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ELECTRICAL MACHINES
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D.C. Machine
Introduction
A D.C. Machine is an electromechanical energy conversion device
(i) DC Generator
(ii) DC Motor
DC Generator
It converts mechanical power (input) into DC electrical power (output).
DC Motor
It converts DC electrical power (input) into mechanical power (output).
Working principle
It states that when a conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force then an electromag-
netic force will be induced within the conductors.
Construction of DC machines
Yoke
Yoke is made with cast steel for large machines and cast iron for small machines.
Functions of Yoke
The flux distribution wave shape is flat topped wave, which is proffered because
the average value of flux is more compared to sinusoidal flux distribution.
Broad pole shoes are proffered such that more average value of flux.
Armature core
It is made with silicon steel, laminated to reduce the eddy current loss since
armature current is alternating.
To accommodate the armature winding and offers low reluctance path for
magnetic flux.
In DC machines open slots are preferred because less leakage flux, less
inductance, less leakage reactance there by commutation will be improved.
Commutator
Commutator is made with hard drawn copper to reduce wear and tear
Brushes
They are made with copper or carbon for small machine and electro-graphite for
normal and large rating machine.
Copper-graphite brushes are used for large current and low voltage machines.
Function of brush is to collect the current or give the current to armature conductors
through the commutator segments.
Disadvantage
Armature winding
There are two types of winding i.e. lap winding and wave winding.
They are made with copper or carbon for small machine and electro-graphite for
normal and large rating machine.
Copper-graphite brushes are used for large current and low voltage machines.
Function of brush is to collect the current or give the current to armature conductors
through the commutator segments.
1) A coil which can be lap back forward the 1) The loop of the winding that can form
succeeding coil the signal shape
2) The no. of the parallel path is equal to the 2) The number of parallel path equal to two
total no. of poles
3) Another name of lap winding is multiple 3) Another name of wave winding is series
winding or parallel winding winding
4) The emf of lap winding is less 4) The emf of wave winding is more
5) The efficiency of lap winding is less 5) The efficiency of the wave winding is
high
6) It is used for low voltage high current 6) It is used for high voltage low current
applications applications
Points to Remember
If the number parallel paths is A.
Where m = multiplicity
If m = 1 → simplex winding
m = 2 → duplex winding
m = 3 → triplex winding
m = 4 → quadrant winding
Where,
Armature reaction
The effect of armature flux (∮a) on main field flux (∮m) is called Armature reaction.
The armature mmf produces two undesirable effects on the main field flux and these
are
2) Distortion of the main field flux wave along the air-gap periphery.
Under loaded condition (i.e., due to armature reaction), MNA shifts in the direction of
rotation for a generator and against the direction of rotation for a motor.
4) It leads to flash over as the armature coil existing under the trailing pole tip cuts
the maximum value of flux and due to this induced emf will be maximum and the
mica insulation will fail.
1. By using high reluctance pole tips, this is done by creating rectangular holes in the
pole shoes.
3. The effect of cross magnetization effect under the polar region can be reduced by
using the compensating winding.
Compensating winding
They are placed in the slots made under the pole shoe.
Inter poles
Inter poles are placed along the inter polar axis (Q - axis)
The inter poles causes demagnetization at the trailing pole tip, magnetization at the
leading pole tip there by the air gap flux distribution nearly becomes a flat-topped
wave.
Inter poles nullities cross magnetization effect of armature reaction and thereby
commutation is improved.
The method of improving commutation with the help of inter poles is called as volt-
age commutation.
Commutation
Commutation is the process of reversal of current in an armature coil through commu-
tation segments and brushes.
Linear commutation
Current reversal takes place exactly within the commutation period then it is
said to be ideal or linear commutation or straight line commutation.
Over commutation
When current reversal takes place before the commutation period then it is
said to be over commutation.
Under commutation
When current reversal takes place after the commutation period then it is
said to be under commutation or delayed commutation or slow commutation.
Commutation methods
Resistance commutation
(By using high carbon brush resistance)
The brush resistance is in series with the coil under the commutation
process.
The voltage drop across the brush is equal to reactance voltage due to cross mag-
netizing effect, then the effects are said to be neutralized, commutation will im-
prove.
Characteristics of DC generators
There are total five (5) types of characteristics-
3) Internal characteristics
4) External characteristics
Where,
No load characteristic
This characteristic gives the variation of armature generated EMF, E g with field
current If for zero armature current and constant speed.
Load characteristic
This characteristic gives the relation between terminal voltage Vt and field cur-
rent If for constant armature current and speed.
External characteristics
Armature characteristics
This curve gives the variation of field current If with load current IL for constant terminal
voltage and speed.
Where,
These generators are most frequently employed because of no separate source for
excitation is required.
No load characteristic
No load characteristic of shunt generator is similar to separately excited
generator
Armature characteristics
The graph gives the variation of If with armature (or) load current.
3. Battery charging
Under no load condition induced emf is zero and DC generator has rising
characteristics
The shape of the external characteristics shows that the series generator is
a variable voltage generator. It is therefore never used as a voltage source.
1) No-load characteristics:
2) External characteristic:
The voltage is more or less constant, this generator can be used as voltage source.
Battery charging
Testbook point
Order of voltage regulation in descending order:
Series > differential compound > over compound > shunt > separately > under
compound > flat compound
Application:
- Fans, Air circulators (Forced air), centrifugal pumps and hydraulic pumps
Power = constant
Tw = constant
Applications:
1) Electric traction
2) Locomotives
3) Lifts
4) Hoists
5) Cranes
Applications:
1) Steel mills
2) Rolling mills
3) Cement mill
4) Paper mills
5) Colliery winders
Applications:
The speed of the DC shunt motor is constant, therefore it is used in lathes, drills,
boring mills, shapers, spinning and weaving machines etc.
Testbook Point
The direction of rotation of DC shunt motor can be reversed by changing field ter-
minals or supply terminals.
If both field terminals and supply terminals are reversal then the direction of rota-
tion will be same.
DC series motor
Where,
Ia – Armature current
Vt – terminal voltage
Eb – back EMF
Ra – Armature resistance
In DC series motor
- At over load condition field poles saturate and field flux becomes constant.
As ∮ ∝ Ia in DC series motor.
T ∝ I2a
∴ T ∝ Ia
In series motor
T ∝ I2a ⇒ √T ∝ Ia
Also
Applications:
Series motor is variable speed motor and has high starting torque. Therefore, they
are used in elevators, air compressors, electric tractions cranes, vacuum cleaners,
saving machine etc.
Testbook point
Series motor never be started at no-load condition.
Motor should be started with some load to keep the speed within limits.
DC compound motor
Where,
Where,
Torque
Applications:
A cumulative compound motor develops high starting torque and its no-load
speed is limited.
Therefore, they are used for intermediate loads such as punching machine,
sealing machine, and printing machine.
Differential compound motors are rarely used because of their poor torque
characteristics.
If all the DC motors are designed with same rated torque at rated armature current.
If all the motors are having same rated speed at rated current
In shunt motor an additional resistance is added in series with the shunt field.
In this flux control method, the machine behaves as constant power variable torque
drive.
Series motor
Flux in series motor can be controlled by
Series field winding is tapped and according to the tapping speed of the motor
is varied.
This method is useful for controlling the speed below rated speed.
Voltage across the armature is controlled and the speed can be controlled only be-
low rated speed because the voltage can’t be controlled to above rated value due
to the insulation failure of winding.
This method is generally used for separately excited motor and not suitable for
shunt motor.
Both above and below speed controls are possible in this method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Electric braking
Dynamic braking
In this method the armature of the DC shunt motor is disconnected from the
supply and connected to an external resistance
Plugging
In this method of braking the armature terminals are reversed so that motor
tends to run in opposite direction.
Regenerative braking
When Eb < V → the machine will be in motoring mode
If Eb > V, then power flow is reversed i.e. direction of armature current Ia is re-
versed, therefore torque is reversed and braking takes place
Losses in DC machine
Constant losses
Iron loss
Mechanical losses
Variable losses
Testing of DC machine
Brake Test
The motor is loaded directly by means of mechanical brake and is called direct meth-
od.
N–m
Where,
Output power:
Where,
T is the torque
Efficiency:
Swinburne’s test
This method is used for calculating losses and efficiency and it is called indirect test.
It is suitable for shunt and compound motor and not for series motor.
For generators:
Where,
For motor:
Wc is copper loss,
IL is load current
Hopkinson’s test
Two identical DC machines are used, one acts as generator and other acts as mo-
tor.
Power drawn from the supply is only used to mat the losses.
Temperature rise is verified, commutation is verified, stray load losses are consid-
ered
For generator:
For motor:
Where,
Retardation test
This test is best suitable for shunt and compound machines but not for series ma-
chine since this is no load test
It is a predetermine test
Field Test
This test is suitable for series machine. Two identical series motors are required,
one acting as generator and other as motor.
Stray losses are measured and equally divided for both the machine
In generator
Where,
In motor:
Where,
DC motor starters
Starters are used to protect DC motors from damage that can be caused by very high
current and torque during startup.
1. 3-point starter
2. 4-point starter