component of strength since the elevated pore water pressures do not allow increased
intergranular contact pressures. The rapid loading enhances the cohesive strength (c) of
the soil due to the buildup of negative pore pressures. The condition of rapid loading
produces an undrained strength response in the soil. The angle of friction (Φ) measured
under these conditions is usually quite low for saturated samples and higher for
unsaturated samples. While the undrained strength is fine for modeling such conditions
as the construction of an embankment over several weeks or months, the long-term
conditions after construction allow for a different response in the soil.
3 October 2013 93
The drained strength of a soil is the strength measured when load is applied to a
sample slowly enough to allow water to drain from the pore space between soil
particles. The result is that increased intergranular contact occurs and the increased
frictional strength is measured. For clays, this long-term or drained angle of friction
(Φ′) is typically between 15 and 25 degrees. The long-term cohesive component (c′)
typically ranges from (0-7 kPa) since no negative pore pressures are generated. While
this is a greatly oversimplified explanation that does not address the chemical or
electrostatic forces at work, it is functionally correct.
2. Slope External and Internal Stability

External and internal stability for slopes is similar to those for retaining walls. The
next subsections discuss
 External stability
 Internal stability
a. External Stability
The rapid placement of a fill on a fine-grained foundation soil can produce
temporarily elevated pore water pressures in the foundation soil. The result can be that
the unbalanced force of the fill cannot be resisted by the shear strength of the
foundation soil with the result being a slope failure which encompasses all or a
significant portion of the slope. This is generally referred to as an external failure. If the
fill is placed slowly enough to allow the pore water pressures to dissipate, the fill can
be safely placed without danger of failure. The rate at which such drainage or
dissipation of pore pressures occurs is based on the permeability of the soil and the
length of the drainage path (usually the thickness of the layer). If the soil is confined
between two sand layers, the length of the drainage path is onehalf the layer thickness.
The rate of dissipation is determined by consolidation testing. The testing determines
the length of time for the pore water to drain from a sample for an applied load as well
as the volume of water (settlement).
b. Internal Stability
During the construction of a fine-grained soil embankment, the fill material is
placed at the optimum moisture content. Due to the compactive effort used in placing
the fill, the final fill is not in an equilibrium state. The upper region of the fill exhibits
high negative pore pressures as a result of the compaction pressure being greater than
the overburden pressure.
Depending on the height of the fill, the lower regions of the fill may have neutral or
positive pore pressures. Upon the completion of a fill, the action of climatic cycles
begins to bring the outer regions of a fill into equilibrium. Repeated wetting and drying
cycles soften and create fissures in the outer portions of a fill. This softening results in a
layer with a relatively higher permeability over one of low permeability. The low
permeability under lying soil allows water to accumulate in the pore spaces resulting in
a substantially saturated surface layer in the fill. This process usually takes at least 15
years to occur. The result is that the effective stress soil parameters are achieved with
the resultant stability implications. For instance, a 3:1 slope (18.4 degrees) built with a
clay with Φ1 = 15 degrees and c1 = 2.4 kPa will not be stable since the slope angle
exceeds the angle of friction of the fill. This type of slope failure is usually fairly
shallow occurring within the side slope and is considered internal. This type of failure
is also commonly referred to as a mudflow-type failure due to the consistency and
94 3 October 2013
jumbled appearance of the failed material. These failures mostly occur after periods of
heavy rainfall that results in increased soil pore pressures that reduce the effective shear
strength.
3. Slope Considerations
The next subsections deal with these slope considerations:
 Fill slopes
 Cut slopes
 Slope angle
 Submergence
a. Fill Slopes
Fills are constructed from material supplied by the contractor. Unless properties
such as plasticity index or liquid limit are specified in the plans, the contractor supplies
the most economical material, which may be the worst possible soil from the standpoint
of long term stability. Base the best maximum values for plasticity index or liquid limit
to specify should be based on the materials available locally. Should suitable materials
not be available, consider either flatter slopes or soil stabilization of some kind.
b. Cut Slopes
Soils in cuts are similar to fills in that, immediately after excavation, the soil is not
in an equilibrium state. After removal of the overburden, the soil begins to absorb water
and swell. The magnitude of swell depends on the plasticity index. This can be a
particular problem for the long-term ride smoothness of a roadway in a cut. Another
problem with cuts can be groundwater seepage on the cut slopes and up through the
subgrade. Seepage pressures and associated high water levels in the slopes can further
reduce long-term stability by reducing intergranular stresses (effective stresses)
between soil particles.
c. Slope Angle
The angle of a slope determines how stable it will be. Maintenance is also a
consideration, since slopes steeper than 2:1 are very difficult to mow. Slopes
constructed from high plasticity index clays should not be steeper than 3:1 and, more
preferably, 4:1. Even slopes constructed at 4:1 have failed after 20 to 25 years of
service.
The use of riprap on steep slopes is of questionable stabilizing value. The use of
riprap causes moisture to accumulate in the fill, since the evaporation rate is reduced.
The only possible benefit of the riprap is the elimination of severe moisture fluctuations
in the embankment material, possibly resulting in a longer service life before failure.
d. Submergence
Evaluate slopes subjected to inundation for stability. As previously mentioned, the
effect of submergence is to reduce the effective stress between soil particles, thereby
reducing shear strength. Another consideration is the duration of submergence. Analyze
slopes that are temporarily submerged for the drawdown condition where the slope is
totally saturated without the benefit of submergence to reduce the driving forces for
instability.
3 October 2013 95
4. Failure Modes
Slope failures are often difficult to assign to a single failure mode. Several failure
modes often occur simultaneously, such as a rotational failure accompanied by a sliding
failure of the lower portion of the slope. The following subsections discuss these most
common failure modes encountered:
 Bearing capacity
 Rotation
 Settlement
 Undercutting
a. Bearing Capacity
Fill placed on very soft foundations may undergo a rapid vertical settlement with an
associated horizontal displacement of the foundation soil from under the fill. This
condition is typically encountered in coastal areas where fills are constructed over
recent marine or marsh sediments. Bearing capacity is sometimes desired when the
construction method intends to displace a thin soft layer, thereby allowing the fill to
found directly on a deeper firm layer of soil. This is often impractical in coastal areas
where very soft soils may extend to depths as great as 18 to 24 meters. Another
drawback to this construction method is the possible failure to displace all of the soft
material with subsequent uneven settlement of the roadway.
b. Rotation
Rotation failures result in a noticeable rotation of a portion of a fill with the
resultant formation of a scarp at the back edge of the failed area. Most classical
depictions of this failure mode portray a single mass of soil bounded by a circular
failure plane. In reality, the rotating soil mass is often sheared into numerous discreet
blocks because of the large deformation. The soil mass is typically bounded by an
irregular failure plane. Purely circular failure surfaces are not usually observed in the
state due to the lack of relatively deep deposits of uniform moderate strength materials
necessary for this type of failure. Thinner layered foundation soil profiles favor the
formation of noncircular failures.
c. Settlement
Quite often, foundation soils are firm enough to allow successful embankment
construction without an immediate failure. In these cases, the long-term load on the
foundation soil results in the consolidation of the foundation soil with the resulting
settlement of the embankment. In coastal areas, (0.6-1 m) of settlement have been
observed for embankments only (2.5 m) over a period of years.
Post-construction settlement can be minimized by consolidating soft foundation soil
rapidly during construction by the use of vertical drainage paths such as sand or wick
drains. Vertical drains are sometimes supplemented with a soil surcharge to accelerate
settlement. For fairly permeable soils, surcharge alone may produce an acceptable rate
of consolidation to suit the construction schedule. The most desirable situation is to
build embankments over highly compressible foundation soils well in advance of final
roadway construction. Provide ample time for settlement to occur, since the rate of
settlement is difficult to accurately predict.
96 3 October 2013
d. Undercutting
A phenomenon associated mainly with cuts in rock is called undercutting or
undermining. This is when a hard layer overlies a weaker material. Weathering of the
softer lower soil layer results in erosion of the layer, resulting in instability of the
harder upper layer. A common example would be a limestone layer over a shale. The
best solution to this type of failure is to protect the lower layer with riprap or gunnite.
Scour can also cause undercutting of a slope. Closely monitor any signs of
instability. A typical example of distress might be cracks in a bridge column.
5. Slope Protection
Slope protection can reduce or eliminate soil erosion. This is especially important
for slope composed of granular materials that are easily eroded. The following
subsections cover these aspects of slope protection:
 Riprap
 Natural cover
a. Riprap
Either rock or concrete riprap may be applied to slopes. Rock riprap is flexible and
may deform without showing distress.
Concrete riprap, on the other hand, is rigid and impermeable. The idea that concrete
riprap improves slope stability by reducing moisture infiltration into a slope may not be
completely true. The impermeable nature of concrete riprap does not allow water to
evaporate and may actually cause soil under the riprap to have higher moisture content.
b. Natural Cover
The establishment of vegetation on a slope will reduce or eliminate erosion. Certain
plants establish deep roots, which also remove water from the soil, thus increasing the
soil strength.
3.4.2. Analysis and Design
3.4.2.1. Overview
The analysis and design of earth slopes for stability is an inexact science at best.
The realities of widely spaced soil core borings coupled with the scarcity of detailed
triaxial test data make analysis difficult. Furthermore, economics dictates safety factors
in the 1.3 to 1.5 range. Under these conditions, there is always the possibility of failing
to detect an exceptionally soft area in the field, with the subsequent result being less
than superior performance. Unlike deep foundation design, which tends to average soil
strengths over a considerable depth with the result being very predictable performance,
slope stability can depend on relatively thin soil layers near the surface which are far
more variable than the deeper, more uniform, soils.
This section discusses the following analysis and design topics:
 Strength parameters
 Groundwater
 Geometry
 Computer analysis
3 October 2013 97
 Safety factor
1. Strength Parameters
The strength parameters used for analysis and design are cohesion (c) and angle of
internal friction (Φ). These parameters may either be the undrained or drained
parameters. Triaxial testing determines these parameters. Deep-seated failures are
normally rapid in nature and, because of the lack of time for pore pressures to reach
equilibrium, are analyzed using undrained soil parameters. Shallow side slope
(mudflow) failures occur over long periods of time. While the actual soil movement
may occur over several days, the development of the drained condition in the soil
requires years to occur. The next subsections cover Time frame compatibility,
Embankment strength.
a. Time Frame Compatibility

The soil parameters used in a slope stability analysis must be compatible with the
time frame anticipated. Deep-seated failures which occur rapidly (usually during
construction) depend on the undrained soil parameters. It is inappropriate to use drained
embankment parameters in such an analysis for the embankment material. The drained
condition will not exist in the embankment fill for at least 10 years after construction.
As a result, do not use drained and undrained soil parameters together in an analysis.
b. Embankment Strength
Since the embankment material is supplied by the contractor, advance testing of the
material is not practical. As a result, a strength must be assumed for the material. For
mostly clay embankments, c = 48kPa and Φ = 0 degrees is usually a safe assumption.
This strength would also apply to sandy clay or silty clay soils. Lower assumed
strengths for cohesive embankments may be justified if triaxial testing is performed.
For sand embankments, c = 0 kPa and Φ = 30 degrees is a reasonable assumption.
2. Ground Water
Ground water affects the shear strength of soil by the reduction of intergranular
stresses due to the buoyancy effect of submergence. For fill situations, the most
conservative assumption is that the ground water level is at the surface of the natural
ground. For a more exact analysis, the ground water levels can be observed during and
after obtaining soil core borings. Normally the water level in a borehole is checked
several days after the boring is completed.
For slopes in cut sections, ground water is much more important. For this type of
installation, monitor ground water levels over a long period of time to observe any
seasonal changes. Piezometers are installed for long term observation of water levels.
Design depressed section drainage systems considering the anticipated base flow from
ground water.
3. Geometry
The overall geometry is crucial to the accuracy of slope stability analysis. Changing
the height of a retaining wall several feet can have a dramatic effect on stability. Also,
changing slope angles can significantly affect stability. In one case, an existing 3:1
slope had been stable for years, but the temporary 1:1 slope for construction failed in a
matter of months. It is always important to consider the temporary as well as final
geometry of a project.
98 3 October 2013
4. Computer Analysis
The only practical method for quickly evaluating slope stability is with a computer
program. Slope stability programs judge slope stability by evaluating thousands of
potential failure surfaces. The failure surface with the lowest factor of safety is
considered the most critical.
5. Safety Factor
The safety factor is the ratio of the resisting forces to the driving forces for a given
failure configuration. A typical minimum factor of safety of 1.3 is considered adequate.
Higher minimum safety factors are sometimes required. A minimum safety factor
higher than 1.5 is not recommended.
3.4.3. Slope Repair
3.4.3.1. Overview
Numerous slopes have been constructed in the state with unstable materials. These
slopes are prone to failure, especially after heavy rains. After a slope fails, a method
must be selected to repair the failure. In the cases where the failed material is simply
pushed back into place, the repair may last several weeks to several months. Obviously,
a more permanent repair must be undertaken. Also, it must be considered whether to
modify the slope beyond the failed area to avoid the inevitability of future failures in
adjacent parts of the slope. The following are some of the choices available for
stabilizing failing slopes:
 Recompaction
 Removal and replacement
 Strengthening
 Slope angle reduction
1. Recompaction
The simplest and fastest repair for a failed area is to remove the failed part of the
slope, dry the soil to the optimum moisture content for maximum density, then
recompact the soil to the original slope configuration. While this method repairs the
failed area, it does nothing for the adjacent portions of the slope. Removal and
recompaction is not recommended for use on adjacent unfailed parts of a slope because
better, more permanent stabilization techniques should be applied to large-scale side-
slope stabilization.
2. Removal and Replacement

Failed areas of a slope or entire sideslopes can be removed and replaced with a
different more stable soil. Normally a layer of soil is removed from the sideslope at
1500 meters deep. A deeper excavation may be warranted if previous failures have
extended to greater depths.
3. Strengthening
Failed portions of slopes or entire slopes may be strengthened by the addition of
various materials to the soil. The materials added to the soil change the properties of
the soil by chemical strengthening or mechanical strengthening.
3 October 2013 99
Section 3: Geotechnical Studies REFERENCES
a. Chemical Strengthening
Lime is the most common modifier added to poor quality clay soils. The lime reacts
chemically with the clay particles over a period of days to weeks. The chemical
reaction reduces the plasticity of the soil. Quick lime may be added to fairly wet soils to
speed up the drying process.
b. Mechanical Strengthening
Slopes may be mechanically strengthened. The most common reinforcement
materials are synthetic polymers, and the most common forms are
b1. Fibers
One form of polymer reinforcement is short fibers that are thoroughly mixed into
the soil as the soil is placed in the slope. The mode of action of this reinforcement is to
increase the tensile strength of the soil on a very small scale. The long-term
performance of reinforcement fibers is uncertain at this time.
b2. Geogrid
The other common form of polymer reinforcement is geogrids. These are placed
horizontally between lifts of soil. These grids add stability to the slope by providing a
tensile force component along the potential failure plane. This method of reinforcement
is more easily analyzed and has more predictable long-term performance.
4. Slope Angle Reduction

When adequate space is available, slopes may either be laid back by removing soil
from the top of the slope, or the toe may be extended outward by adding fill to the
lower part of the slope. In high PI clays, a slope should be 4:1 (4 horizontal to 1
vertical) or flatter for long term stability. Note that 4:1 slopes have failed in the past in
relatively high PI soils.
The issue of slope drainage should also be addressed when repairing slopes. The
slopes near bridge ends commonly receive all of the water flowing from the structure.
Methods to keep water from bridges off slopes are inlets and curbs to keep water from
flowing down the slope. The slope should also have a smooth surface with no ruts from
construction or moving equipment to collect water.
3.5. REFERENCES
ODOT: "Geotechnical Design Manual" April 2007.
Texas Department of Transportation-"Geotechnical Manual"-Year 2000
100 3 October 2013

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Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of municipal & Rural Affairs

1 Preliminary studies MA 100-P-V1/1

2 Construction specifications MA 100-C-V1/1

3 Design specifications MA 100- D- V1/2

4 Design specifications MA 100-D- V2/2

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................I

SECTION 1. SURVEY WORKS ........................................................................ 1

1.1. IMPORTANCE AND TYPES OF SURVEYS ...................................................................1

1.4. CONSTRUCTION SURVEY ............................................................................................ 16

SECTION 2. HIGHWAY HYDROLOGY ....................................................... 25

2.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 25

2.5.3. Characteristics of Runoff ................................................................................................33

3 October 2013 iii

2.8.5. Procedure for Selection of Culvert Size ......................................................................... 68

SECTION 3. GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES .................................................... 77

3.1. PROJECT GEOTECHNICAL PLANNING ................................................................... 77

3.3.1.10. Grain Size Distribution ...........................................................................................90

SECTION 1. SURVEY WORKS

1.1. IMPORTANCE AND TYPES OF SURVEYS

1.1.1. Importance Surveys

design, construction, maintenance, and operation of engineered projects. Engineering

1.1.2. Types of Surveys

1.1.2.1. Control Survey

1.1.2.2. Boundary Survey

1.1.2.3. Topographic Survey

1.1.2.4. Hydrographic Survey

1.1.2.5. Mining Survey

1.1.2.6. Construction Survey

1.1.2.7. Route Survey

1.1.2.8. Photogrammetric Survey

1.2. EQUIPMENT CHECKING AND CALIBRATION

1.2.3. Electronic Survey Instruments Adjustments, Calibration or Repairs

1.2.4. Equipment Types

1.2.5. Survey Crew Responsibilities

1.2.6. Equipment Care and Protection

1.2.7. Routine Instrument Maintenance

1.2.8. Equipment Maintenance

1.2.9.2. Calibration Baseline Check

1.3. PRELIMINARY SURVEY

1.3.1. Presurvey Conference/Preliminary Survey

 Region Survey Coordinator or designee

1.3.2. Reconnaissance Survey

1.3.2.1. Reconnaissance on Vertical Aerial Photographs

1.3.2.2. Reconnaissance on Existing Maps

1.3.2.3. Reconnaissance on New Maps

1.3.2.4. Comparison of Alternatives

1.3.3.2. Types of Research

1.3.3.3. Office Research

 Assessor’s office: current landowner’s information with their address and a

1.3.3.4. Field Search

1.3.4. Drainage Survey

1.3.4.2. Aerial Photogrammetry Methods

 Existing Upstream Detention Ponds

1.3.5. Utility Survey

1.4. CONSTRUCTION SURVEY

1.4.1. Location Survey

1.4.2. Centerline Survey

1.4.4. Slope Stakes

1.4.5. Structure Stakes

1.4.6. Grade Stakes

1.4.7. Earthwork Quantities

1.5. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (GPS)