S T D .

A S H R A E C t l 27-ENGL L977 H 0 7 5 7 b 5 0 0 5 3 L b 7 2 T 3 2 I

CHAPTER 27

RESIDENTIAL COOLING AND HEATING

LOAD CALCULATIONS
Residential Features ............................................................... 27.1 SelectingHeating Design Conditions ..................................... 21.1
COOLING LOAD ................................................................... 21.1 Estimating Temperatures in Adjacent Unheated Spaces ........ 21.8
Load Components ................................................................... 21.1 CalculatingHeat Lossfrom Crawl Spaces ............................. 21.9
Load Calculation .................................................................... 21.5 CalculatingTransmissionHeat Loss .................................... 21.10
HEATING LOAD .................................................................... 21.6 CalculatingInfiltrationHeat Loss ........................................ 21.13
General Procedure ................................................................. 21.1 PICKUP LOAD ..................................................................... 21.14

T HIS chapter covers the engineering basis of modified residen-

tial load calculation procedures for the nonengineer. Thepro-
cedures described in Chapter 28 may be usedto calculate a heating
MultifamilyBuildings. Unlikesingle-familydetachedunits,
multifamily unitsby definition do not have exposed surfaces facing
in all directions. Rather, each unit has only one or two exposed sur-
or cooling load for residential buildings. faces and possibly a roof. Two exposed walls will be at right angles,
and both east and west walls will not be exposed in a given living
RESIDENTIAL FEATURES unit. Each living unit hasa single unitary cooling system or a single
fan-coil unit, and the rooms are relatively open to one another. This
With respect to heating and cooling load calculation and equip-
configuration does not have the same load-leveling effect as a sin-
mentsizing,theuniquefeaturesdistinguishingresidencesfrom
gle-family detached house, but it is not a commercial building.
other types of buildings are the following:
Therefore, a specific load calculation procedure is required.
Unlike many other structures, residences are usually occupied Other Categories.Many buildings do not fall into either of the
and conditioned 24 h per day, virtually every day of the cooling above categories. Critical to the designation of a single-family de-
and heating seasons. tached building is the exposureof both east and west walls. There-
Residential system loads are primarily imposed by heat loss or fore, some multifamily structures should be treated as single-family
gain through structural components and by air leakage or ventila- detached when the exposed surfaces are oriented in a particular
tion. Internal loads, particularly those from occupants and lights, way. Examples include duplexes or apartments with either exposed
are small in comparison to those in commercial or industrial east, west, and south walls or exposed east, west, and north walls,
structures. with or without a roof;and apartments, town houses, or condomin-
Most residences are conditioned as a single zone. Unit capacity iums with only east and west or north and south exposed walls.
cannot be redistributed from one areato another as loads change
from hour to hour; however, exceptions do occur.
Most residential cooling systems use units of relatively small COOLING LOAD
capacity(about18,000to60,000 B t d h cooling,60,000 to
110,000 Btu/h heating). Because loads are largely affected by LOAD COMPONENTS
outside conditions, and few days each season are design days, the A cooling load calculation determines total sensible cooling load
unit operates at only partial load during most of the season; thus, due to heat gain (1) through structural components (walls, floors,
anoversizedunitisdetrimental to goodsystemperformance, and ceilings); (2) through windows; (3) caused by infiltration and
especially for cooling in areasof highwet-hilb temperature. ventilation; and (4) dueto occupancy. The latent portion of the cool-
Dehumidification occurs during cooling unit operation only, and ing load is evaluated separately. While the entire structure may be
space condition control is usually limited to use of room thermo-considered a single zone, equipment selection and system design
stats (sensible heat-actuated devices). should be based on a room-by-room calculation. For proper design
Multifamilylivingunitsaresimilartosingle-familydetached of the distribution system, the amount of conditioned air requiredby
houses, but the living unitsmay not all have surfaces exposed in each room must be known.
all directions. This affects load calculation.
Peak Load Computation
Categories of Residences
To select a properly sized cooling unit, the peak or maximum
Single-Family Detached.A house in this category usually has load (block load) for each zone must be computed. Because this
exposed walls in four directions, often more than one story, and a procedure may vary considerably for different types of buildings,
roof. The cooling system is a single-zone, unitary system with a sin- each building typehas to be considered; the block load for a single-
gle thermostat. Two-story houses may have a separate cooling sys- family detached housewith one central system is the sum of all the
tem for each floor. The rooms are reasonably open and generally room loads. If the house has a separate system for each zone, each
have a centralized air return. In this configuration,both air and load zone block load(Le., the sumof the loads for all rooms in each zone)
from rooms are mixed, and a load-leveling effect, which requires a is required. When a house is zoned with one central cooling system,
distribution of air to each room that is different from a pure com- the block load must be computed for the complete house if it were
as
mercial system, results. Because the amount of air supplied to each one zone.In multifamily structures, each living unit has a zone load
room is basedon the load for that room, proper load calculation pro- that equals the sum of the room loads. For apartments with separate
cedures must be used. systems, the block load for each unit establishes the system size.
Apartment buildings with a central cooling system (i.e., a hydronic
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 4.1, Load Calculation system with fan-coils in each apartment) require a block load calcu-
Data and Procedures. lation for the complete structure to size the central system; each unit

27.1
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 27.2 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

load establishes the size of the fan-coil and air distribution system In application, the area of each window is multiplied by the
for each apartment. One of the methods discussed in Chapter 28 appropriate GLF. The effectsof permanent outside shading devices
may be used to calculate the block load. should be considered separately in determining the cooling load.
Shaded glass is considered the same as north-facing glass. The
Indoor TemperatureSwing shade line factor (SLF) is the ratio of the distance a shadow falls
beneath the edge an of overhang to the width of the overhang (Table
For hour-by-hourloadcalculations,allowingforaswingin 6). Therefore, assuming the overhang is at the top of the window,
indoor temperature results in lower peak loads. Because the indoor the shade line equals the SLF times the overhang width. The shaded
temperature does swing, such an allowance gives a more reasonable and sunlit glass areas may then be computed separately. The tabu-
equipmentcapacity.Thetables in thissectionarebased on an lated values are the average of the shade line values for 5 h of max-
assumed indoor temperature swingof no more than3°F on a design imum solar intensity on each wall orientation shown. Northeast-
day, when the residence is conditioned h24 per day and the thermo- and northwest-facing windows are not effectively protected by roof
stat is set at 75°F. overhangs; in most cases, they shouldnot be considered shaded.
Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through Structure Infiltration
The sensible cooling load due to heat gains through the walls, Natural air leakage in residential structures is less in summer
floor, andceilingofeachroomiscalculatedusingappropriate than in winter, largely because wind velocities are lower in most
cooling load temperature differences (CLTDs) (Tables 1 and 2) localities. The data in Tablesand7 8 showing space air changesper
and U-factors for summer conditions. For ceilings under naturally
vented attics or beneath vented flat roofs, the combined U-factor Table 2 CLTD Values for Multifamily Residencesa
for the roof, vented space, and ceiling should be used. The mass of
the walls is a variable in Table 2 and is important in calculating Desim Temperature, F '
energy use, but it is not used in Table 1 because of the averaging Daily Temperature 85 90 --- 95 100 10.5 -
110
technique required to develop the CLTDs. Values in Tables 1 and 2 Rangeb L M L M H L M H M HH
assume a dark color because color is an unpredictable variable in Wulls und doorsc
any residence. 14 11 1916122421172622 32
27
Light
Daily range (outdoor temperature swing on a design day) signif- N Medium 13 10 1815 I I 2320162521 26 31
icantly affects the equivalent temperature difference. Tables 1 and 2 Heavy 9 6 15 I I 7 20 16 12 27
22
17
21
list daily temperature ranges classified as high, medium, and low.
Lieht
23
17
2822
17 33 2722 32 26 31 36
Tables 1,2, and 3 in Chapter 26 list outdoor daily ranges of dry-bulb
NE
Medium20 15 16
20
25 30 34
29
25
21
25
temperature for different locations. Heavy
1612
21
17 13 26 22
18 262226 31
Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through Windows Light
32
2737 32 27 43
38
32
42 37 42 47
E Medium 30 24 34 24
29 40 29
34 39 33 44
39
Direct application of procedures for calculating cooling load due Heavy23
182823
18
34
29
23 33 28 33 38
to heat gain for flat glass (discussed in Chapters 28 and 29) results Light 31 27 35 31 26
41
37
31 42 37 42 47
in unrealistically high cooling loads for residential installations. SE Medium22
28 32 37
22
27 32 38
33
37
27 43
Window glass load factors(GLFs), modified for single- and mul- Heavy2116 26 22
17 32 27
22 31 27 32 37
tifamily residential cooling load calculations and including solar
Light
252229
2622 35 31 26
36 32 37 43
heat load plus air-to-air conduction, are given in Tables 3 and 4.
S Medium
18
22 26 18
22 31 22
26 31 27 32 38
Table 5 lists the shading coefficients (SCs) and U-factors used to Heavv
16 II 20 16
12 26 21 17 26 21
27
33
compile Tables 3 and 4.
Light
39364440 35 50 46 40 51 47 52 58
Table 1 CLTD Values for Single-Family Detached Residencesa sw Medium33
29
37
34
29
44
40
35
45
40 46
52
Heavy
231828
24 19 36 31 25 35 30 36 42
Design Temperature, T Light
44414845
40 54 51 46 56 52 57 63
Daily Temperature 85 -90 - 95 - 100 -
105 -
110 Medium
W 37 33 38
41 33
46 48
38
42 43
49 55
Rangeb L M L M H L M H MM H
H Heavy
2622 31 27
23
37
32
27 31 32
38 44
All wulls und doors Light 33 30 37
34 30 43 39 34 44 40 45 50
North 8 3 13 8 3 18 13 8 18 13 18 23 NW Medium28
25 32 29 24 37 33 2939 35 40 45
NE and NW 14 9 1914 9 241914 2419 24
29 Heavy
2016
25
20
16 31 26
21 31 2632 37
East and West 18 13 2318 13 28 23 18 2823 28
33 Roof und ceiling
SE and SW 16 I I 21
16 I I 26 21 16 2621 26 31 Attic or Light
58 53 65 60 55 70 65 60 70
65 72 77
South 11 6 16 I I 6 21 16 I I 21 16 26
21 flat built-up
Roo$? und ceilings Flatbuilt-upMedium2118 23 2118252321 252325 28
Atticor flat built-up423747 42 37 51 4742 51 47 51 56 or heavy
Floors und ceilings Floors und ceiling
Under
conditioned 949124 12
14 9 19
14
12
14 Under
over
or 144 9124 9 12 9 19
14
12
14
space, over uncondi- unconditioned space,
tioned room, over crawl space
crawl space Purtitions
Purtitions Inside or shaded
49 12 49 12
14 9 19
14
12
14
Inside19
14
12
14
912
144shaded
or 9124 9 'Cooling load temperature differences (CLTDs) for multifamily low-rise or single-
"Cooling load temperature differences (CLTDs) for single-family detached houses, family detachedif zoned with separate temperature control for each zone,"F.
duplexes, or multifamily, with both east and west exposed walls or only north and hL denotes low daily range, lessthan 16°F: M denotes medium daily range,16 to 25°F;
south exposed walls, "F. and H denotes high daily range, greaterthan 25°F.
hLdenotes low daily range, lessthan 16°F; M denotes medium daily range,16 to 25°F; 'Light denoteslightweight;mediumdenotesmedium-weight; andheavy denotes
and H denotes high daily range, greaterthan 25°F. heavyweight construction.

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Cooling
Residential and Heating Load Calculations 27.3

Table 3 Window Glass Load Factors (GLFs) for Single-Family Detached Residencesa
Regular Regular Heat-Absorbing
Triple Clear
Design Single Glass Double Glass Double Glass Glass
Temaerature. T' 85 90 95 110
105
100 85 90 95 110
105
100 85 90 95 110
105
100 85 90 95
N o inside shuding
North 34 36 41 47 48 50 30 30 34 37 38 41 20 20 23 25 26 28 27 27 30
NE and N W 63 65 70 75 77 83 55 56 59 62 63 66 36 37 39 42 44 44 50 53
50
East and West 88 90 95 100 102 107 77 78 81 84 85 88 51 51 54 56 59 59 70 70 73
SE and SWh 79 81 86 91 92 98 69 70 73 76 77 80 45 46 49 51 54 54 62 63 65
Southh 53 55 60 65 67 72 46 47 50 53 54 57 31 31 34 36 39 39 42 42 45
Horizontalskylight 156 156 161 166 167 171 137 138 140 143 144 147 90 91 93 95 96 98 124 125 127
Druperies, venetiun blinds,trunslucent roller shades, fully druwn
North 18 19 23 27 29 33 16 16 19 22 23 26 13 14 16 18 19 21 15 16 18
NE and NW 32 33 38 42 43 47 29 30 32 35 36 39 24 24 27 29 29 32 28 28 30
East and West 45 46 50 54 55 59 40 41 44 46 47 50 33 33 36 38 38 41 39 39 41
SE and SWh 40 41 46 49 51 55 36 37 39 42 43 46 29 30 32 34 35 37 35 36 38
Southh 27 28 33 37 38 42 24 25 28 31 31 34 20 21 23 25 26 28 23 24 26
Horizontal skylight 78 79 83 86 87 90 71 71 74 76 77 79 58 59 61 63 63 65 69 69 71
Opuyue roller shades, jully druwn
North 14 15 20 23 25 29 13 14 17 19 20 23 12 12 15 17 17 20 13 13 15
NE and NW 25 26 31 34 36 40 23 24 27 30 30 33 21 22 24 26 27 29 23 23 26
East and West 34 36 40 44 45 49 32 33 36 38 39 42 29 30 32 34 35 37 32 32 35
SE and SWh 31 32 36 40 42 46 29 30 33 35 36 39 26 27 29 31 32 34 29 29 31
Southh 21 22 27 30 32 36 20 20 23 26 27 30 18 19 21 23 24 26 19 20 22
Horizontal skylight 60 61 64 68 69 72 57 57 60 62 63 65 52 52 55 57 57 59 56 57 59
"Glass loadfactors(GLFs)forsingle-familydetachedhouses,duplexes, or multifam- To obtainGLFforothercombinations of glass and/orinsideshading: GLF, =
ilyresidences, with botheast and westexposedwalls or only north and south (SCJSC,)(GLF,- Up,)+ U,,D,, where the subscriptsU and I refer to the alternate
exposed walls, Btu/h.ft2. and table values, respectively. SC, and U , are given in Table 5 . D, = (I,, - 751,
hCorrect by +30% for latitude of 48" and by -30% for latitude of 32". Use linear where I(, = r, - (DWZ); r,, is the outdoor design temperature and DR is the daily
interpolation
latitude
for
from 40 to 48from
and range.
32".to
40

Table 4 Window Glass Load Factors (GLFs) for Multifamily Residencesa

Regular Regular Heat-Absorbing
Triple Clear
Design Single Glass Double Glass Double Glass Glass
Temperature, T' 85 90 95 105
100 110 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95 105
100 110 85 90 95
N o inside shuding
North 40 44 49 54 58 64 34 36 39 42 44 47 23 24 26 29 30 33 30 32 34
NE 88 89 91 95 97 100 78 79 80 83 84 85 52 52 53 55 55 57 71 71 73
East 136 137 139 142 144 147 120 121 122 125 126 127 79 79 81 83 83 84 109 109 111
SE 129 130 134 139 141 144 109 113 116 119 120 122 72 75 77 79 79 81 99 103 105
Southh 88 91 96 101 105 110 76 78 81 84 86 89 50 52 54 56 58 60 68 70 72
sw 154 159 164 169 174 179 134 137 140 143 145 148 89 91 93 95 97 99 121 123 125
West 174 178 183 188 192 197 151 154 157 160 162 165 100 102 104 106 108 110 137 139 141
NW 123 127 132 137 141 147 107 109 112 115 117 121 71 72 75 77 79 81 96 98 100
Horizontal 249 252 256 261 264 268 218 220 223 226 228 230 144 146 148 150 152 154 198 200 202
Druperies, venetian blinds, trunslucent roller .shades,.fully druwn
North 21 25 29 33 36 40 18 21 23 26 28 31 15 17
21 19 23 25 17 19 21
NE 43 44 46 50 51 52 39 40 41 44 45 46 33 33
36 34 36 37 39 39 40
East 67 68 70 74 75 76 61 62 63 65 66 67 5050 54 51 54 55 60 60 61
SE 64 65 69 73 74 77 58 59 61 63 64 66 48 48 52 50 52 54 57 57 59
Southh 45 48 52 56 59 63 40 42 44 47 49 52 33 34 39 36 40 42 38 40 42
sw 79 83 87 91 94 98 70 72 75 78 80 83 57 59 64 62 66 68 68 69 71
West 89 92 96 100 103 107 79 81 84 86 88 91 65 66 71 69 72 75 76 78 80
NW 63 66 70 74 77 81 56 58 61 63 66 68 46 48 50 52 54 56 54 55 57
128 126
Horizontal 132 135 137
141 113 -
115 117
120 121
124 93 -
- 94 -
96 -
98 100 102 113
110 111 -
Opuyue roller shades, fully druwn
17 North 25 29 32 36 15 17 20 23 25 28 14 15 18 20 22 24 15 16 18
NE 34 33 35 39 40 42 31 32 33 36 35 37 29 28 30 32 32 34 32 31 33
East 51 52 53 57 61 65 48 49 50 53 52 55 45 45 46 48 48 49 49 49 50
SE 49 50 53 57 58 61 46 47 49 52 52 55 42 43 45 47 47 49 46 46 48
Southh 35 38 42 46 49 53 32 34 37 40 42 42 29 31 33 35 31 39 32 33 35
sw 65 61 69 73 77 81 57 59 62 65 67 70 52 54 56 58 60 62 56 58 60
68 West 75 80 83 87 64 66 68 71 73 76 58 60 62 64 66 68 63 64 66
49 NW 56 60 63 67 45 47 50 53 55 58 41 43 45 47 49 51 45 46 48
108
106
102
Horizontal
99 97 93 92 90 92 90 89 87 85 8310299I 97
I I 95 93 91
"Glassloadfactors(GLFs)formultifamilylow-rise or single-familydetached m i - To obtainGLFforothercombinations of glass and/orinsideshading: GLF,,
dences if zonedwithseparatetemperaturecontrolforeachzone,Btu/h.ft2. = (SC,JSC,)(GLF, - Up,)+ U$,, wherethesubscripts U and I refertothealternate
hCorrect by +30% for latitude of 48" and by -30% for latitude of 323 Use linear and table values, respectively.SC, and U , are given in Table 5. D, =(r,, - 7 3 , where
interpolation for latitude
from 40 to 48 and from 40 to 32". r, = J,, - (DR12); f,, is the
outdoor
design
temperature and DR is thedaily
range.

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 27.4 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

hour(ACH)applytobothsingle- andmultifamilyhousing, Household Appliances

although most of the raw data were for single-family structures Appliance loads are concentrated mainly in the kitchen and laun-
(McQuiston 1984). Construction may be defined as follows: dry areas. Based on contemporary living conditions in single-family
Tight. Good multifamily construction with close-fitting doors, houses, a sensible load of 1600 Btu/h should be divided between the
windows, and framing is considered tight. New houses with full kitchen andor laundry and the adjoining roomor rooms. For mul-
vaporretarder,
nofireplace,
well-fitted
windows,weather- tifamily units, the sensible heat gain values should be about 1200
stripped doors, one story, and less than 1500 ft2 floor area fall Btdh. Thesevalues assume that the cooking range and clothes dryer
into this category. are vented. Further allowances should be considered when unusual
Medium. Mediumstructuresincludenew,two-storyframe lighting intensities, computers, or other equipment is present.
houses or one-story houses more than 10 years old with average
maintenance, afloor area greater than 1500 ft2, average fit windowsAir Distribution System-Heat LossiGain
and doors, and a fireplace with damper and glass closure. Below-
average multifamily construction fallsin this category. Whenever the air distribution system is outside the conditioned
Loose. Loose structures are poorly constructed single- and mul- space (Le., in attics, crawl spaces, or other unconditioned spaces)
tifamily residences with poorly fitted windows and doors. Examples heat loss or gains to the ductsor pipes must be includedin the cal-
include houses more than 20 years old, of average maintenance, culated load and should be considered in equipment selection.
having a fireplace without damperor glass closure, or having more
Latent Heat Sources
than an average number of vented appliances. Average manufac-
tured homes are in this category. The latent cooling load has three main sources: outdoorair, occu-
pants, and miscellaneous sources, such as cooking, laundry, bath-and
Ventilation ing. The miscellaneous latent loads are largely coveredby outdoor air
Residentialair-conditioningsystemsmayintroduceoutdoor
air, although it is not a code requirement in most localities. Posi- Table 7 Winter Air Exchange Rates (ACH) as
tive ventilation should be considered, however, if the anticipated Function of Airtightness
infiltration is less than about 0.5 ACH. When positive means of Outdoor Design Temperature,"F
introducing outdoor air are used, controls, either manual or auto-
Class 50 40 30 20 10 O -10 -20 -30 -40
matic, should be provided, and an energy recovery device should
be considered. Tight
0.41
0.43
0.45
0.47
0.49
0.51
0.53
0.55
0.57
0.59
Medium 0.69
0.73
0.77 0.81 0.85 0.89 0.93
0.97 1.00 1.05
Occupancy 1.11 1.15 1.20
Loose 1.23
1.27
1.30
1.35 1.40
1.43 1.47
Note: Values are for 15 mph wind and indoor temperature of 68°F.
Even though occupant density is low, occupancy loads should be
estimated. Sensible heat gainper sedentary occupant is assumed to
be 230B t u h . To prevent gross oversizing, the number of occupants Table 8 Summer Air Exchange Rates (ACH) as
should not be overestimated. Recent census studies recommend that Function of Airtightness
the total number of occupants be based on two persons for the first
Outdoor Design Temperature, OF
bedroom, plus one person for each additional bedroom. The occu-
pancy load should then be distributed equally among the living Class 85 90 95 100 105 110
areas because the maximum load 0.38 occurs0.37
when0.36
most0.35
of the
0.34residents
0.33 Tight
occupy these areas. Medium 0.48 0.46 0.56
0.500.54 0.52
Loose 0.680.72 0.70 0.740.78 0.76
Table 5 Shading Coefficients and U-Factors Note: Values are for7.5 mph wind and indoor temperature of 75 T.
for Residential Windows
Inside Shade
Drapery, Venetian
Blind, or Translucent Opaque Roller
None Roller
ShadeShade
SC Type
Glass V SC LI SC v 1.3 -
Single 1.00 1.04 0.50 0.81 0.38 0.81
Double0.36 0.55 0.88 0.45 0.61 0.55
Heat-absorbing 0.58 0.45 0.440.37 0.33 0.44 U.
Triple 0.80 0.44 0.40
0.44 0.36 0.40
Note: U is in Btu/h.ft2, T.

Table 6 Shade Line Factors (SLFs)

Direction
Latitude, DegreesN
Window
Faces 24 48
32 36
44 40 52 ROOM TEMP. = 75°F
East 0.8
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 RH = 50%
SE 1.4
1.8 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9
9.2 South 2.6
5.0 3.4 2.1 1.8 1.5
SW 1.4
1.8 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9
0.01 0.017
0.018
0.015
0.014
0.013
0.012
0.011
West 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 2.5% DESIGN HUMIDITY RATIO (W)
Note: Shadow length below t h e overhang equals the shade linefactor times the over-
hang width. Values are averages for the5 h of greatest solar intensity on August I . Fig. 1 Effect of Infiltration on Latent Load Factor

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S T D - A S H R A E CH 27-ENGL L777 0 7 5 7 b 5 0 0 5 3 L b 7 b b138 m

Residential Cooling and Heating

Load Calculations 27.5

because most residences have exhaust fans and clothes dryers that
ventmost of themoisturefromthesesources.This vent air is
accounted for in the infiltration calculation. McQuiston(1984) esti-
mated latent load factors for typical houses located in geographic
regions ranging fromvery dry tovery wet using the transfer function
method (Figure 1). A latent factorLF (LF= l/SHF) of 1.3 or asen-
sible heat factor SHF (SHF = sensible loadtotal load) of 0.77
matches the performance of typical residential vapor compression
cooling systems. Homes in almost all other regions of North America
have cooling loads with an SHF greater than 0.77 and latent factors
less than 1.3. Figure 1 may be used to estimate the total cooling load
by readingLF as a functionof the design humidity ratio and airtight-
ness. ThenqtOtal = (LF)qsensihle.
If the humidity ratio is less 0.01,
than
set LF = 1.O.
LOAD CALCULATION
Thecoolingloadcalculationproceduresaresummarizedin
Table 9.
Outdoor design condirions. Temperature of 96°F dry bulb with a
24°F daily range and a humidity ratio of 0.0136 lb vaporflb dry air
(74.6"F wet bulb).
U-fucror.s for all external surfaces are based on a 7.5mphwind
velocity.
Indoor design conditions. Temperature of 75°F dry bulb and 50% rh.
Occupuncy. Four persons, based on two for the master bedroom
and one for each additional bedroom. Assignto the living room.
Appliances und lights. Assume1600Btulh forthekitchen,and
assign 50% to the living room. Assume 1600 B t u h for the utility room,
and assign 25% to the kitchen and25% to the storage room.
The conditioning equipment is located in the garage, and the con-
struction of the houseis considered medium.
Find the sensible, latent, and total cooling load; size the cooling
unit; and compute theair quantityfor each room.
Solution: The cooling load must be made on a room-by-room basis to
determine the proper distribution of air. The calculations follow the
procedure outlined in the section on Load Components.

Example 1. A single-family detached house (Figure 2) is located in the

south central United States at 36% latitude.
Roc$ consrrucrion. Conventionalroof-attic-ceilingcombination,
vented to removemoisturewith6in.offibrousbattinsulationand
vapor retarder ( U = 0.05 Btuh.ft*."F).
Wu11 construction. Frame with 4 in. face brick, 3.5 in. fibrous batt
insulation,0.75in.polystyrenesheathing,and 0.5 in.gypsumwall-
board ( U = 0.06 Btuh.ft2."F). Ceiling height is 8 ft throughout.
Floor construction. 4 in. concrete slab on grade.
Fenesrrurion. Cleardoubleglass,0.125in.thick,inandout.
Assume closed, medium-color venetian blinds. The window glass has a
2 ft overhang at the top. All dimensions ln feet U N
Doors. Solidcoreflushwithall-glassstormdoors (U = 0.32
Btu/h.ft2."F). Fig. 2 Floor Plan of Single-Family Detached House

Table 9 Summary of Procedures for Residential Cooling Load Calculations

Load Source Equation Tables and Notes
Glass and window areas q = (GLF)A Glass load factors maybe found in Tables 3 and 4 accordingto window orien-
tation, type of glass, type of interior shading, and outdoor design temperature.
TheGLFincludeseffectsofbothtransmissionand solar radiation. Glass
shaded by overhangs is treatedas north glass. Table 6 gives shade line factors.
Doors = UdA(CLTD) DoorCLTDvalues are inTables 1 and 2 according to orientation, outdoor
design temperature, and design daily temperature range.
Above-grade exterior walls q = UwA(CLTD) Wall CLTD values are in TablesI and 2 based on the outdoor design tempera-
ture, daily range, and orientation.
Partitions to unconditioned space q = U,AAt Where At is the temperature differenceacross the partition.
Ceilings and roofs q = U,.A(CLTD) Tables I and 2 for CLTD, based on outdoor design temperature and daily range.
Exposed floors y = U,A(CLTD) Tables I and 2 for CLTD, based on outdoor design temperature and daily range.
Infiltration q = I.lQAf Air exchange ratesare given in Tables 7 and8.
Q = ACH x (room volume)/60

Plan 230Btuh per person. Divide occupants evenly among rooms not used as bedrooms. If number of
occupants is not known, assume two people for first bedroom and one person
for each additional bedroom.
The appliance and light load of 1600Btdh is divided between the kitchen and
adjoining room and the laundry and adjoining room. Use 1200 Btu/hfor multi-
family units.
Total loads Total cooling load= LF x Load factors are from FigureI according to outdoor design humidity ratio and
(Sum of individual sensible airtightness classification.
cooling load components)
y =sensible
load,
cooling Bhdh cfm Q rate.
= volumetric
airflow
Ar =design temperature. difference between outsideand inside ACH = air changes per hour, I / h
air, "F = glass load factor,
GLFBtu/h.fr2
A =area of applicable
surface,
ft2 CLTD = cooling load temperature
difference, "F
U =U-factors
appropriate
for construction,
Btu/h.ft2. "F LF = multiplier
latent
load

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 S T D - A S H R A E CH 27-ENGL 2 7 7 7 D 0759b50 0 5 3 3 6 7 7 52I.I =
27.6 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

Wulls, rot$ windr~ws.und doors. Thecalculationsfortheliving design of the air distribution system, heat losses from the supply and
room and the kitchen, where q = UA(CLTD) for the walls, roof, and return ducts may add to the cooling load. These may be more accu-
door and q = A(GLF) for the windows, are outlined in Table 10. The rately estimated after designing the system; however, to size the cool-
glass shaded by the overhang is treated as north-facing glass, with the ing unit, duct losses should be included initially. If all ducts are in the
shaded area computed using Table6. attic space, a duct loss of 10% of the space sensible cooling load is rea-
loud.^. Compute as follows.
Internul und injjltrution sensible cooling sonable. For a counterflow system, with ducts below the slab, a 5%
For the living room: loss is more reasonable.
Infiltration. Using Table 8, An infiltration rate of0.5 ACH may not be adequate for good indoor
Q = ACH (room volume)/60 air quality, so some outdoor air should be introduced. This additional
Q = 0.5 X 3840/60 = 32 cooling load maybe estimated in the same wayas the infiltration load.
= I.lQ(t,-ti) = 1,IQAI Assume that the entire duct system is in the attic; that is, the total
q = l.IX32(96-75)=740Btu/h sensible cooling load with a 10% duct loss is 1. I x 19,679 = 21,647
Occupants. Assuming 230 Btu/hper person, Btdh. Also, assume that additional outdoorair is needed to assure good
q = 230 x (persons) indoor air quality, so the total infiltration and outdoor ventilation air is
q = 230 X 4 = 920 Btdh 0.75 ACH. This increases the infiltration rate by 50%, or about 1600
Appliances. Assuming that 50% of the kitchen appliance load is Btu/h. The total sensible cooling load is then increased to 23,247 Btu/h
picked up in the living room, (Table I I).
q = 0.5 x (kitchen appliance load) The total cooling load (sensible plus latent) may be estimated by
q = 0.5x 1600 = 800 Btulh applying the latent factor (LF) from Figure I. For a design humidity
For the kitchen: ratio of 0.0136 Ib vapor per Ib dry air, =LF1.15 for a house of medium
Infiltration. construction.Hence,thetotalcoolingloadequals 1.15 x 23,247 =
Q = 0.5 X 1920/60 = 16 26,734 Btuih.
= 1.1 X 16(96-75) = 370Btuih The load raises the temperature of the cooling air 18 to 21°F as it
No occupants. leaves the rooms. The total design flow from the air conditioner can be
q=o estimated by the following equation:
Appliances.Assumingthat25%oftheutilityapplianceloadis
Q =- Y
picked up in the kitchen, I. I At
y = (1600/2) + (1600/4) = 1200 Btu/h where
For the total sensible cooling load for these two rooms and the Q,,,t = total airflow, cfm
cooling load for the remaining rooms, see Table 11. At this point, the y = total sensible load, Btuih
sensible cooling load for the house is 19,679 Btulh. Depending on the I . 1 = density times specific heat of cooling air times m
60i d
At = temperature difference of air entering arid leaving room,"F
Table 10 Transmission Cooling Load for Example 1 For a temperature difference of 18°F. the total airflow is estimated
Net Cooling from Equation(1) as
Area,
GLF,
U-Factor, CLTD,
Load,
Item ft2 Btulh*ft2
Btu/h*ft2*"F "F Reference
Btu/h
Living Room
The exact design flow can be determined only after the cooling unit
06 91 wall West 1 has been selected. Then, the supply air quantities can be computed. Air
Partition should be supplied to each room on the basis of the room sensible cool-
2 0.07 192 (garage) 1 ing load:
Roof 480 Table 0.05
1152 48 1
32 21 door West 1 Q m = QrJqrrn'q)
West glass 35 44 Table 1540 3 where
ShadedTable
elass 247
13 19 3 Q, = airflow to each room, cfm
Kitchen y,., = room sensible cooling load, Btu/h
East wall 135 0.06 194 24 Table 1 Thus, for the example,
Roof 240 0.05 576 48 Table 1
Q,, = (994/19,679jyr,
East glass 14 44 616 Table 3
Shaded glass I I 19 209 Table 3 If the living spacein Example 1 were a multifamily unit (assume
that the north, south, and east walls are not exposed surfaces), the
Table 11 Summary of Sensible Cooling Load Estimate calculation procedure would be the same, except that 2Table would
for Example 1 have been used for the CLTDs and Table 4 for the GLFs. Assump-
tions regarding infiltration, ventilation, and appliance loads are dif-
Total Room
Roof, Walls, Appli- Infil- Btuh cfm ferent for smaller multifamily units.
Room and
Doors Glass People
ances
tration (qm) (Q,,,,)
5,852
296
740
800
Living
1,605
room
1,787
920 HEATING LOAD
825 770Kitchen 3,165 370
1,200 160
1,2001,404 and Utility 154 Calculating a residential heating load involves estimating the
storage maximum (block) heat loss of each room or space to be heated and
Bedroom No.1 559 544 1,381
70
278 the simultaneous maximum (block) heat loss for the building, while
Bedroom No.2 686 848 1,812
91
278 maintaining a selected indoor air temperature during periods of
Master bedroom 1,682 8 16 813 3,311
167 design outdoor weather conditions. Heat losses are mainly
and bath
Transmission losses or heat transferred through the confining
Bath 540 276 295 1,111 56
walls, glass, ceiling,floor, or other surfaces
Total 7.246 5,096 920
3.200
3.217
19.679
994 Infiltration losses or energy required to warm outdoor air leaking
Duct loss (10%) 1,968 inthroughcracksandcrevicesarounddoorsandwindows,
Outdoor ventilation air 1,600 through open doors and windows, and through porous building
Total23.247 Btuh materials

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S T D - A S H R A E C H 27-ENGL L997 0759b50 053Lb78 450 m

Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 27.7

GENERALPROCEDURE Table 12 Summary of Loads, Equations, and References for

To calculate a design heating load, prepare the following infor- Calculating Design Heating Loads
mation about building design and weather data at design conditions.Heating Load
Equation Reference, Table, Description
1. Select outdoor design weather conditions: temperature, wind Roofs,ceilings, >
-
I Chapter 24, Tables 1,2, and 4
direction, and wind speed. Winter climatic data can be found in walk glass q = UA Ar +> Temperaturedifference between
Chapter 26, or selected weather conditions and temperatures
appropriate for the application may be used. Weather station
data may differ significantly from valuesin Chapter 26.
2.Selecttheindoorairtemperaturetobemaintained
space during design weather conditions.
3. Temperatures in adjacent unheated spaces, attached garages,
in each

and attics can be estimated at the outdoor ambient temperature. grade

4. Select or compute heat transfer coefficients for outside walls
Walls
below
L l->See
Y = U A At->
inside and outside design dry bulbs,
Chapter 26. For temperatures in
unheatedspaces, see Equation (2); for
attic temperatures, see Equation (3).
Area calculated from plans
Table 14.
Use Figure 6 toassist in determining
Ar.
and glass; for inside walls, nonbasementfloors, and ceilings if Floors >L
- crawl
space
temperatures,
For see
these are next to unheated spaces; and forroof theif it isnext to Above
grade = UA Ar Equation (4).
heated spaces. >-L See Table 16.
5. Determine the net area of outside wall,. glass,
- . and roof next to On grade q = F, P At+, See Equation (6).
heated spaces, as well as any cold walls, floors, or ceilings next to
unheated spaces. These determinations can be made from build- 1, Perimeter of slab
Below grade q = U A Ar +>
ing plansor from the actual building, using inside dimensions.
Compute transmission heat losses for each kind ofwall, glass, T Use Figure 6 to assist in determining
Ar.
See Table 15.
floor, ceiling, and roof in the building by multiplying the heat
transfer coefficient in each case by the area of the surface and
the temperature difference between indoor air and outdoor air
or adjacent lower temperature spaces.
Compute heat losses from basementor grade-level slab floors
Infiltration and
ventilation
building.
air
Sensible
r
qI = 0.018 Q Ar
1 ",
Volume of outdoor air entering
See Chapter 25 estimat-
for
ing methods for infiltration.

Humidity ratio difference, if humidi-

using the methods in this chapter.
Selectunitvalues,andcomputetheenergyassociatedwith
infiltration of cold air around outside doors, windows, porous
buildingmaterials,andotheropenings.Theseunitvalues
depend on the kind or width of crack, wind speed, and the tem- critical.
perature difference between indoor and outdoor air.An alterna-
tive method is to use air changes (see Chapter 25).
When positive ventilation using outdoor air is provided by an
air-heatingorair-conditioningunit,theenergyrequired to
warm the outdoor air to the space temperature must be pro- the
vided by the unit. The principle for calculation
component is identical to that for infiltration. If mechanical
exhaust from the space is provided in an amount equal to the
-
of this load
outdoor air drawn in by the unit, the unit must also provide for Is the load from infiltration or ventilation high?
natural infiltration losses.If no mechanical exhaust is used and
the outdoor air supply equalsor exceeds the amount of natural
infiltration that can occur without ventilation, some reduction
in infiltration may occur,
10. The sum of the coincidental transmission lossesor heat trans-
mitted through the confining walls, floor, ceiling, glass, and
other surfaces, plus the energy associated with cold air entering
by infiltration or the ventilation air requiredto replace mechan-
ical exhaust, represents the total heating load.
11, Include the pickup loads that may be requiredin intermittently
heated buildings using night thermostat setback. Pickup loads
frequently require an increase in heating equipment capacity to
bring the temperature of structure, air, and material contentsto
the specified temperature. See Figure9.
12. Use materials and data in Chapters 24, 25, 26, and others as
appropriate to the calculations. See Table12.
SELECTING HEATING DESIGN CONDITIONS
The ideal solution to a basic heating system is design
a plantwith
a maximum output capacity equal to the heating load that develops Wind movement increases the heat transmission of walls, glass,
with the most severe local weather conditions. However, this solu-
tion is usually uneconomical. Weather records show that severe
weather conditions do not repeat annually.If heating systems were
designed for maximum weather conditions, excess capacity would
exist during most of the system's operating life. In many cases, an
Latent yt = 80.7 Q AW fication is to be added
occasional failureof a heating plant to maintain a preselected indoor
design temperature during brief periods of severe weather is not
Outdoor Design Temperature
Before selecting an outdoor design temperature from Chapter 26,
designer should consider the following for residential buildings:
Is the structure heavy, medium, or light?
Is the structure insulated?
Is the structure exposed to high wind?
Is there more glass area than normal?
During what part of the day will the structure be used?
What is the nature of occupancy?
Will there be long periods of operation at reduced indoor tem-
perature?
What is the amplitude between local maximum and minimum
daily temperatures?
Are there local conditions that cause significant variation from
temperatures reported by the weather service?
What auxiliary heating devices will be in the building?
Before selecting an outdoor design temperature, the designer
must keep in mind that,if the outdoor to indoor design temperature
difference is exceeded, the indoor temperature may fall, depending
on (1) the thermal mass of the structure and its contents, (2) whether
the internal load was included in calculations, (3) the duration of the
cold period, and(4)internal heat generated by appliances, etc.
The effect of wind on the heating requirements of any building
should be considered because
and roof, affecting poorly insulated walls to a much greater extent
than well-insulated walls.
Windmateriallyincreasestheinfiltration of coldairthrough
cracksarounddoorsandwindowsandeventhroughbuilding
materials themselves (see Chapter 25).

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27.8 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

Theoretically, on a design basis, the most unfavorable combina- and the corresponding overall heat transfer coefficients are 0.10 and
tion of temperature and wind speed should be chosen. A building 0.30 Btun.ft2."F. Thesixthsurfaceisonthegroundandcanbe
may require more heat on a windy day with a moderately low out- neglected for this example, as can the effect of introduction of outdoor
door temperature than on a quiet day with a much lower outdoor air into the unheated space. Assume f i = 70°F and I , = -10°F.

temperature. The worst combination of wind and temperature varies Solution: Substituting into Equation (2),
by building because wind speed has a greater effect on buildings
with relativelyhigh infiltration rates. The building heating load may
be calculated for several combinations of temperature and wind
speed on record, and the worst combination may be selected; how-
ever, except for critical applications, designers generally find such
a degree of refinement unnecessary. No correlation has been shown
between the design temperatures in Chapter 26 and the simulta-
neous maximum wind speed. If a designer prefers the air change
methodforcomputinginfiltrationrates,suchcorrelationis not
important. Designers who use the crack method can use a leakage
rate at a wind speed of 15 mph, unless local experience has estab-
lished that another speed is more appropriate. Abnormally high
wind speeds may have an effect on infiltration and the U-factor of
the building components (see Chapter 22).
Indoor Design Temperature
The indoor temperature for comfort heating may vary depending
on building use, typeof occupancy, or code requirements. Chapter cent unheated space and can be done using
8 andASHRAE Standards 55 and55adefinetherelationship
between temperature and comfort.
ESTIMATING TEMPERATURES IN
ADJACENT UNHEATED SPACES
Heat loss from heated rooms to unheated rooms or spaces must
bebasedontheestimated or assumedtemperatureinsuch
unheated spaces. This temperature will be in between the indoor
and outdoor temperatures.If the surface area adjacent to the heated
room and that exposed to the outdoors are equal and if the heat
transfercoefficientsareequal,thetemperature in theunheated
space may be assumed equal tothe mean of the indoor and outdoor
design temperatures. If, however, the surface areas and coefficients
are unequal, the temperature in the unheated space should be esti-
mated by
r,, = [ti(AIU, +A2U,+A,U, +etc.)
+rl,(60pc,Q,+A,U,+A,~,+AcUc+etc.)]
+(Alul +A2U2+A,U3+etc.
+60pc,,Ql,+AuU,+AbU,+A,Uc+etc.)
tu = [70( 100 X 0.15 + 120 X 0.20 + 140 X 0.25)
+ (-10)(100 x 0.10 + 140 x 0.30)]
i (100 x 0.15 + 120 x 0.20 + 140 x 0.25
+ 1 0 0 x O. 10 + 140 x 0.30)
I, = 4660/126 = 37'F
Temperatures in unheated spaces with large glass areas and two
or more surfaces exposed to the outdoors (e.g., sleeping porches and
sun parlors)are generally assumedto be the same as that of the out-
doors.
Attic Temperature
An attic is a space having an average distance of 1 ft or more
between a ceiling and the underside of the roof. Estimating attic
temperature is a special case of estimating temperature in an adja-
A,Uctc+t,(60pc,,AcVc+ArUr+AwUw+AgUg)
ta =
Ac(Uc+60pc,,Vc)+ArU,+AwU,+AgU~ (3)
where
PC,,= air density times specific heat= 0.018 Btu/ft3.'T for standard air
attic temperature, OF
I,, =
C, indoor temperature near topfloor ceiling, "F
=
I, =outdoor temperature, "F
A, = area of ceiling, ft2
A,. = area of roof, ft2
A, = area of net vertical attic wall surface, ft2
A, = area of attic glass, ft2
U, = heat transfer coefficient of ceiling, Bhdh.ft2. "F,based on surface
conductance of 2.2 Btu/h.ft2.0F (upper surface, see Table 2 in
Chapter 24); 2.2= reciprocal of one-half theair space resistance
U, = heat transfer coefficient of roof,
Btu/h'ft2'"F,based on surface con-
ductance of2.2 Btu/h.ft2.OF (upper surface,see Table 2 in Chapter
24); 2.2 = reciprocal of one-halfthe air space resistance
U, = heat transfer coefficient of vertical wall surface,Btulh.ft2. "F
Ug = heat transfer coefficient of glass,Btu/h.ft2."F
V, = rate of introduction of outside air into the attic space by ventila-
tion per square foot of ceilingarea, cfm/ft2

where Example 3. Calculate the temperature in an unheated attic assuming I, =

70°F; I , = 10°F A, = 1000 ft2; A, = 1200 ft2;A, = 100 ft2; A, = I O ft2;
pcI' = density times specific heat of air = 0.018 Btu/ft3,"F for Ur = 0.50 Btu/h,ftZ."F;U, = 0.40 Btu/h.ft2."F; U, = 0.30
standard air Btu/h.ft2."F U, = 1.13 Btu/h.ft2."F and V,=0.5 cfm/ft2.
t, = temperature in unheated space, "F
r. = indoor design temperature of heatedroom, "F Solution: Substituting these values into Equation(3),
tu = outdoor design temperature,"F
A,, A,, A,, etc. = areas of surfaces of unheated space adjacent to heated I,, = [( 1000 X 0.40 X 70) + lO(60 X 0.018 X 1000 X 0.5 + 1200 X 0.50
spaces, ft2 + 100x0.30+ l o x 1.13)]
A,. A,. A,, etc. = areas of surfaces of unheated space exposed to outdoors,
ft2
+ [1000(0.40 + 60 x 0.018 x 0.5) + 1200 x 0.50 + 100 x 0.30
U,,U,, etc. = heat transfer coefficients of surfaces of A I, A,, A,, etc.,
U,, + 10 x 1.131
Bhdh.ft2.T f, = 39,813/1581 = 25.2"F
U([, U,,etc. = heat transfer coefficients of surfaces of A,,, Ah, A,, etc.,
U/,,
Btu/h.ft2,"F Equation (3) includes the effect of air interchange that would
Q , = rate of introductionof outside air into unheated spaceby take place through attic vents or louvers intendedto preclude attic
infiltration and/or ventilation, cfm
condensation. Test data from Joy et al. (1956), Joy (1958), and
Example 2. Calculate the temperature in an unheated space adjacent to a Rowley et al. (1940) indicate that a reduction in the temperature
heated room with surface areas(Al, A,, and A,) of 100, 120, and 140ft2 difference between attic air and outside air is linear as attic ventila-
and overall heat transfer coefficients
(U,,U,,and U,)of O. 15,0.20, and tion rates increase from O to 0.5 cfm/ft2 of the ceiling area. When
0.25 Btu/h.ft2. "F, respectively. The surface areas
of the unheated space attic ventilation meets the requirements in Chapter 23, 0.5 cfm/ft2
exposed to the outdoors (A,, and Ab) are 100 and 140 ft2, respectively, istheapproximateventilationratefordesignconditions.This

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 Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 27.9

reduction in temperature difference affects the overall heat loss of r, = ground temperature (constant), "F
a residence with an insulated ceilingby only 1 or 2%. r, = crawl space temperature, T
Equation (3) does not consider factors such as heat exchange Ar = area of floor above, fi2
between chimney and attic or solar radiation to and from the roof. A,, = area of perimeter, exposed foundation wall plus sill box, ft2
A, = area of ground below(Ar = As), ft2
Because of these effects, attic temperatures are frequently higher
U != avenge heat transfer coefficient throughfloor, Btu/h.ft2' T
than valuescalculated using Equation (3). However,Equation (3) can Ob' = average heat transfer coefficient through ground (horizontal air
be used to calculate attic temperature because the resulting erroris film and I O ft of soil), Btuh'ft2.T
generally less than that introduced by neglecting roofthe
and assum- U,, = combined heat transfer coefficient of sill box and foundation wall
ing that the attic temperature is equal to the outdoor air temperature. (both above andbelow grade), Btu/h.ft2' T
When relatively large louvers are installed (customary in southern V, = volume of crawl space, ft3
regions of the United States), the attic temperatureis often assumed pc = volumetric heat capacity of air= 0.018 Btu/ft3. T
to be the averageof the indoor and outdoor air temperatures. 0.6$= assumed air exchange rate, volumeshour
For an approximate method of calculating heat losses through
Example 4. A crawl space of 1200 ft2 with a 140 ft perimeter is consid-
attics, the combined ceiling and roof coefficient may be used (see
ered. The construction of the perimeter wall is shown in Figure3. The
Table 5 in Chapter 24). indoor, outdoor, and the deep-down ground temperatures are 70, 10,
and 50°F. respectively. Estimate the heat loss and crawl space tempera-
CALCULATING HEAT LOSS turewithandwithoutinsulation. Theheattransmissioncoefficient
FROM CRAWL SPACES (U-factor) for each component is indicated in Table 13.
A crawl space can be considered a half basement. To prevent Table 13 Estimated U-Factors for Insulated and
groundmoisturefromevaporatingandcausingacondensation
Uninsulated Crawl Spaces
problem, sheets of vapor retarder (e.g., polyethylene film) are used
to cover the ground surface (see Chapter 23). Most codes require Uninsulated InsulatedP
crawl spacesto be adequately vented all year round. However, vent- Btuh-DFperft Btu/h."Fperft
ing the crawl space in the heating season causes substantial heat loss Comoonent of Perimeter of Perimeter
through the floor. 16 in. exposed concrete blocks 0.7 0.18
The space may be insulated in several ways: the crawl space ceil- 7.5in. sill box O.I88 0.07 I
ing (floor above the crawl space) can be insulated, or the perimeter
wall can be insulated either on the outside or on the inside. If the Ist 12 in. blockwall 0.127
below grade 0.355
floor above is insulated, the crawl space vents should be kept open 2nd 12 in. block wall below grade 0.22 0.14
because the temperatureof the crawl space is likely to be below the 3rd 12 in. block wall below grade O. I33 0.1
dew point of the indoor space.If the perimeter wall is insulated, the Total for perimeter wall 1.6 0.62
vents should be kept closed in the heating season and open the
remainder of the year. Btu/h*ft2. "F Btu/h*ft2*"F
0.077 0.077 Ground
Crawl Space Temperature space crawl
Floor above 0.25 0.076'
The crawl.space temperature depends on such factors as venting, JPerimeter walls are insulated with R-5.4; the floor is insulated with R-I 1 blanket or
heating ducts, and the heating plant. When the crawl space is well batts.
ventilated, its temperature is close to thatof the ambient air temper-
ature. When the crawl space vent is closed for the heating season, or
if the space is used as a plenum (i.e., part of the forced-air heating
system), the crawl space temperature approaches that of the indoor
conditioned space. In the former case, the floor above the crawl
space, the heating ductwork, and the utility pipes should be insu-
lated similarly to the walls and ceiling of a house.
The following steady-state equation can beused to estimate the
temperature of a crawl space.

Yf = Y/J + 4, + 4 ,

where
q, = heat loss through floor into crawl space,Btdh
q,, = heat loss from crawl space through foundation walls and sill box,
Btuh
q8 = heat loss into ground, Btuh
q, = heat loss due to ventilation of crawl space,Btuh
Latta and Boileau (1969) estimated the air exchange rate foran
uninsulated basement at0.67 ACH under winterconditions.In more
detail, the above equation canbe repeated as

q+Oi- t c ) = upA,,(lc-r(,) + U84,(r,- tg)

+0 . 6 7 V~, ( t~, -~t,,) (4) Eh. CONCRETE BLOCK

where
ri = indoor air temperature (Le.,air above ceiling of crawl space),T
r , = outdoor air temperature, T Fig. 3 Uninsulated Crawl Space

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S T D - A S H R A E CH 27-ENGL 1 9 9 7 0759b50 053LbBL T 4 5

27.10 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

Solution: Three cases are examined. Pitched roofs. Calculate the combined roof and ceiling coeffi-
Cave A. This base case is a vented and uninsulated crawl space. The cient as outlined in Chapter24.
crawl space temperature approachesthat of the outdoors, 10°F.and the
heat loss is 0.25 x 1200(70- 10) = 18,000 Btuh. 2. For pitched roofs, estimate the attic temperature (based on the
Caw B. The crawl space is vented. The floor above is insulated indoor and outdoor design temperatures) using Equation (3).
with an R- 11 blanket; no insulation on the perimeter. The temperature and substitute for t, in Equation (5), obtaining the value oft,,
of the crawl space approachesthat of the outdoors, 10°F. The heat loss together with the ceiling areaA and the ceiling U-factor. Attic
is calculated as temperatures do not need to be calculatedf o r p a t roofs, as the
ceiling-roofheat loss canbedeterminedassuggestedin
y, = 1200 X 0.076(70 - I O ) = 5470 Btu/h Method 1 above.
Cuse C. The crawl space is not vented during the heating season.
The floor above is not insulated, but the perimeterwall is insulated with
From the Basement
R-5.4 down to 3 ft below grade. The basement interior is considered conditioned space if a min-
imum temperature of 10°F below indoor design air temperature is
y, = 1200 X 0.25(70 - f c ) maintained over the heating season. In many instances, the house
4,, = 140 X 0.62(rc- 10) heating plant, water heater, and heating ductsin the are basement,so
it remains at or above 50°F.
4, = 1200 X 0.077(tC- 50)
Heat transmission from the below-grade portion of the basement
y, = 1200 X 3 X 0.67 X 0.018(tC- 10) wall to the ambient air cannot be estimatedby simple, one-dimen-
sional heat conduction. In fact, field measurement of an uninsulated
The crawlspace temperature is solvedusingEquation (4): r, =
basement by Latta and Boileau (1969) showed that the isotherms
5 1Y F . The heat loss is 5550 Btu/h.
The results show thatbasecase A canpotentiallylosethe most
near the wall arenot parallel linesbut closer to radial lines centered
heat. However,when the floor above is insulated, the crawl space must at the intersection of the grade line and the wall. Therefore, heat flow
be vented to eliminate any condensation potential, and the heating duct- paths approximately follow a concentric circular pattern (Figure 4).
work and utility pipeline in the crawl space must be adequately insu- Such heat flow paths are altered when insulation is added to the
lated. When the perimeter is insulated, the vents must be closed during wall or floor. An extreme case would be no heat loss from the base-
the heating season and opened for therest of the year; the heating duct- ment wall and floor (Le,, infinite insulation applied to the wall and
work and utility pipeline do not need insulation. floor). In this case, the isotherms would be horizontal lines parallel
to the grade line, and the heat flow would be vertical. When finite
Heat Loss Temperature insulation or partial insulation is applied to the wall and floor, the
Through
Floor of Crawl
Venting
Insulation
Case Above, B t d h Space, "F heat flow paths take shapes somewhere between the circular and
vertical lines (Figure5).
A Yes None I8.000 10 Ground Temperature. Ground temperatures assumed for esti-
B Yes R-I 1 on floor above 5,470 10 mating basement heat losses will differ for basement floors and
C No R-5.4 on perimeter wall 5,550 51.5 walls. The temperatures under floors are generally higher than those
adjacent to walls. This is discussed further in the section on Base-
ment Design Temperatures.
CALCULATING TRANSMISSION HEATLOSS
Steady-state heat loss by conduction and convection heat trans- Through Basement Walls
fer through any surface is Houghten et al. (1942) observed nonuniform heat flux across the
basement wall with respect to the depth of the wall because each
= UA([;- t,,) (5) heat flow path contains a different thermal resistance. For a base-
ment wall that has its top portion exposed to ambient air, heat may
where be conducted vertically through the concrete wall and dissipated to
y = heattransferthroughwall, glass, roof, ceiling, floor, or other the ambient from the top portion of the wall (Wang 1979, Bligh et al.
exposed surface, Btu/h 1978). Under certain conditions, this vertical heat flux becomes sig-
A = area of surface, ft2 nificant and shouldnot be ignored.
U = air-to-air heat transfer coefficient,Btu/h.ft2."F
ti = indoor air temperature nearsurface involved, "F
M
r,, = outdoor air temperature or temperature ofadjacentunheated
space, "F

Example 5. Calculate the transmissionloss through an 8 in. brick wall hav-

ing an area of 150 ft2, if the indoor temperature ri is 70"F, and the out-
door temperature r , is -10°F.
Solution: The overall heat transfer coefficient II of a plain 8 in. brick
wall is 0.41 Btu/h.ft*."F. Substituting into Equation ( 3 ,
HEAT FLOW LINES
4 = 150 X 0.41 [70 - (-IO)] = 4920 Btuh

Through Ceiling and Roof

RADIAL ISOTHE
Transmission heat loss through top floor ceilings, attics, and (FROM INTER
roofs may be estimated by either of two methods:
1. Substitute in Equation( 5 ) the ceiling areaA, the indoor/outdoor RAOIAL ISOTHERMS
(FROM INTERSECTION
temperature difference (rj - t(,), and the proper U-factor: OF BASEMENT WALL
AND FLOOR)
Flat roofs. Use appropriate coefficients in Equation (3) if side
walls extend appreciably above the ceilingor the floor below. Fig. 4 Heat Flow from Basement

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 Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 27.11

CONCRETE Table 15 Heat Loss Through BasementFloors

Heat Loss Coefficient, Btulh.ft2*"F
Depth of Foundation Shortest Width of House,ft
Wall below Grade, ft 20 24 28 32
5 0.032 0.029 0.026 0.023
0.030 6 0.027 0.025 0.022
0.029 7 0.026 0.023 0.021

Fig. 5 Heat Flow Path for Partially Insulated

Basement Wall

Table 14 Heat Loss Below Grade in Basement Walls 160 140 120 100 BO 60

Path Fig. 6 Lines of Constant Amplitude

Length
Depth, Through Heat Loss Coefficient, Btu/h.ft2. "Fa
ft Soil, ft Uninsulated R-4.17
R-8.34
R-12.5 Basement Design Temperatures
O to I 0.68 0.410 Ch 0.152 Ch 0.093
- - zh 0.067 -
- Ch Although internal design temperature is given by basement air
1 to 2.27
2 temperature, none of the usual external design air temperatures
0.2220.632 0.1 160.2680.0790.1720.0590.126
apply becauseof the heat capacityof the soil. However, ground sur-
2 to 3 3.88 0.155 0.7870.0940.3620.0680.2400.0530.179 face temperature fluctuates about a mean value by an amplitude A,
3 to4 5.52 0.1190.9060.0790.4410.060 0.300 0.0480.227 which varieswith geographic location and surface cover. Therefore,
4 to 5 7.05 0.0961.0020.069 0.510 0.053 0.3530.0440.271 suitable external design temperatures can be obtained by subtract-
5 to6 8.65 0.0791.0810.0600.5700.0480.4010.0400.311 ing A for the location from the mean winter air temperature r,. Val-
6 to7 10.28 0.069 1.150 0.0540.6240.0440.4450.0370.348 ues for tu can be obtained from meteorological records, andA can be
estimated from the map in Figure 6. This map of is one
partprepared
Source: Latta and Boileau (1969).
'Soil conductivity was assumed to be 9.6 Btu.in¡h.ft*. "F.
by Chang (1958) giving annual ranges in ground temperature at a
hz = heat loss to current depth. depth of 4 in.

Example 6.Consider a basement 28 ft wide by 30 ft long sunk 6 ft below

Once the heat paths are known or assumed, a steady-state analysis
can calculate the overall heat transmission coefficient for each seg- grade.Assumeaninternalairtemperature
ment of the basement wall. Referring to Figures 4 and 5, the total
thermal resistance for each depth increment of the basementwall can
be found by summing the thermal resistances along each heat flow Solution:
path. Based on these resistances, the heat loss at each depth incre-
ment can be estimated for a unit temperature difference between the
basement and the average mean winter temperature. Table 14 lists
such heat loss values at different depths for an uninsulated and an
insulated concrete wall (Latta and Boileau 1969). Also listed are the
lengths of the heat flowpath through the soil (circular path).
Through Basement Floors
The same steady-state designused for the basement wall can be
applied to the basement floor, except that the length
of the heat flow
path is longer (see Figure 4). Thus, the heat loss through the base-
ment floor is much smaller than that through thewall. An average
value for the heatloss through the basement floor can be multiplied
by the floor area to give total heatloss from thefloor. Table 15 lists
typical values.
grade, with R-8.34 insulation applied to the top 2 ft of the wall below
of 70°F andanexternal
design temperature(tu - A ) of 20°F.
Wu11 (using Table 14)
First foot below grade ................................ 0.093 Btu/h.ft."F
Second foot below grade............................ 0.079 Btu/h.ft. "F
Third foot below grade ............................... 0.155 Btu/h.ft. F
Fourth foot below grade............................. O. 1 19 Btu/h,ft. F
Fifth foot below grade................................ 0.096 Bru/h.fr."F
Sixth foot below grade............................... 0.079 Btu/h.ft. T
Total per foot length ofwall ....................... 0,621 Btu/h.ft, "F
Basement perimeter.................................... 2(28 + 30) = 1 16 ft
Total wall heat loss .......................... 0.62 x 116 = 72 Btu/h ."F
Floor (using Table 15)
Average heatloss per ft2............................ 0.025 Btu/h.ft2.T
Floor area 28X 30 ......................................................... 840 ft2
Total floor heat loss ........................ 0.025 x 840 = 21 Btu/h. 'T

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 27.12 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook

T ~ t d
Total basement heatloss below gmde ...72 + 21 = 93 Btu/h."F
Design temperature difference......................... 70 - 20 = 50°F
Maximum rateof heat loss from
below-grade basement......................... 93 x 50 = 4650 Btuh

If a basement is completely below grade and unheated, its tem-

perature ranges between that in the rooms above and that of the
ground. Basement windows lower the basement temperature when
it is cold outdoors, and heat givenbyoffthe heating plant increases
FROST
the basement temperature.The exact basement temperature is inde- DEPTH
terminate if the basement is not heated. In general, heat from the
heating plant sufficiently warms the air near the basement ceiling to
make unnecessary an allowance for floor heat loss from rooms
located over the basement.

Transient Calculations for Basement Walls

The heat loss from basement walls can be estimated more accu- Fig. 7 "1"-Shaped or Vertical Insulation System
rately with a finite element or finite difference computer program by
transient simulations (Wang 1979, Bligh et al. 1978). The solution
Vertical "I"-shaped systems are usedto insulate slabfloor perim-
is in the form of heat loss over time, which can be converted to an
eters. In the "I" system, the insulation is placed vertically next
to the
average U-factor. This approach also offers the possibility for esti-
exposed slab edge, extending downward below grade, as shownin
mating the depth below grade to which insulation is economical.
Figure 7.
Direct and indirect evidence of hollow concrete block walls shows
that a convective path exists within the blocks vertically along the Breaks orjoints must be avoided when the insulation is installed;
wall (Harrje et al. 1979). Therefore, insulation should be arranged to otherwise, local thermal bridges can be formed, and the overall effi-
reduce this convective heat transfer. ciency of the insulation is reduced.
Peony et al. (1979) showed that the dynamic thermal perfor-
mance of a masonry wall is better when insulation is placed on the Transient Calculations forFloor Slabs
exterior. Moreover, transient simulation showed that insulation is Figure 8 shows four basic slab-on-grade constructions analyzed
more effective when isit placed on the exterior side of the basement with a finite element computer program by Wang (1979). Figures
wall. Depending on the exposed portion of the block wall and the 8A-Crepresentunheatedslabs;Figure 8D canbeconsidereda
temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air, exterior heated slab. Each was investigated with and without insulation of
application can be 10 to 20% more efficient than a corresponding R-5.4 under three climatic conditions (7433,5350, and 2950 degree-
interiorapplication.However,suchexteriorinsulationmustbe days). Table 16 lists the results in terms of heat loss coefficient F,,
installed properly to maintain its integrity. based on degree-days.
Table 16 shows that the heat loss coefficient F2 is sensitive to
Calculating TransmissionHeat Loss from Floor Slabs both construction and insulation. The reverseloss, or heat loss into
Concrete slab floorsmay be ( I ) unheated, relying for warmth on the ground and outward through the edgesof the slab and founda-
heat delivered abovefloor level.by the heating system, or (2) heated, tion wall, is significant when heating pipes, heating ducts, or base-
containing heated pipesor ducts that constitute aradiant slab or por- board heaters are placed near the slab perimeters. To prevent reverse
tion of it for completeor partial heating of the house. loss, the designer may find it advantageous to use perimeter insula-
The perimeter insulation of a slab-on-grade floor is quite impor- tion even in warmer climates. For severe winter regions (above
tant for comfort and energy conservation. In unheated slab floors, the 6000 degree-days), the insulation value should be increased to R
floor edge must be insulated in order to keep the floor warm. Down- >IO ft2-"F.h/Btu.
drafts from windows or exposed walls can create pools of chilly air
over considerable areas of the floor. In heated slab floors, the floor Table 16 Heat Loss Coefficient F, of Slab Floor Construction,
edge must be insulated to prevent excessive heat loss from theheat- Btu/h."F per ft of Perimeter
ing pipeor duct embedded in the floor or from the baseboard heater.
Degree-Days (65°F Base)
Wang (1979)and Bligh et al. (1978) found that heat loss from an
unheated concrete slab floor is mostly through the perimeter5350 rather 7433
Construction
Insulation 2950
than through the floor and into the ground. Total heat loss Uninsulated
iswall,
more
blockin. 8 0.62 0.72 0.68
nearly proportional to the length of the perimeter than to the area of facing
brick
R-5.4
from 0.48 0.50 0.56
the floor, and it can be estimated by the following equation bothfor edge to footer
unheated and heated slab floors:
in. 4Uninsulated
wall,
block 0.80 0.84 0.93
facing
brick
R-5.4
from 0.47 0.540.49
edge to footer
Uninsulated
1.15
wall.studMetal 1.20 1.34
where stucco R-5.4 from 0.58 0.53 0.51
q = heat loss through perimeter, Btulh edge to footer
~ ~~ ~~ ~~~

F2 = heat loss coefficient per foot of perimeter (see Table16), PouredconcretewallUninsulated 2.732.121.84
Btulh.ft.T with duct
near R-5.4 from 0.64 0.72 0.90
P = perimeter or exposed edgeof floor, ft primete? edge to footer,
I; = indoor temperature, T (For the heated slab, r; is the weighted 3 ft under floor
average heating ductor pipe temperature.) "Weighted average temperatureof the heating duct was assumedat I IOCFduring the
r , = outdoor temperature, T heating season (outdoorair temperature less than 65°F).

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 S T D - A S H R A E C H 27-ENGL 1997 8il 0 7 5 5 b 5 D 0 5 3 1 b t 3 4 75LI IW

and Cooling
Residential 27.13

c = specific heat of air, Btu/lb."F

6 = volumetric flowof outdoor air entering building,ft3/h
p = density of air at temperaturer(,, Ib/ft3
Using standard air (P = 0.075 lb/ft3 and cp = 0.24 Btu/lb."F),
Equation (7) reduces to

q,v = 0.018Q(ti-r,) (8)

The volumetric flowQ of outdoor air entering dependson wind
speed and direction, width of cracks or size of openings, type of
openings, and other factors explained in Chapter25. Two methods
used to obtain the quantity crack length and
of infiltration air are the
the airchange. Louvers and doors and the direction theyas face,well
as any other factors affecting infiltration, may need to be considered.
SULATION.
6.4 Loss
Latent
Heat
When moisture mustbe added to the indoor air to maintain win-
ter comfort conditions, the energy needed to evaporate an amountof
A. 8 IN. BLOCK WALL B. 4 IN.BLOCKWALL
water equivalent to what is lost by infiltration (latent component of
infiltration heat loss) must be determined. This energy may be cal-
culated by

41 = Qp(Wi-W0)hfg (9)
where
41 = heat flow required to increase moisture content of air leakage into
building from W, to W;, Btuh
Q = volumetric flow of outdoor air entering building, ft3/h
p = density of air at temperaturer;. Ib/ft3
W;= humidity ratio of indoor air,IbAb,,
W, = humidity ratio of outdoor air, Ib/lb,,
hfg = latent heat of vapor atr;, B u b
If the latent heat of vaporh,-- is 1076 Btu/lb, and the air density
is 0.075lb/ft3, Equation (7) reduces to

41 = 80.7Q(Wi- W,) (10)

Crack LengthMethod
C. METAL
WALL
STUD D. CONCRETE WALL The basis of calculation for the crack method is that the amount
of crack used for computing the infiltration heat loss should not be
Fig. 8 Slab-on-Grade Foundation Insulation less than one-half the total length of crack in the outside walls of the
room. In a building without partitions, air entering through cracks
Figure 8A shows that this construction benefits from the wall on the windward side must leave through cracks on the leeward
insulationbetweenblockandbrick;theinsulationisextended side. Therefore, one-half the total crack for each side andof end the
roughly 16 in. below the slab floor. Without this wall insulation, the building is used for calculation. In a room with one exposed wall, all
heat loss coefficientF2 would be close to that of the 4 in. blockwall the crack is used. With two, three, or four exposed walls, either the
construction (FigureSB). Table 16 canbe used to estimate F2under wall with the crack that will resuIt in the greatest air leakage or at
different degree-days of heating season weather. least one-half the total crack is used, whichever is greater.
In residences, total infiltrationloss of the house is generally con-
CALCULATING INFILTRATION HEAT LOSS sidered equal to the sumof infiltration losses of the various rooms.
But, at any given time, infiltration takes place on only
the windward
Infiltration of outside air causes both sensible and latenr heat side or sides and not on the leeward. Therefore, for determining total
loss. The energy requiredto raise the temperatureof outdoor infil- heat requirements of larger buildings,it is more accurate to base total
trating air to indoor air temperature is the sensible component. The infiltration losson the wall with the most total crackonorat leasthalf
energy associated with net loss of moisture from the space is the the total crack in the building, whicheveris greater. When the crack
latent component. Infiltration is discussed in detail in Chapter 25. method ratherthan Equations (8) and (10) is used for estimating leak-
age, the heat loss in terms of the crack length may be expressed as
Sensible Heat Loss
The energy required to warm outdoor air entering
by infiltration qs = 0.018BL(ri - t(,) (1 1)
to the temperature of the roomis given by and

qE = c,QP(li - to) (7)

where
where B = air leakage for wind velocity and type
of window or door crack
q,v = heat flow required to raise temperature of air leaking into involved, @/h per foot of crack
building fromr(, to r;. Btu/h L = length of windowor door crack to be considered,ft

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Air Change Method In buildings with setback-type thermostats, the furnace must be
oversized to allow for reestablishing the space temperature in an
Some designers base infiltration on an estimated number ofair
acceptable time. The amount of oversizing depends on many fac-
changes rather than the length of window cracks. The number of air
changes given in Chapter25 should be considered only as a guide.
tors, such as the amount of setback, inside-to-outside temperature
difference,buildingconstruction,andacceptablepickuptime.
Whencalculatinginfiltrationlossesbytheairchangemethod,
Figure 9 indicates this relationship for a particular residence. As a
Equations (8) and (10) can be used by substituting forQ the volume
general rulefor residences, a 10°F night setback requires 40% over-
of the room multipliedby the number ofair changes.
sizing for acceptable pickup time and minimum energy require-
Exposure Factors ments(NelsonandMacArthur1978). For smallersetback,the
oversizing can be proportionally less. If daytime as well as night set-
Some designers use empirical exposure factors to increase cal- back is practiced, oversizingof up to 60% is warranted.
culated heat loss of rooms or spaces on the side(s)of the building
exposed to prevailing winds. However, exposure factors are not REFERENCES
needed with the method of calculating heat loss described in this
chapter. Instead, they may be (1) regarded as safety factorsto allow ASHRAE. 1992. Thermal environmental conditions forhuman occupancy.
for additional capacity for rooms or spaces exposed to prevailing ANSVASHRAE Srundurd 55-1992.
ASHRAE. 1995. Addendum to ANSVASHRAE 55-1992. ANSVASHRAE
winds or (2) used to account for the effectsof radiation loss, partic- Srundurd 5%-1995.
ularly in the case of multistory buildings. Tall buildings may have Bligh, T.P., P. Shipp, and G. Meixel. 1978. Energy comparisons and where
severe infiltration heat losses induced by stack effect that require to insulate earth sheltered buildings and basements. Earth covered settle-
specialanalysis.Althougha15%exposureallowance is often ments, U.S. Department of Energy Conference, Fort Worth. TX.
assumed, the actual allowance,if any, is largely a matterof experi- Chang, J.H. 1958. Ground temperufure.Bluehill Meteorological Observa-
ence and judgment; no test data are available from which to develop tory, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
rules for the many conditions encountered. Harrje,D.T.,G.S.Dutt,andJ.Beyea.1979.Locatingandeliminating
obscure but major energylosses in residential housing.ASHRAE Truns-
uclions 85(2).
PICKUP LOAD Houghten, F.C.,S.1. Taimuty, C. Gutberlet. and C.J. Brown. 1942. Heat loss
through basement walls andfloors. ASHVE Trunsuctims 48369.
For intermittently heated buildings and night thermostat setback, Joy, F.A. 1958. Improving attic space insulating values. Heating, Piping und
additional heat is required to raise the temperature of air, building Air Conditioning 30(1):223.
materials, and material contents of a building to the specified tem- Joy, F.A., J.J. Zabrony,and S. Bhaduri. 1956. Insulating value of reflective
perature. The pickup load, which is the rate at which this additional elements in an attic under winter conditions. Pennsylvania State Univer-
heat must be supplied, depends on heat the capacity of the structure, sity, University Park, PA.
its material contents, and the time in which theseto be areheated. Latta, J.K. and G.G. Boileau.1969.Heatlossesfromhousebasements.
Relatively little information on pickup load exists; however, someCunudiun Building l9( 10):39.
early work by Smith (1 941, 1942) addressed pickup loads for build- McQuiston, F.C. 1984. A study and review of existing data to develop a
ings heated only occasionally, such as auditoriums and churches. standard methodology for residential heating and cooling load calcula-
Nelson and MacArthur(1978)studied the relationship between ther- tions. ASHRAE Trunsuctions90(2A): 102-36.
McQuiston, F.C. and J.D. Spitler. 1992.Cooling und heuting loud culculu-
mostat setback, furnace capacity, and recovery time. Based on this tion munuul, 2nd ed. ASHRAE, Atlanta.
limited information, the following design guidelines are offered. Nelson, L.W. and J.W. MacArthur. 1978. Energy savings through thermostat
Because design outdoor temperatures generally provide a sub- setback.ASHRAE Trunsuctions84(2):319-34.
stantial margin for outdoor temperatures typically experienced dur- Peony, B.A., F.J. Powell,and D.M. Burch. 1979. Dynamic thermal perfor-
ing operating hours, many engineers make no allowance for this mance of anexperimentalmasonrybuilding.NBS Report 10 664,
additional heat in most buildings. However, if a minimum safety National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,MD.
factor is to be used, the additional heat should be computed and Rowley, F.B., A.B. Algren, and C.E. Lund. 1940. Methods of moisture con-
allowedfor,asconditionsrequire. In thecase of intermittently trolandtheirapplication tobuildingconstruction. Bulletin No.17
heated buildings, an additional 10% capacity should be provided. XLII1(4):28. University of Minnesota Engineering ExperimentStation.
Smith,E.G.1941.Heatrequirement ofintermittentlyheatedbuildings.
Texas A&MEngineering Experiment Stution Series No. 62 (November).
College Station, TX.
DESIGN CONDITIONS Smith, E.G. 1942. A method of compiling tables for intermittent heating.
Heuting, Piping, und Air Conditioning 14(6):386.

// 1
INSULATION
WALLS: 35f8 in. FURNACE OUTPUT
Wang, F.S. 1979. Mathematical modeling and computer simulation of insu-
INSULATIONCEILING 6 In. CAPACITY, PERCENT
lation systems in below grade applications. ASHRAE/DOE Conference
OVER DESIGN
TEMPERATURE:
OUTDOOR DESIGN-2VF LOSS
HEAT onThermalPerformanceoftheExteriorEnvelopesof Buildings,
2D L
1 20% Orlando, FL.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ackridge,J.M.andJ.F.Poulos.1983.Thedecrementedaverageground
temperature method for predicting the thermal performance of under-
ground walls. ASHRAE Trunsuctions89(2A).
Burch, D.M., D.F. Krintz, and R.S. Spain. 1984. The effectof wall mass on
winterheatingloadsandindoorcomfort-Anexperimental study.
ASHRAE Trunsuctions90( I B).
Kusuda, T. and J.W. Bean. 1984. Simplified methods for determining sea-
sonal heat loss from uninsulated slab-on-grade floors. ASHRAE Truns-
I I 1 UCfi(Jn.T 90( I B).
30 40 50 70 80 90 Mitalas, G.P. 1983. Calculationof basement heat loss. ASHRAE Trunsuc-
TEMPERATURE DFFERENCE BETWEEN#DOOR AND OUTDOOFj,'F rions 89( 1B).
Yard, D.C.,M.Morton-Gibson, andJ.W. Mitchell. 1984. Simplified dimen-
Fig. 9 Furnace Operating Times Requiredto Pick Up Space sionless relations for heat loss from basements. ASHRAE Trunsuctions
Temperature Following 5 and 10°F Night Setback 90(IB).

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