Chapter-1

Introduction to Computer
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the learner will be able to:
• To define clearly what the term computer means.
• Identify the several characteristics of computer that made them useful and popular
• To know the different areas of application of Computers.
• To identify the different types of computers.
• To know the evolution of modern computers.

Introduction
The goal of this chapter is to familiarize the learner with the disciplines of computer
science, Information Technology. Data, information and the relation ship between the
two will also be covered in the chapter. In this chapter we will also see history and
generations of computer.

Computer Science vs. Information Technology

Section Objectives:
After completing this section, students should be able to:
o describe the differences and similarities between computer science and
Information Technology
o discuss characteristics of computers

What is Computer Science?

Computer Science is a science concerned with information, that is, representation,
storage, manipulation or processing and presentation of information. Like any other
science, which uses different devices and lab equipment, Computer Science uses a special
device called COMPUTER.

Computer science has different fields of specialization or sub-disciplines. Some of the

sub disciplines include:

Software engineering: Concerned with how to use and apply scientific and basic
engineering principles to solve problems faced by programmers and to select the
best way so that to produce high quality software or program.

Computer engineering (Architecture): deals with studying, analyzing and

designing of computer hardware (organization and interconnection of computer
system components) and its working principle.

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 Artificial Intelligence: important and recent sub-discipline concerned with how to
design and program machine to solve problems or carried out tasks that appear to
require human imagination or intelligence.

What is Information Technology?

Information Technology is the use of modern technology to aid the capture, processing,
storage and retrieval, and communication of information, whether in the form of
numerical data, text, sound, or image. It can also be defined as the study of information
handling and its use in society by means of modern technology. This includes the
acquisition, processing, storage and communication of information in any form by
appropriate means. It is more about the use of computers to solve human/business
problems. You study some programming, databases, applications, etc.

Activity 1:
Do you think that there is similarity /difference between computer science and
Information technology? Explain your reason.

What is Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes the accepted data,
and then displays the result.
Any calculating device or machine, which is electronic, mechanical or electromechanical,
can be called a Computer. But that doesn’t mean that computers perform only calculation.
The name computer comes from a Latin word computre, meaning “to reckon” or “to
compute” and can be applied to abacus or any adding machine as to the modern
computer. However, the term “Computer” has come to mean a special electronic device
having certain definite characteristics.

Characteristics of Computers
The characteristics of a computer show the capabilities and the potentials of the computer
for processing data. Computers have six basic characteristics:

Speed - The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computers perform
their operations step by step. Their speed is measured by the amount of time it took to
perform or carry out a basic operation. Computer speed measured in terms of
microsecond (10-6 one millionths), nanosecond (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-
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one trillionths).

Capacity- Is the ability of computers to store and process vast amount of data.
You can imagine how much space data of a census on papers need. Not only the
space, also the time it took to get or retrieve specific information from such vast amount
of data is not negligible. But a computer can store such amount of information in a few
numbers of disks. And the time it took to retrieve or process single information is not
more than a micro or nanoseconds. In general a computer has a capacity to store a very

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large amount of information in organized manner so that accessing information is very
fast.
Example: A computer with 200 MHz can move data from one location to another
at excess of 200 millions characters (symbols) per second.

Accuracy - Nowadays computers are being used for surgical purposes, which need
almost a hundred percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computers are
accurate and consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program
the computer processes with a very high accuracy.

Reliability
Is the ability of computers to operate and process data free from errors.

Durability
Implies the ability of computers to operate and process data over long periods of
time.

Versatility - Computers have the potential to perform or solve varieties of tasks and
problems, as long as the problem or the task can be put or reduced in the form of logical
steps.
 For example, the same computer that is used to handle engineering company’s
mathematics can also be efficiently used by the company to track inventory,
process payroll, design computations etc.
Note: Even if the above main characteristics of computers are increasing with time, the
cost and size of computers are decreasing.

Data and Information

What is data?
There is a difference between the terms data and information. Data is an individual
fact /multiple facts, or a value/a set of values, but is not significant to a business in itself.
For example, the following are values with structure but they aren't useful to anyone until
given context:
February 15, 1993
D13193
Data values without business context

Giving data context, or meaning, turns it into information. Without this context the data
is useless to the business.
For example, the above numbers are more useful with the added context:

Business context Data value

What is the date of the meeting about the fee increases? February 15, 1993
What was the license plate number of the car that hit you? D13193

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Formal definition:
a) Data are raw facts or figures.
b) Data is the product of symbols or representations of an event (e.g. buying
book) or facts about the world (e.g. number of continents), like number, letter,
pictures, lines, graphs, etc
c) Data is representation of facts or figures obtained from experiments or surveys,
used as basis for making calculations or drawing conclusions.

In and of itself, data has no meaning. If I count the number of cars that stop at a stop sign
per hour for a week, that's data. It may be useful or not, depending on the context. It has
no meaning until it is placed in a context. It is like an event out of context, without a
meaningful relation to other things. It doesn't have a meaning of itself and simply it exists
and has no significance beyond its existence.
If we are given a certain data, we can associate it to different things and give it different
meanings.
Example: If we take number "5", it can be associated with:
 Cardinal number and has one meaning, and
 A number greater than 4 and less than 6 with another meaning
Therefore: Data without a context has no meaning. But this doesn't mean that data are
useless. They are the elements that are inputted, stored and manipulated by the computer.
The validity of a data (how far they reflect the reality or represent the real world) is very
important. They are valid as far as they accurately represent the real world.

Information

Definition:
a) Information is data with context. Therefore, information is context dependent.
b) Information is data that has been given a meaning by way of relational
connection. This relational connection converts data in to information. In
computer system, for instance, a relational database makes information from
the data stored within it.

When does data become information?

When a whole lot of data, which is related to one subject, put together, it yields
information. E.g. Take a telephone book, it is developed by bringing different data
together (Name, Address and Telephone number). In other words:
Sets of data + relational connection among data sets = information
Let's say I want to buy a car. I can collect a lot of data about makes of cars, performance
ratings, prices and so on. Once I do that, I have a lot of information about cars and the
car market. Unless we think of this collection of data and put it in context (car/car
market), it has no meaning.What we perceive or understand is the relationship between
pieces of data, or between pieces of data and other information.
Therefore,
Data + understanding of relationship = information

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Examples:
 The temperature dropped to 15 degrees and then it started raining. The data are:
o 15 degrees, and
o It is raining
 If we put data on people's smoking habits together with data on lung cancer, we
can produce information about the risk of smoking.

It is the cause and effect relationship between the two that provides information.

Activity:Give some examples of data and show how the data is converted (processed) to
become information.

Application of Computers
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Why we use Computers?

We use computers because they:-

 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and
accuracy.
 Transmit information across continents through communication medias.
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons.
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability.

The main areas of computer applications can be listed as follows.

1. Learning Aids:
 Example: For creative writing and foreign language, and for basic
graphics to engineering design models.
2. Entertainment:
 Examples: Games
3. Commercial or business applications
 Computers are needed to perform business operations that require
handling large amounts of data.
 Examples:
Text processing
Accounting and Finance management
Inventory control
Database management
Statistical analysis

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 4. Scientific – engineering and research applications
 Computers are used for scientific research, complex mathematical
calculations, design work, and analysis and control of physical systems.
 Examples:
Space technology
Meteorological observatory systems
Astronomical investigations
Design of machines and
Control of manufacturing process
5. Information Utilities
 Example:
Internet.
Electronic Banking and Service.
6. Shopping from Home
 Individuals may now shop by computer in the comfort of their home.
7. Household Control
 A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers
controlled.
 For example:
Security systems
Refrigerators
Microwave ovens
Washers
Stereos and Televisions
 This computer controlled home security system monitors:-
Movements
Broken glass
Unlawful entry without a security code, and so on, and alerts the
local police department.
8. Weather and Environment
 Computers are used to show:-
Temperature ranges
Wind flow
Weather forecasting
9. Transportation
 Many aircraft can fly under the control of the computer; in this
situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by telling the
computer what to do.
 In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as fuel
control.
10. Medical and Health Care
 Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record
keeping.
 Today, however, many people owe their lives to the computer.
 Computers are used in hospitals as sensors (device that detect
changes in blood pressure, heart rate, temperature).

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  Testing (scans the body and provide 3-D figure).
 Patient treatment.

11. Routine and Dangerous Tasks

 Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task in
environments to dangerous for human workers.
12. Consultant (Expert system)

 An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems

from a specific knowledge base.
 These systems don't replace expert humans because the knowledge
base of expert system is given from the skilled specialist
(programmers).
 Example:
 Mycin (a medical diagnostic program by using sophisticated
decision making process).

Capacities of computers

Accept/ input data using input devices

Input: Entering data or information in to the processing cycle.
Processing: - Execution of a set of procedures to meet the objective of a system changes.
The data into useful information refers to the day-to-day work of the system.
Giving/presenting output information using output devices
Output is the result of all of the system’s activity. Presenting the information for the end
user

Limitations of computers

Computers haven’t yet met all our expectations as a productivity improvement tool i.e.
they facilitate our work by reducing time and cost, but sometimes we take much more
time to learn how to use application program that is supposed to increase productivity
based on the existing program

 They don’t think.

 Computers are merely tools, useless without humans.
 It cannot identify its problem
 Decide the output needed to solve the problem
 Software that generate automatically is also designed by humans

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 History and Development of Computers

Objective:

At the end of this section the learner will be able to:

 State and explain each of the generations of computer.

 identify the different technological advancements of computers

Introduction:

We have all heard stories of primitive peoples counting their sheep by moving sticks or
stones. Our base ten number system undoubtedly grew from the use of 10 fingers as
counting objects. Together with the development of people, the need to calculate and
keep track of information had become popular issue. So they soon develop a simple
computing device and had a power of storing small information. However, many
thousands of years elapsed before developing mechanical calculator.
Some of the calculating devises are mentioned bellow:
a) The Abacus
It is one of the earliest mechanical computational devices. It was in use in the Middle
East as early as 2500 BC The familiar Chinese abacus ( dating approximately 1200 AD )
is composed of a frame and a number of wires. The wires correspond to position of digits
in decimal number-units, tens, hundreds, and so on-and the beads represent digits.
Beads above the cross bar represent 5 and those bellow, 1.

The abacus shows zero, if all the bead bellow the cross bar are at the lower frame and
above are at the upper frame.
Addition of two numbers on the abacus can be performed by representing the first
number and the second number without resetting the first. On any wire showing 10 or
more, the two beads above the cross bar are moved back, and an extra 1 (the Cary) is

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added two the wire on the left. This process can be easily generalized to addition and
subtraction of more than two numbers.
B) Pascal’s calculator
It is the first true mechanical calculator.
In 1642, at the age of 19, the French philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal
developed a rotating wheel calculator, the predecessor of the later popular desktop
calculator. He built largely to assist his father, who was a tax collector in the town of
Rouen, Pascal’s calculator has one wheel corresponding to each power of 10; each wheel
has 10 position, one for each of the digits (0,..9). although Pascal ’s calculator could only add and
subtract, it could be used indirectly for multiplication (by successive addition) and
division (by successive subtraction) as well.
C) The difference engine
It is the forerunner of the modern computer.
Charles Babbage (1792-1871), a British mathematician and engineer, is considered by
many to be the real father of today’s computer was the developer of the difference engine
and designer of the analytical engine. The difference engine also based on the rotating
wheels principle was operated by means of a single crank. This devise has a power of
calculation and print the output with out human intervention. He finally designed
significantly improved version of the difference engine (but not built) called Analytic
engine. It has different key components
 The store: A memory wheel consisting of set of counter wheels
 The mill: An arithmetic unit capable of performing the four basic arithmetic
operations. It operated on pairs of mechanical registers and produced a result
stored in another register, all of which were located in the store.
 Operation cards: These cards selected one of the four arithmetic operations by
activating the mill to perform the selected function.
 Variable cards: These cards selected the memory locations to be used by the mill
for a particular operation ( a source of operand and the destination of the result ).
 Out put: was to print or a card punch device.
But finally the design halt largely due to the technology of the day is not far enough too
supply the required raw materials.

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D) Herman Hollerith’s tabulating machine
Herman Hollerith was a statistician that in 1880 and develop his machine commissioned
by the U.S. Census Bureau to develop a technique for speeding up the processing of
census data that took at least 8 years before. He develops his machine that uses the
punched card to punch the census the data and tabulated by using his machine. This
machine processes the 1890 American census data with in 3 years. It was really a great
development. He finally began the tabulating Machine Company, which later becomes
the International Business Machine Corporation (IBM)
E) Mark I: - Developed by Howard Aiken at Harvard University (1944) which were the
one first electromechanical computer. Instructions were provided by means of punched
paper tape, which combined the functions of Babbage’s operation cards and variable
cards. Each instruction had the format
A1 A2 OP where
A1 and A2 are registers storing the operands
OP is the operation to be performed (e.g. +,-, x, ÷)
Mark I could do a single addition in 6 seconds and division in 12 seconds

F) ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer): Developed by Eckert and

Mauchly at the university of Pennsylvania. This was the first electronic calculator and
first general purpose digital computer. This machine was enormous, weighing 30 tones,
occupying 15,000 square feet of floor space and containing over 18,000 vacuum tubes.
When operating, it consumed over 140 kWh of power. It had a capability of performing
5,000 additions per second. Its memory consisted of 20 “accumulators” each capable of
holding a 10 digit decimal number. Each digit was represented by a ring of 10 vacuum
tubes. At any time, only one of the 10 tubes was in ON state, representing one of the 10
digits.

 ENIAC did not use internally stored programs. Programs

were wired on boards similar to a telephone switch board.
 One of the major drawbacks of ENIAC was that it had to be
programmed manually by setting switches and plugging and
unplugging cables.

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G) The Von Neumann Machine
The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was extremely tedious. Von
Neumann was the consultant on the ENIAC project and forward the stored program
concept, i.e designing the computer to get its instruction by reading them from memory
alongside the data and a program could be set or altered by setting the values of a portion
of a memory. Based on this concept, the first true electronic computers were developed
by the name EDVAC (electronic Discrete Variable Computer) and EDSAC ( Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer).

G) Commercial Computers
The 1950s saw the birth of computers industry with two companies, Spery and IBM,
dominating the market place. In 1947, Eckert and Mauchly develop their successful
commercial computer called UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer ) . UNIVAC
was division of Remington Rand (later Sperry_Rand Corporation). IBM also the majior
manufacturer of punched card processing equipment ,delivered its first electronic stored
program computer, the IBM 701, in 1953.

Generations of computers

I First Generation – 1950s: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often huge, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in
addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the
cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform
operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched
cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) and ENIAC (Electronic Numerical

Integrator and Computer) are examples of first-generation computing devices. ENIAC
had a mean breakdown interval of 12 minutes. Moreover, it weighs 30 tones and covers
20,000 square feet of area. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to
a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

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II Second Generation – 1960s: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the
late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

Second-generation computers moved from machine language to symbolic, or assembly,

languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

III Third Generation - 1960-1970: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the characteristic of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors. It is in this generation that users started to interact to the
computer through operating systems. This allowed the computer to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers
for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

IV Fourth Generation – 1970 - 1989: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled
an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in
1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and
memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors.

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As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

V Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology
will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

Activity 4

Can you identify the main differences between the different generations of computers?

Types of Computers

Section Objectives:
After completing this section the learner should be able to:
 Identify the criteria used to categorize computers
 Explain the different types of computers and their differences

As discussed in the previous section any computing device can be called a computer.
Considering this definition, computers can be classified into different categories based on
different characteristics. Computers can classified based their method of operation,
capacity, size, purpose, and price.
1. Classification by the method of operation
Based on the type of data they process computers can be classified as:

Analog
Analog computers operate by measuring physical properties. They deal with
continuous variables; they don’t compute directly with numbers, rather, they
operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage,
current etc.
Examples: Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer

Digital
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather
than measuring. They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent
numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket calculators, general purpose computers

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Hybrid
Hybrid computers inherit the best features of both analog and digital computers.
Usually the Input is continuous data (analog). Since Digital Processing is more
accurate, processing takes place digitally. The processed information – the output
– could be either digital or analog, depending on the user preference or the type of
application.
Examples: digital camera, health monitoring machines in some
hospitals,

2. Classification by purpose
Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application,
they are classified as special purpose or general-purpose computers.
1 A. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and
function are uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:

• Traffic control system.

• The public telephone box.
1 • Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
2 • Pocket calculators etc.
• Counters.
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

1 B. General-purpose computers
• The same computer can be applied to solve another set of
problem using different program.
• General purpose computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples of General purpose computers:-
1 • Micro computers
2 • Mini computers
• Mainframe computers
3 • Super computers etc.

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 3

3. Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance

Size and capacity are also the other characteristics of computers that can be used to
categorize computers. Based on these characteristics computers can be classified as:

Super computer
The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely
powerful computer designed for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is
generally characterized as being the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive
computer.
Generally, Supercomputers are:
• The largest and the most efficient computers
• Very expensive
• very fast and
• Supports hundreds of users at different locations

Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger
than micros and minis and usually have processors with faster instruction
processing speeds. For example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200
million instructions per second (MIPS). Mainframe computers also support
multiple users and are expensive.

Minicomputer
Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than
most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer
systems. Minicomputers are being used for a large number of business and
scientific applications. They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research
centers, universities and colleges, engineering firms, industrial process monitoring
and control, etc.

Microcomputers
The smallest computers ever produced in the history of computers are
microcomputers. Since they are designed to be used by a single user, they have
the least capacity as compared to the other types of computers. They are also the
least expensive of all types. There two different types of microcomputers are
desktop computers and portable computers (laptops, notebook computers and
palmtops)
Activity: Compare and contrast each type of computer based on their size speed, and cost

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