Sensors and Actuators A 118 (2005) 226–232

A micro corona motor

Sanghoon Leea,∗ , Daejong Kimb , Michael D. Bryantb , Frederick F. Lingc
a Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd, 416 Metan-3Dong, Yeongtong-Gu, Suwon-City 443-742, Gyeonggi-Do, Republic of Korea
b The University of Texas at Austin, Mechanical Engineering, 1 University Station, Austin, Texas, TX 78712, USA
c 250 South End Avenue, Suite 3E, New York, NY 10280, USA

Received 29 September 2003; accepted 10 August 2004

Available online 5 October 2004

Abstract

A micro corona motor was fabricated and tested. Intense electric fields at sharp stator electrodes ionize air molecules, and ionized charges are
transferred onto the rotor surface. Coulomb repulsion between rotor and electrodes rotates and levitates the rotor. Important design parameters,
such as electrode spacing, air gap, and electrode-tilt angle, were studied using an electrostatic field simulator. For good performance, the stator’s
electrodes should be axially thick and have sharp tips. Therefore, X-ray lithography was adopted for precise, high aspect ratio characteristics.
To avoid the fabrication difficulty of a membrane X-ray mask, a built-on X-ray mask technique was employed with negative-toned SU-8
photoresist. Speed and torque of a fabricated micro motor were measured. High rotating speed (>104 rpm) was obtained with several hundred
DC volts applied. Using the spin-down method, the torque was estimated in the order of 10 nN m. For over 20 million cycles, the motor showed
good stability with no additional control action.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Micro motor; Corona; Built-on X-ray mask; LIGA; Microfabrication

1. Introduction rotor is sprayed with charges. Around the stator’s circumfer-

A corona motor, a unique type of electrostatic motor [1,2],
uses repulsive Coulomb forces between stator electrodes and
the rotor to create rotating motion. Voltages applied to the
sharp edges of the stator’s electrodes generate intense and
highly non-uniform fields; the tips of these electrodes are
close to the surface of the rotor. Since strong electric fields
can ionize air molecules resulting in a corona, the surface
of the rotor can be charged by means of a partial corona
discharge from the stator electrodes. Here, charged particles
repelled by the stator electrode drift to the rotor (purposely
made an insulator) and deposit charge onto the surface. In mo-
tor operation, the stator and charged rotor interact to produce
both torque and bearing lift. Fig. 1 shows a stator and rotor
configuration. Because of a continuous discharge between
the electrodes and the rotor, almost the entire surface of the
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 331 277 8648; fax: +82 331 200 4649.
E-mail address: onandon7@naver.com (S. Lee).
ence, alternate electrodes have different polarities. This re-
sults in alternately charged sectors on the rotor, which repel
the neighboring like-charged electrode. AC or even DC exci-
tation applied to the stator electrodes will drive this motor. As
the rotor turns, the charge residing on any section of the ro-
tor approaches the next electrode. Since alternate electrodes
possess opposite charge, the rotor experiences an additional
attractive force between the section and the next electrode.
This augments the drive. Finally, an opposite charge is de-
posited on the sector by the next electrode and the rotation
process continues.
Our aim is to design and fabricate a micro corona motor
utilizing repulsive electrostatic force. Krein [3] analyzed a
micro corona motor based on the conductivity in the motor’s
air gap. However, corona motors have not been constructed
in the micro domain because of lack of information on mi-
cro discharges and fabrication difficulty. There have been a
number of research studies on a variety of micro discharges
in MEMS community since the end of 1990s [4–9]. Recent

0924-4247/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sna.2004.08.017
 S. Lee et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 118 (2005) 226–232 227

Fig. 1. Rotor and stator configuration and stator electrode’s tilt angle.

investigations showed similarities between macro and micro Table 1

discharges, if the air gap was greater than 6 ␮m [4,5]. Design Geometric design parameters
requirements of a corona motor, such as sharp and tall elec- Parameter Size
trode tips can be satisfied by X-ray lithography fabrication Electrode spacing 360 ␮m
methods. Air gap 50 ␮m
Driving forces of past electrostatic micro motors (e.g., Rotor OD 1300 ␮m
Rotor ID 500 ␮m
variable capacitance and induction motors) arose from Stator tip <1 ␮m
Coulomb attraction between opposite charges [10,11]. Electrode-tilt angle 30◦
Coulomb’s electrostatic force increases as distance between Shaft OD 500 ␮m
charges decreases. Tolerance between a bearing and rotor Shaft length 5–8 mm
(an unbalanced asymmetric air gap) produces unwanted ra-
dial motions of the rotor, which further changes the eccentric
air gap and disturbs the forces. A small disturbance can un- size of the air gap between electrodes and rotor should be
balance the rotor and the resulting radial motions of the rotor minimized because Coulomb forces decrease rapidly with
increase rotor–stator contact, friction, and wear, which limits distance. However, a very small air-gap size reduces the in-
motor life. For the corona motor, repulsion between stator homogeneity of the electric field, decreasing effective corona
electrodes and like-charged sectors of the rotor surface levi- generation and rotor surface charging. Tolerances imposed
tate the rotor, augmenting bearing action and avoiding stiction by the bearing’s clearance also limit the minimum gap dis-
and friction. tance. To enhance the field intensity at the electrode tip,
we seek to increase the radial tilt angle of the electrode,
see Fig. 1(b). However, to obtain a unidirectional tangential
force (Ftangent in Fig. 1(b)), electrode-tilt angles must be less
2. Design of micro corona motor
than 90◦ because charged particles drift to the rotor surface
with electrode-tilt angle. Materials selected for this motor de-
Important design parameters for the corona motor include
sign must satisfy functional requirements (insulating rotor,
number of corona electrodes, air-gap spacing, and electrode-
conductive erosion-resistant electrodes, and dielectric stator
tilt angle. Electrostatic finite element simulations [12] us-
spacing) and be fabrication friendly. Materials for electrodes
ing Lorenz 2D software (Integrated Engineering Software
and insulating layer were selected for compatibility with
Inc., Manitoba, Canada) suggested 360 ␮m electrode spac-
common LIGA (Lithography, Gavanoformumg, and Abfor-
ing, 50 ␮m air gap, and 30◦ electrode-tilt angle. This soft-
mung [13]) processes, e.g. nickel and polymethymethacrylate
ware allows simple model construction with precise grid
(PMMA). Table 1 shows geometric parameters selected by
points in the micro domain and adjustable iteration error
the considerations mentioned above, and Table 2 shows se-
limits. The details of dimensions and electrode shapes were
lected materials.
given in Table 1. A number of design trade-offs exist. The
output torque is proportional to the number of electrodes.
Increasing the number of electrodes not only reduces the Table 2
distance between electrodes but also increases the charged Materials selection
area, rendering more stable and uniform rotor motion. How- Item Material
ever, avoiding electrical breakdown of dielectrics between Electrode Nickel
adjacent electrodes requires wide electrode spacing. Further, Electrode spacers PMMA
widely spaced electrodes concentrate fields at the electrode Rotor PMMA
Shaft Nickel alloy
tip greatly. To maximize output torque of the motor, the
228 S. Lee et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 118 (2005) 226–232

3. Fabrication of micro corona motor

The design of this motor demands small dimensions, high

tolerances, large aspect ratios, and very sharp electrodes.
X-ray lithography was adopted for fabrication because short-
wavelength X-rays can satisfy the following geometric spec-
ifications. Firstly, the smallest possible tip radius of a sharp
electrode is determined by the wavelength of the light source
[13]. As tip radius decreases, the field intensity around the
tip is enhanced allowing lower working voltage to achieve
a given electric field. Secondly, the high penetration energy
of X-rays allows high aspect ratio structures. As the stator
becomes longer, the charged area on the rotor increases ulti-
mately enhancing torques.
Fabrication of X-ray masks is important for LIGA and
deep X-ray lithographic processes. In the past, membranes
made of titanium, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, glass, and
relatively thicker substrates made of beryllium, graphite, and
silicon were used to fabricate X-ray masks. However, the
mask membrane is always an issue because of the fabri-
cation difficulties, X-ray transparency, optical transparency
for optical alignment, and deformation during the process. Fig. 2. Fabrication process of a corona motor by two built-on X-ray masks:
Thin membranes such as titanium and silicon nitride offer (a) optical lithography on SU-8 layer, (b) patterned SU-8 layer after devel-
oping, (c) first X-ray exposure, (d) PMMA developing in G–G solution, (e)
very high X-ray transmission; however, these thin membranes nickel electroplating and polishing, (f) optical lithography with a second UV
are very fragile. Beryllium, another high-performance mem- mask, (g) second X-ray exposure, (h) PMMA development.
brane is toxic. Graphite and Kapton masks are easy to handle;
however, graphite masks usually have high defect density and Fig. 2 shows the fabrication processes for the micro
produce high sidewall roughness, and Kapton masks show a corona motor. Membraneless built-on X-ray masks were
thermo-mechanical instability [14]. fabricated on top of the polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)
To eliminate the need for an X-ray mask membrane, ‘con- substrate not only to accelerate the fabrication process for
formal’ or ‘built-on’ masks were developed [15,16]. This a prototype but also to eliminate the printing gap, which
technique builds absorber patterns directly onto the X-ray re- limits the resolution of lithography. Since fabrication of a
sist surface through an optical mask. To satisfy the required built-on mask is on the PMMA substrate photoresist, se-
contrast for high aspect ratio structures, e.g. LIGA, the gold lection of photoresist should satisfy the following require-
absorber should be thick because the contrast is proportional ments: (a) the baking temperature should be lower than the
to the absorber thickness. Depending on the required reso- PMMA glass transition temperature; (b) adhesion on the
lution of applications, an optical mask can be fabricated by Cr/Au layer should be good; and (c) the developer should
pattern generator or e-beam lithography. Besides the fabri- not attack the PMMA layer. Negative-tone epoxy-based
cation issues, a built-on mask eliminates printing gaps and EPONTM SU-8 (MicroChem Corp., Newton, MA, USA) was
gives better resolution. selected for this process because of good X-ray transparency

Fig. 3. (a) Prototype of a corona stator with Ni electrodes and PMMA (insulator) electrode separations, and (b) magnified view of an electrode.
 S. Lee et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 118 (2005) 226–232
Fig. 4. (a) Prototype of a PMMA corona rotor (R = 650 ␮m) and (b) an assembly with a shaft.
(transmission coefficient of 0.95 for 6 keV with 20 ␮m SU-8
[17]), good optical transparency, various available thickness
ranges (2–500 ␮m) with excellent sidewall slope, and ease of
process.
Fabricating a built-on X-ray mask was initiated with a
plating base on the PMMA substrate by evaporating 100 Å of
chromium followed by 500 Å of gold, using an electron beam
evaporator. A 20-␮m thick layer of SU-8 was coated over the
plating base. The SU-8 layer was exposed to make an X-ray
mask pattern in contact mode through an optical mask using a
UV-exposure station. After development, an 8-␮m thick Au-
electroplated layer was deposited at the rate of 4 ␮m/h. Since
the residue-free removal of SU-8 is problematic, the resist
was left in place on the X-ray masks without significantly
affecting the exposure processes. To reduce stresses induced
by the mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients between
different layers, the specimen was annealed at 80 ◦ C for one
hour and then slowly cooled.
Fig. 3(a) shows the fabricated stator of a corona motor,
which consists of nickel electrodes and PMMA insulators
between each electrode. A magnified view of an electrode
is shown in Fig. 3(b). Several 300-␮m thick PMMA rotors
(Fig. 4(a)) were also fabricated using the same techniques.
This micro motor’s rotor was assembled by placing the rotor
(Fig. 4(a)) over an 8-mm long, 500 ␮m diameter nickel alloy
shaft. This rotor was thermally expanded and placed onto the
shaft at 50 ◦ C using the large thermal expansion coefficient of
PMMA (70 × 10−6 K−1 ). An assembled rotor (nickel alloy
shaft and PMMA rotor) is shown in Fig. 4(b).
4. Test of micro corona motor
4.1. Speed measurement
Fig. 5 shows the experimental setup for the speed mea-
surement. For easy alignment and reduced bearing friction,
vee-jewel bearings were installed at both shaft ends with pre-
cise X Y Z stages. A photonic sensor detected the shaded area
on the shaft in Fig. 5, once each rotation. The sensor mea-
229
sured rotating speed by dividing the count of rotations by the
time of the count.
The actual tip radius was much larger (3–5 ␮m) than
the photomask pattern (1–2 ␮m), which is larger than the
designed value (<1 ␮m) due to the limitation and error of
fabrication. Larger tip radius caused high working voltages
(>700 V), and therefore only up to four electrodes could
be used for the stable performance-avoiding arc between
activated electrodes. Fig. 6 shows rotor speed (rpm) ver-
sus voltage applied to the electrodes. Different curves per-
tain to different number of stator electrodes active. For
the two-electrode system, a corona discharge began around
700–800 V but due to the relatively large static friction at
the vee-jewel bearings, rotation started from 1100 V. After
startup, the applied voltage can be reduced to 850 V be-
cause dynamic friction at the bearings is generally smaller
than static friction. In the four-electrode system, corona dis-
charge began around 800 V and rotation started at 950 V be-
cause the driving torque is proportional to the number of
electrodes. In both cases, rotation speed increased with in-
creased applied voltage. Data was recorded only when the
rotating motion was stable. With much higher voltage, un-
stable sparking starts between electrodes, or between elec-
trodes and rotor. Because the four-electrode system had
closer spacing between activated electrodes, the arc volt-
age was lower than that for the two-electrode system. Fig. 7
shows a melted rotor due to excessive current at very high
voltage.
4.2. Torque measurement
Precise torque measurements are very difficult because
the micro motor’s torque (pN m–␮N m) is too small for com-
mercial torque meters (␮N m–mN m). To estimate torque
roughly, we used the spin-down method. Spin-down ex-
periments allow quantifying the torques from bearing fric-
tion and viscous drag. When the motor runs at steady-state
speed, the friction and drag torques Td equal the driving
torques Tf , i.e. Tf = Td . If we assume the friction and drag
torques proportional to rotation speed, during spin-down
230 S. Lee et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 118 (2005) 226–232

Fig. 5. Experimental setup for rotating speed measurements with vee-jewel bearings at both ends; the alignment of stator and bearings is precisely controlled
by X Y Z stage. (a) Experimental setup for the speed measurement. (b) Schematic of experimental setup. (c) Assembled motor (upper bearing was removed for
the photography).

(with Td = 0): certainty; since at lower speed, a single revolution represents

dω a larger percentage of the deceleration time. From Fig. 8(b),
J = −Kω (1) the constant of Eqs. (1) and (2), K ≈ 2.5E − 11 (N m s) and for
dt
the given rotor inertia, J = 1E − 12 (Kg m2 ). At steady-state,
Integration of Eq. (1) gives the time to stop (ts ) from the initial Tf = Td implies:
steady-state speed (ω0 ):
J Td = Kω (3)
ts = log (ω0 ) (2)
K
Fig. 8(a) shows a sample signal of speed decay after turn- Fig. 9(a and b) plots the estimated torques Td and Tf versus
ing off the electrode-voltage excitation. Fig. 8(b) plots the speed and voltage, with K = 2.5E − 11 (N m s). Fig. 9(b)
time to stop versus rotation speeds; this shows logarithmic compares the measured (using proportional constant K) and
tendency. Error bars on the data indicate the uncertainty of simulated torque, described elsewhere [6], using estimated
the time measurements. The low speed data have larger un- charge distributions on the stator and the rotor.
 S. Lee et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 118 (2005) 226–232
Fig. 6. Measurements of corona motor speed versus applied electrode volt-
age with vee-jewel bearings at both ends.
Fig. 7. Rotor failure due to the excessive heat generated by high current at
high voltage.
4.3. Reliability test
The motor ran reliably for several days without failure.
Fig. 10 shows results of a 24-h long test with a two-electrode
system. There was a small variation in speed but stability at
high speed (15 000 rpm) was maintained with no additional
control action, as shown in Fig. 10. The motor could have
run indefinitely. Even though vee-jewel bearings were used
in this test, stable rotation at high speeds suggests that repul-
sive forces between the stator and the rotor make balanced
rotation.
5. Discussion
Corona motors’ repulsive forces overcome friction/wear
difficulties of past micro motors and generate larger torques.
This motor, which required sharp electrodes and tall struc-
tures for good performance, was fabricated by X-ray lithog-
raphy. The higher than expected working voltage was caused
by a larger than expected electrode-tip radius. The targeted
231
Fig. 8. (a) Sample photonic sensor signal versus time to measure the time
to stop from the initial steady-state speed (ω0 = 3500 (rpm)). (b) The time
to stop (ts ) versus initial rotation speed.
electrode-tip radius was less than 1 ␮m but due to resolution
limits of the optical mask and fabrication errors, the fabricated
electrodes had radii of 3–5 ␮m. A corona discharge begins
when the field intensity at the tip exceeds the gas breakdown
strength. A larger tip radius reduces the field intensity. To
compensate, the working voltage was increased. However,
this large working voltage encountered inter-electrode dis-
charges, so only two to four electrodes could be used for
stable operation. With six electrodes, unexpected intermit-
tent arcing between neighboring electrodes produced unsta-
ble motion. A small tip radius also allows a smaller air gap
for stable corona discharges resulting in greater torques, be-
cause Coulomb’s force is inversely proportional to the dis-
tance. Improved fabrication should result in a much lower
working voltage with larger torque.
Another reduction of working voltage involves environ-
mental gas species. Nitrogen or helium gases have lower ion-
ization potential (N2 : 251 V, He: 156 V [18]) than air (327 V).
Therefore, we can expect a 20–50% reduction of working
voltage with these gases.
Reliability and performance issues of corona motors in-
volve reduction of working voltage and possible sputtering
on the tip. Because the working pressure of this motor is very
high (atmospheric pressure) and corona current is usually
less than ␮A, sputtering may not significantly change the tip
232 S. Lee et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 118 (2005) 226–232
Fig. 9. Torque estimation: (a) torque Tf estimated using K = 2.5E − 11
(N m s) from the spin-down test. (b) comparison between measured and
simulated Td (=Tf ).
radius. However, in terms of reliability, sputtering should be
as small as possible. Low-mass gases, e.g. helium, or other
materials with high resistance to ion bombardments can be
used.
Although the micro corona motor worked successfully,
optimization of design parameters based on the application,
optimization of fabrication process, investigations of corona
Fig. 10. Reliability test of a corona motor over 24 h with two electrodes and
applied voltage of 1300 V.
discharge phenomena with a moving surface, and creation of
sensing devices are still to be done.
Acknowledgements
We thank the National Science Foundation, Grant DMI-
0115527, Manufacturing Machines and Equipment Program,
Division of Design, Manufacture and Industrial Innovation,
and Atoz CompuNet Ltd for support for this work. We also
thank Dr Jost Gottert, Yoonyoung Jin, and staff of Center
for Advanced Microstructure and Devices at Louisiana State
University for support and equipment for fabrication.
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