1) Gram negative cell walls of bacteria has very thin peptidoglycan layer.

Cell wall contains

10-20% peptidoglycan. The second layer formed outside the peptidoglycan layer
contains porin protein, lipoproteins, Phospholipids and LPS. Peptidoglycan contains
glycans which act as the backbone. This is composed of alternating N- acetyl muramic
acid and N acetyl Glucosamine and these are linked by tetrapeptide, D glutamic acid, D
alanine, Di aminopimelic acid and l glutamic acid. Through porin protein molecules enter
and leave the bacterial cell. LPS in gram negative cell walls contains 3 parts. (i) Lipid A
(ii) Core polysaccharide (iii) O specific polysaccharide. Lipid A is linked to Core
polysaccharide on one end and O polysaccharide on the other end. This lipid A is
responsible for the toxicity of gram negative bacteria. When a disease causing bacteria
dies after entering the host cell, it releases Lipid A as endotoxin and this causes the
disease. Outer membranes of gram negative bacteria are relatively permeable to small
molecules but not permeable to large molecules.

3) Basidiomycota: This is a type of fungi which is often called club fungi. For example mushroom
shelf fungi etc. Mostly they produce sexyally and basidium is the reproductive structure which
produces basidiospores. Sometimes they may produce asexually and produce conidiospore.

Ascomycota: These funguses are called sac fungi. For example, yeast , truffles etc. They
reproduce both sexually and asexually. Yeast produces asexually by budding. Asexual spores
are called conidia which are formed on the tip of special hyphae called condiophores. And the
sexual spore is called Ascocarp.

5) Influenza is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. Influenza viruses

are RNA viruses that means their genomic sequence consists of only RNA. There are 3 types of
influenza virus. (i) Influenza Virus A (ii) influenza virus B (iii) influenza virus C

Influenza Virus A: This virus is most virulent among other types. This is capable of infecting
humans as well as animals. The Mutation rate is high and may cause antigenic change
Subtypes of this virus is (H1N1), (H5N1).

Influenza virus B: This virus is a little less virulent and the mutation rate is 2-3 times slower than
influenza A. Thi reduced the changes of antigenic change.

Influenza C virus : This particular virus infects humans but is less common than the other types.
This usually causes mild disease in children.

4) Bacterial Toxin are of 2 types (a) Exotoxins (b) Endotoxins

a) Exotoxin: Mainy produced by gram positive bacteria and some gram negative bacteria.
The actions of this exotoxins does not require any host and most exotoxins are heat
labile peptides these exotoxin can be converted into toxoid with the help of
formaldehyde. There are 3 classes of exotoxin
(i) neurotoxin: This interferes with proper synaptic transmission of neurons. For example,
Botulinum toxin.
(ii) Cytotoxin: This inhibits some specific cellular activities like protein synthesis
(ii) Enterotoxins: Interferes with water reabsorption in large intestine by damaging the wall of
gastrointestinal tract.

b) Endotoxin: Only gram negative bacteria produce them and they are lipopolysaccharide
in nature. The actions of endotoxins require the presence of a host, unlike exotoxins they
cannot function without any host. Gram negative cells release endotoxins when they die
and their cell wall degenerates

2) Synchronous growth means all the cells are growing at the same pace. The entire
population maintains a steady growth and division. Firstly we pass the medium through a
filter. Then we will take the filtered culture adn pour it in another container with a fresh
medium and an inverted filter and the loose bounded cell will be washed away. After
that the filtered bacteria will grow and divide at the same rate. This is the
Helmstetter-Cumming technique of obtainig synchronus culture. This process is done
because it is impossible to determine a single bacterial cell to obtain information about it
s growth and behaviour. So the synchronous culture provides a suitable environment so
that the bacterial cells can maintain a constant growth. The information on
measurements made on this culture are equivalent to information measurements of an
individual cell.