EI6402 - Electrical Machines Department of EIE&ICE 2016-2017

EI6402 – Electrical Machines Department of EIE&ICE 2016-2017
Unit-I DC Machines
Part-A (C213.1)
1.What is prime mover?
The basic source of mechanical power which drives the armature of the generator is called prime mover.
2. Give the materials used in machine manufacturing?
There are three main materials used in machine manufacturing. They are steel- to conduct magnetic flux
Copper or aluminium - to conduct electric current and mica or paper – to provide insulation.
3. What are factors on which hysteresis loss depends?
Hysteresis loss depends on magnetic flux density, frequency & volume of the material.
4. What is core loss? What is its significance in electric machines?
When a magnetic material undergoes cyclic magnetization, two kinds of power losses occur on it.
Hysteresis and eddy current losses are called as core loss. It is important in determining heating,
temperature rise, rating & efficiency of transformers, machines.
5. What is eddy current loss?
When a magnetic core carries a time varying flux, voltages are induced in all possible path enclosing flux.
Resulting is the production of circulating currents or eddy currents in the core. The power loss due to these
circulating current is known as eddy current loss.
6. How hysteresis and eddy current losses are minimized?
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by selecting materials for core such as silicon steel & steel alloys with low
hysteresis co-efficient and high electrical resistivity. Eddy Current losses are minimized by laminating the
core.
7. How will you find the direction of e.m.f using Fleming‟s right hand rule?
The thumb, forefinger & middle finger of right hand are held so that these fingers are mutually
perpendicular to each other, then forefinger-gives the direction of magnetic field, thumb-gives the motion
(i.e. direction of rotation) whereas middle finger gives the direction of induced e.m.f.
8. How are DC Generators Classified?[May/June 2012]
D.C Separately Excited Generator and Self Excited Generator. Further Classified as Compound, Shunt and
Series Generators.
9. Write down the e.m.f equation for d.c generator and d.c. motor? [Dec 2013]
D.C generator: Eg = (Φ Z N P) / (60 A) where Eg = induced emf in generator, Φ = flux per pole in weber,
Z = total number of conductors in armature, N = speed in rpm, P = number of poles, A = number of
parallel path (A= P for lap winding & A= 2 for wave winding)
D.C. motor : : Em = (Φ Z N P) / (60 A) where Eg = induced emf in motor, Φ = flux per pole in weber, Z =
total number of conductors in armature, N = speed in rpm, P = number of poles, A = number of parallel path
(A= P for lap winding & A= 2 for wave winding)
10. Why the armature core in d.c machines is constructed with laminated steel sheets instead of solid
steel sheets?
Lamination highly reduces the eddy current loss and steel sheets provide low reluctance path to magnetic
field.
11. Why commutator is employed in d.c.machines?
Commutator converts the induced alternating emf in the armature into unidirectional emf
12. Distinguish between shunt and series field coil construction?
Shunt field coils are wound with wires of small cross section and have more number of turns. Series field
coils are wound with wires of larger cross section and have less number of turns.
13. How does d.c. motor differ from d.c generator in construction?
Generators are normally placed in closed room and accessed by skilled operators only. Therefore on
ventilation point of view they are constructed with large opening in the frame. Motors have to be installed
right in the place of use which may have dust, dampness, inflammable gases, chemicals….etc. to protect
the motors against these elements, the motor frames are made either partially closed or totally closed or
flame proof.
14. How will you change the direction of rotation of d.c.motor?
To change the direction of D.C motor , Either the field direction or the direction of current through
armature conductor needs to be reversed.
15. What is the significance of back e.m.f in d.c motor?[MAY/June 2012]
As the motor armature rotates, the system of conductor come across alternate north and south pole
magnetic fields causing an e.m.f induced in the conductors. The direction of the e.m.f induced in the
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008
conductor is in opposite to current. As this e.m.f always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is
called as back e.m.f.
16. What is the function of No-Voltage Release (NVR) coil in d.c motor starter?
As long as the supply voltage is on healthy condition the current through the NVR coil produce enough
magnetic force of attraction and retain the starter handle in ON position against spring force. When the
supply voltage fails or becomes lower than a prescribed value then electromagnet may not have enough force
to retain so handle will come back to OFF position due to spring force automatically.
17. Enumerate the factors on which speed of a d.c.motor depends?
Speed of dc motor is N= (V - Ia Ra) / Φ Hence the speed depends on air gap flux(inversely proportional),
resistance of armature current and voltage applied to armature (directly proportional) & Ia Ra drop is
usually small.
18.Under what circumstances does a dc shunt generator fails to generate voltage?
Absence of residual flux, initial flux setup by field may be opposite in direction to residual flux, shunt
field circuit resistance may be higher than its critical field resistance; load circuit resistance may be less
than its critical load resistance.
19. Define critical field resistance of dc shunt generator?(Nov 2015)
Critical field resistance is defined as the resistance of the field circuit which will cause the shunt generator
just to build up its emf at a specified field.
20. Why is the e.m.f not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in dc generator?
Even after the field current is reduced to zero, the machine is left out with some flux as residue so e.m.f is
available due to residual flux.
21. On what occasion dc generator may not have residual flux?
The generator may be put for its operation after its construction, in previous operation; the generator
would have been fully demagnetized
22. What are the conditions to be fulfilled by for a dc shunt generator to build back emf?
Conditions of building up of voltage in a generator
• Residual magnetism must be present. • Field current must strengthen the residual magnetism
• Rf < Rc. • N > Nc
23. Define armature reaction in dc machines? [Dec 2013, May 2015]
The main flux, which is produced by field winding is very much useful because this flux creates the
magnetic field. But the interaction of the armature flux with main flux distorts and weakens the main flux
& creates problems for the proper operation of the DC machine. Thus, the effect of armature flux on the
main field flux is called armature reaction.
24. What is the function of carbon brush used in dc generators?
The function of the carbon brush is to collect current from commutator and supply to external load circuit
and to load.
25. What are two unwanted effects of armature reactions?
Cross magnetizing effect & demagnetizing effect
26. State working principle of a d.c. generator.
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The energy
conversion is based on the production of dynamically induced emf whenever a conductor cuts the
magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in it according to Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction .This emf causes current to flow if the circuit is closed.
27. State the principle of working of d.c motor.
An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Its action is based
on principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field , it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is given by Flemings left hand rule.
28. What is the function of Commutator?[Nov/Dec 2012]
The function of Commutator is to convert A.C to D.C and to collect the current from the Armature
windings.
29. What are the methods of neutralizing the effects of armature reaction?
i. By connecting compensating winding in series with the armature.
ii. By having a small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in between the main poles (interpoles).
30. What is critical resistance of a D.C. shunt generator?

The value of resistance of shunt field winding beyond which the shunt generator fails to build up its
voltage is known as ―Critical Resistance
31. What for field coils are provided in a D.C machine?
Field coil is a component of an electro-magnetic machine, typically a rotating electrical machine such as a
motor or generator. A current-carrying coil is used to generate a magnetic field. Magnetic fields require a
continuous circuit, thus more than one pole. Most arrangements use one field coil per pole. Some older or
simpler arrangements use a single field coil with a pole at each end.
32. Draw The Mechanical Characteristics of D.C Series Motor and its Applications. [Nov/Dec 2012]
33. State the conditions which determine if a DC machine is generating or motoring. [June 2013]
The terminal voltage of the two machines must also be V volt. This is dictated by the internal drop in each
machine given by equations
V = E1 − I1Ra1 = E2 − I2Ra2
Where Ra1 and Ra2 are the armature circuit resistances. If load resistance RL is known these equations can be
solved analytically to determine I1 and I2 and hence the manner in which to total output power is shared.
34. Write the voltage equation of DC motor. [June 2013]
V= Eb- Ia Ra.
V= supply voltage in Volts, Eb = Back emf in Volts, Ia = Armature current in ampere, Ra = armature
resistance in ohms.
35. Why are electro-magnets preferred over permanent magnets for use in large DC machines?
(June 2014)
The flux density of an electromagnet can be easily controlled. It's also easy and cheap to produce a large
flux density with an electromagnet which is necessary for such large dc motors. Permanent magnets are
generally expensive. For such a large motor, a very large permanent magnet will be needed for that motor
which will not be ideal.
36. How can the direction of rotation of a DC shunt motor be reversed? (June 2014, Nov/Dec 2014)
The direction of rotation of a DC shunt motor can be reversed by changing the polarity of either the
armature coil or the field coil.
37.Distinguish between lap and wave windings.(April/May 2015)
Lap Winding Wave Winding
No of parallel paths =No of poles No of parallel paths =2
generators requiring high current with low generators requiring low current with high
voltage use lap winding voltage use wave winding
38. What is the significance of back emf in DC motor.(Nov 2015)

The presence of back emf makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e., it makes the motor to draw
as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque required by the load.
 When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome the friction and windage
losses. Therefore, the armature current Ia is small and the back emf is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
 If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to slow down. Therefore, the
speed at which the armature conductors move through the field is reduced and hence the back emf Eb
falls. The decreased back emf allows a larger current to flow through the armature and larger current
means increased driving torque. Thus, the driving torque increases as the motor slows down. The motor
will stop slowing down when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque
required by the load.
 If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily in excess of the requirement so
that armature is accelerated. As the armature speed increases, the back emf E b also increases and causes
the
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Joseph’s College to decrease. The motor will stop accelerating when the armature current is just
ISO 9001:2008
sufficient to produce the reduced torque required by the load.
What –isElectrical
39.EI6402 Machines
the function Department of EIE&ICE
of interlopes. (Jun 2016) 2016-2017
Interposes are used in DC Machines to reduce the effect of armature reaction and self induction, mainly
in winding at commutators of DC motors. Interpoles are connected in series with armature winding so
that as the armature current changes the flux due to interpoles chances accordingly.
40. Why is the starting current high in a dc motor. (Jun 2016)
During starting of motor the intake current normally 5-6 times of rating current, because to generate
initial torque we need to generate back EMF which required high magnetic field. To generate this EMF
motor draws high current during starting
PART – B (C213.1)
1. With a neat diagram explain the construction and working of a D.C Machine [May/June 2012,
April/May 2015] (Jun 2016).
The major parts can be identified as, 1. Body, 2. Poles, 3. Armature, 4. Commutator and brush gear, 5.
Commutating poles, 6. Compensating winding, 7. Other mechanical parts The direct current (dc) machine
can be used as a motor or as a generator. DC Machine is most often used for a motor. The major advantages
of dc machines are the easy speed and torque regulation. However, their applicationis limited to mills, mines
and trains. As examples, trolleys and underground subway cars may use dc motors. In the past, automobiles
were equipped with dc dynamos to charge their batteries
 The stator of the dc motor has poles, which are excited by dc current to produce magnetic fields.
 In the neutral zone, in the middle between the poles, commutating poles are placed to reduce sparking of
the
 commutator. The commutating poles are supplied by dc current.
 Compensating windings are mounted on the main poles. These short-circuited windings damp rotor
oscillations
 The poles are mounted on an iron core that provides a closed magnetic circuit.
 The motor housing supports the iron core, the brushes and the bearings.
 The rotor has a ring-shaped laminated iron core with slots.
 Coils with several turns are placed in the slots. The distance between the two legs of the coil is about 180
electric degrees.
 The coils are connected in series through the commutator segments.
 The ends of each coil are connected to a commutator segment.
 The commutator consists of insulated copper segments mounted on an insulated tube.
 Two brushes are pressed to the commutator to permit current flow.
 The brushes are placed in the neutral zone, where the magnetic field is close to zero, to reduce arcing.
 The rotor has a ring-shaped laminated iron core with slots.

 The commutator consists of insulated copper segments mounted on an insulated tube.
 Two brushes are pressed to the commutator to permit current flow.
 The brushes are placed in the neutral zone, where the magnetic field is close to zero, to reduce arcing.
 The commutator switches the current from one rotor coil to the adjacent coil,
 The switching requires the interruption of the coil current.
 The sudden interruption of an inductive current generates high voltages .
 The high voltage produces flashover and arcing between the commutator segment and the brush.
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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC GENERATOR:
The N-S poles produce a dc magnetic field and the rotor coil turns in this field.
• A turbine or other machine drives the rotor.
• The conductors in the slots cut the magnetic flux lines, which induce voltage in the rotor coils.
The coil has two sides: one is placed in slot a, the other in slot b.
• In Figure A, the conductors in slot a are cutting the field lines entering into the rotor from the north pole,
• The conductors in slot b are cutting the field lines exiting from the rotor to the south pole.
• The cutting of the field lines generates voltage in the conductors.
• The voltages generated in the two sides of the coil are added.
• The induced voltage is connected to the generator terminals through the commutator and brushes.
• In Figure A, the induced voltage in b is positive, and in a is negative.
• The positive terminal is connected to commutator segment 2 and to the conductors in slot b.
• The negative terminal is connected to segment 1 and to the conductors in slot a.
• When the coil passes the neutral zone:
• Conductors in slot a are then moving toward the south pole and cut flux lines exiting from the rotor
• St. Joseph’s College

Conductors in slot bofcut
Engineering
the flux lines entering the in slot b. ISO 9001:2008
• This
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changes the polarity of the induced voltage in
Machines the coil. of EIE&ICE
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• The voltage induced in a is now positive, and in b is negative.
• The simultaneously the commutator reverses its terminals, which assures that the output voltage (V dc)
polarity is unchanged.
• In Figure B the positive terminal is connected to commutator segment 1 and to the conductors in slot a.
• The negative terminal is connected to segment 2 and to the conductors in slot b.
2. Derive the expression for emf generated in a D.C. generator & explain the difference
between lap and wave winding. [May/June 2012] [June 2013] (Jun 2016)

3. Explain armature reaction in D.C. Generator & suggest ways for neutralizing the effects of
armature reaction.
perpendicular to the resultant m.m.f., the M.N.A. is shifted through an angle q. Note that M.N.A. is
shifted in the direction of rotation of the generator. (iv) In order to achieve sparkless commutation, the
brushes must lie along the M.N.A. Consequently, the brushes are shifted through an angle q so as
to lie along the new M.N.A. as shown in Fig. (2.3) (iv). Due to brush shift, the m.m.f. FA of the
armature is also rotated through the same angle q. It is because some of the conductors which were
earlier under N-pole now come under S-pole and vice-versa. The result is that armature m.m.f. FA will
no longer be vertically downward but will berotated in the direction of rotation through an angle q as
shown in Fig. (2.3) (iv). Now FA can be resolved into rectangular components Fc and Fd.

(a) The component Fd is in direct opposition to the m.m.f. OFm due to main poles. It has a demagnetizing
effect on the flux due to main poles. For this reason, it is called the demagnetizing or weakening
component of armature reaction. (b) The component Fc is at right angles to the m.m.f. OFm due to main
poles. It distorts the main field. For this reason, it is called the crossmagnetizing or distorting component
of armature reaction. It may be noted that with the increase of armature current, both demagnetizing and
distorting effects will increase.
4. With help of a neat diagram of magnetization curve explain the process for voltage build up in a
DC shunt generator & test the factors affecting the build - up process.

Consider now the operation with fixed Rf and variable armature speed. It is observed from Fig. 7.43 that
as the speed is reduced the OCC proportionally slides downwards so that the no-load voltage reduces. At
a particular speed, called the critical speed, the OCC is tangential to the Rf-line and as a result the
generator would fail to excite.
To summarize, a dc shunt generator may fail to self-excite for any of the three reasons mentioned below:
  Residual magnetism is absent.
 The field connection to the armature is such that the induced emf due to the residual magnetism
 tends to destroy the residual magnetism (i.e. the feedback is negative).
 The field circuit resistance is more than the critical value.
Condition (2) can be remedied simply by reversing the field connection to the armature or reversing the
direction of rotation. In large dc generators with permanent connections and a fixed direction of rotation,
the problem is overcome by temporarily exciting the field from a battery source. (This is known as
flashing.)
4. (a) Explain the principle of operation of D.C motor. [May/June 2012, April/May 2015]

The magnetic field lines enter into the rotor from the North Pole (N) and exit toward the South Pole (S).
• The poles generate a magnetic field that is perpendicular to the current carrying conductors.
• The interaction between the field and the current produces a Lorentz force,
• The force is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and conductor
• The generated force turns the rotor until the coil reaches the neutral point between the poles.
• At this point, the magnetic field becomes practically zero together with the force.
• However, inertia drives the motor beyond the neutral zone where the direction of the magnetic field
reverses.
• To avoid the reversal of the force direction, the commutator changes the current direction, which maintains
the counterclockwise rotation.
• Before reaching the neutral zone, the current enters in segment 1 and exits from segment 2,
• Therefore, current enters the coil end at slot a and exits from slot b during this stage.
• After passing the neutral zone, the current enters segment 2 and exits from segment 1,
• This reverses the current direction through the rotor coil, when the coil passes the neutral zone.
• The result of this current reversal is the maintenance of the rotation
(b)What is the need for starters? With the help of a neat diagram explain the working of a 3 point
starter & state its limitations. [May/June 2012].
OR
6. Explain necessity of a starter in a DC motor and describe three point starter with a neat diagram.

Let us explain the operation of the starter. Initially the handle is in the OFF position. Neither
armature nor the field of the motor gets supply. Now the handle is moved to stud number 1. In this position
armature and all the resistances in series gets connected to the supply. Field coil gets full supply as the
rectangular strip makes contact with arc copper strip. As the machine picks up speed handle is moved further
to stud number 2. In this position the external resistance in the armature circuit is less as the first resistance is
left out. Field however, continues to get full voltage by virtue of the continuous arc strip. Continuing in this
way, all resistances will be left out when stud number 12 (ON) is reached. In this position, the electromagnet
(NVRC) will attract the soft iron piece attached to the handle. Even if the operator removes his hand from
the handle, it will still remain in the ON position as spring restoring force will be balanced by the force of
attraction between NVRC and the soft iron piece of the handle. The no volt release coil (NVRC) carries same
current as that of the field coil. In case supply voltage goes off, field coil current will decrease to zero. Hence
NVRC will be deenergised and will not be able to exert any force on the soft iron piece of the handle.
Restoring force of the spring will bring the handle back in the OFF position. The starter also
provides over load protection for the motor. The other electromagnet, OLRC overload release coil along
with a soft iron piece kept under it, is used to achieve this. The current flowing through OLRC is the line
current IL drawn by the motor. As the motor is loaded, Ia hence IL increases. Therefore, IL is a measure of
loading of the motor. Suppose we want that the motor should not be over loaded beyond rated current. Now
gap between the electromagnet and the soft iron piece is so adjusted that for L rate ≤ d I I , the iron piece
will not be pulled up. However, if L rate ≤ d I I force of attraction will be sufficient to pull up iron piece.
This upward movement of the iron piece of OLRC is utilized to de-energize NVRC. To the iron a copper
strip (Δ shaped in figure) is attached. During over loading condition, this copper strip will also move up and
put a short circuit between two terminals B and C. Carefully note that B and C are nothing but the two ends
of the NVRC. In other words, when over load occurs a short circuit path is created across the NVRC. Hence
NVRC will not carry any current now and gets deenergised. The moment it gets deenergised, spring action
will bring the handle in the OFF position thereby disconnecting the motor from the supply.
Three point starters have one disadvantage. If we want to run the machine at higher speed (above
rated speed) by field weakening (i.e., by reducing field current), the strength of NVRC magnet may become
so weak that it will fail to hold the handle in the ON position and the spring action will bring it back in the
OFF position. Thus we find that a false disconnection of the motor takes place even when there is neither
over load nor any sudden disruption of supply.
Limitation:
1. In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the
2. Shunt field circuit so that it carries the shunt field current.
3. While exercising speed control through field regulator, the field current may be weakened to
such an extent that the no-volt release coil may not be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position.
4. This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is overcome in
the four point starter.
7. (a) Explain how torque is developed in a D.C motor.[May/June 2012, April/May 2015, Nov/Dec
2014 ]
Figure 7.14 shows the flux density wave in the air-gap and the conductor current distribution in the
developed armature for one pole-pair. It is immediately seen that the force on conductors is unidirectional.
Each conductor as it moves around with the armature experiences a force whose time variation is a replica
of the B-wave. Therefore, the average conductor force
Where Bav= average flux density over pole l= active conductor length Total Force F=Zfc,av = BavIclZ This
Force (and therefore torque) is constant (independent of time) because both the flux density wave and
current distribution are fixed in space at all times. Now the torque developed

It is, therefore, seen that the machine torque is uniform for given flux/pole and armature current. Further, it
is independent of the shape of the B-wave, which in fact gets distorted by the armature mmf when it carries
current
8. Explain the procedure for obtaining internal and external characteristics of a separately excited
DC generator. [June 2013]

The external characteristic of a separately excited generator is the curve between the terminal voltage (V)
and the load current IL (which is the same as armature current in this case). In order to determine the external
characteristic, the circuit set up is as shown in Fig. (3.3) (i). As the load current increases, the terminal
voltage falls due to two reasons:
(a) The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that actual e.m.f. generated E on load is less than that
generated (E0) on no load. (b) There is voltage drop across armature resistance (= ILRa = IaRa). Due to these
reasons, the external characteristic is a drooping curve [curve 3 in Fig. 3.3 (ii)]. Note that in the absence of
armature reaction and armature drop, the generated e.m.f. would have been E0 (curve 1). The internal
characteristic can be determined from external characteristic by adding ILRa drop to the external
characteristic. It is because armature reaction drop is included in the external characteristic. Curve 2 is the
internal characteristic of the generator and should obviously lie above the external characteristic
9. Explain the speed-torque characteristics of a DC series motor and mention why the DC series
motor should not be started without any load. [June 2013]
The N/Ta characteristic of a series motor is shown in Fig. (4.20). It is clear that series motor develops high
torque at low speed and vice-versa. It is because an increase in torque requires an increase in armature
current, which is also the field current. The result is that flux is strengthened and hence the speed drops (N α
1/ϕ). Reverse happens should the torque be low. Following three important conclusions are drawn from the
above characteristics of series motors: (i) It has a high starting torque because initially T a α Ia2 (ii) It is a
variable speed motor (See N/Ia curve in Fig. 4.19) i.e., it automatically adjusts the speed as the load changes.
Thus if the load decreases, its speed is automatically raised and vice-versa. (iii) At no-load, the armature
current is very small and so is the flux. Hence, the speed rises to an excessive high value (N α 1/ϕ). This is
dangerous for the machine which may be destroyed due to centrifugal forces set up in the rotating parts.
Therefore, a series motor should never be started on no-load. However, to start a series motor, mechanical
load is first put and then the motor is started. The minimum load on a d.c. series motor should be great
enough to keep the speed within limits. If the speed becomes dangerously high, then motor must be
disconnected from the supply.

10. A 10KW, 220V, DC 6 pole shunt motor runs at 1000 rpm delivering full load. The armature has
534 lap connected conductors. Full load copper loss is 0.64KW. The total brush drop is 1 volt.
Determine the flux per pole neglecting shunt current. [Dec 2013]

11. i. Draw and explain the characteristic of a DC shunt motor and DC series motor. Compare DC
shunt and Series motor characteristics and applications.
Characteristics of Shunt Motors:
Fig. (4.13) shows the connections of a d.c. shunt motor. The field current Ish is constant since the field
winding is directly connected to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be constant. Hence, the flux in a
shunt motor is approximately constant.
(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic. We know that in a d.c. motor, Ta α ϕIa Since the motor is operating from a
constant supply voltage, flux f is constant (neglecting armature reaction). Ta α Ia Hence Ta/Ia
characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. (4.14). The shaft torque
(Tsh) is less than Ta and is shown by a dotted line. It is clear from the curve that a very large
current is required to start a heavy load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be started on heavy
load.
(ii) N/Ia Characteristic. The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by; N α Eb/ϕ The flux ϕ and back e.m.f.
Eb in a shunt motor are almost constant under normal conditions. Therefore, speed of a shunt motor
will remain constant as the armature current varies (dotted line AB in Fig. 4.15). Strictly speaking,
when load is increased, Eb (= V- IaRa) and ϕ decrease due to the armature resistance drop and
armature reaction respectively. However, Eb decreases slightly more than ϕ so that the speed of the
motor decreases slightly with load (line AC).
(iii) N/Ta Characteristic. The curve is obtained by plotting the values of N and Ta for various armature
currents (See Fig. 4.16). It may be seen that speed falls somewhat as the load torque increases.
Following two important conclusions are drawn from the above characteristics: (i) There is slight
change
St. Joseph’s in theofspeed
College of a shunt motor from no-load to full load. Hence, it is essentially
Engineering a constant-
ISO 9001:2008
speed motor. (ii) The starting torque is not high because Ta μ Ia.
SERIES MOTOR:
Fig. (4.17) shows the connections of a series motor. Note that current passing through the field winding is
the same as that in the armature. If the mechanical load on the motor increases, the armature current also
increases. Hence, the flux in a series motor increases with the increase in armature current and vice-versa.
(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic. We know that: Ta α ϕIa Upto magnetic saturation, ϕ α Ia so that Ta α Ia2 After
magnetic saturation, ϕ is constant so that Ta α Ia Thus upto magnetic saturation, the armature torque is
directly proportional to the square of armature current. If Ia is doubled, Ta is almost quadrupled. Therefore,
Ta/Ia curve upto magnetic saturation is a parabola (portion OA of the curve in Fig. 4.18). However, after
magnetic saturation, torque is directly proportional to the armature current. Therefore, Ta/Ia curve after
magnetic saturation is a straight line (portion AB of the curve). It may be seen that in the initial portion of
the curve (i.e. upto magnetic saturation), Ta α Ia2. This means that starting torque of a d.c. series motor will
be very high as compared to a shunt motor (where that Ta α Ia).
(ii) N/Ia Characteristic. The speed N of a series motor is given by; N α Eb/ϕ where Eb = V – Ia( Ra + Rse)
When the armature current increases, the back e.m.f. Ed decreases due to Ia(Ra + Rse) drop while the flux ϕ
increases. However, Ia(Ra + Rse) drop is quite small under normal conditions and may be neglected. N α 1/ϕ
α 1/Ia upto magnetic saturation Thus, upto magnetic saturation, the N/Ia curve follows the hyperbolic path as
shown in Fig. (4.19). After saturation, the flux becomes constant and so does the speed.
(iii) N/Ta Characteristic. The N/Ta characteristic of a series motor is shown in Fig. (4.20). It is clear that
series motor develops high torque at low speed and vice-versa. It is because an increase in torque requires an
increase in armature current, which is also the field current. The result is that flux is strengthened and hence
the speed drops (N α 1/ϕ). Reverse happens should the torque be low. Following three important conclusions
are drawn from the above characteristics of series motors: (i) It has a high starting torque because initially T a
α Ia2 (ii) It is a variable speed motor (See N/Ia curve in Fig. 4.19) i.e., it automatically adjusts the speed as the
load changes. Thus if the load decreases, its speed is automatically raised and vice-versa.(iii) At no-load, the
armature current is very small and so is the flux. Hence, the speed rises to an excessive high value (N α 1/ϕ).
This is dangerous for the machine which may be destroyed due to centrifugal forces set up in the rotating
parts. Therefore,
St. Joseph’s a of
College series motor should never be started on no-load. However, to start
Engineering ISO a9001:2008
series motor,
mechanical load is first put and then the motor is started. The minimum load on a d.c. series motor should be
great
enough to keepMachines
the speed within limits. If the speed becomes
Department dangerously high, then motor
of EIE&ICE must be
2016-2017
disconnected from the supply
12. i. Explain how AC voltage generated is converted to DC voltage in a generator. [June 2014]
In a compound generator, both series and shunt excitation are combined as shown in Fig. (3.13). The shunt
winding can be connected either across the armature only (short-shunt connection S) or across armature
plus series field (long-shunt connection G). The compound generator can be cumulatively compounded or
differentially compounded generator. The latter is rarely used in practice. Therefore, we shall discuss the
characteristics of cumulatively compounded generator. It may be noted that external characteristics of long
and short shunt compound generators are almost identical
External characteristic Fig. (3.14) shows the external characteristics of a cumulatively compounded
generator. The series excitation aids the shunt excitation. The degree of compounding depends upon the
increase in series excitation with the increase in load current. (i) If series winding turns are so adjusted that
with the increase in load current the terminal voltage increases, it is called over-compounded generator. In
such a case, as the load current increases, the series field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase the flux and
hence the generated voltage. The increase in generated voltage is greater than the IaRa drop so that instead
of decreasing, the terminal voltage increases as shown by curve A in Fig. (3.14). (ii) If series winding turns
are so adjusted that with the increase in load current, the terminal voltage substantially remains constant, it
is called flat-compounded generator. The series winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than
the one in over-compounded machine and, therefore, does not increase the flux as much for a given load
current. Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage as indicated by curve B in
Fig (3.14). (iii) If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a flat compounded machine, the
terminal voltage falls with increase in load current as indicated by curve C m Fig. (3.14). Such a machine is
called under-compounded generator.
14. i)Draw and explain the no load and load characteristics of DC shunt, series and
compound generators.
ii) Explain the different types of dc generators (April/May 2015) (Jun 2016)
It converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Mechanical energy can be created by using water
turbines, steam turbines, internal combustion engines etc. And a generator converts this mechanical energy to
electrical energy. Generators can be broadly classified as AC generators and DC generators. Here lets take a
look the the types of DC generators.
DC generators are classified based on their method of excitation. So on this basis there are two types of DC
generators:-
1. Separately excited DC generator
2. Self excited DC generator

Self excited DC generator can again be classified as 1) DC Series generator 2) DC Shunt generator and
3) DC Compound generator.
Let’s take a brief look at how all these differ.

1. EI6402 – Electrical
Separately excitedMachines
DC generator Department of EIE&ICE 2016-2017
As you can guess from the name itself , this dc generator has a field magnet winding which is excited using a
separate voltage source (like battery). You can see the representation in the below image. The output voltage
depends on the speed of rotation of armature and field current. The higher the speed of rotation and current –
the higher the output e.m.f
2. Self Excited DC Generator
These are generators in which the field winding is excited by the output of the generator itself. As described
before – there are three types of self excited dc generators – they are 1) Series 2) Shunt and 3) Compound.
A series DC generator is shown below in fig (a) – in which the armature winding is connected in series with
the field winding so that the field current flows through the load as well as the field winding.Field winding is
a low resistance,thick wire of few turns. Series generators are also rarely used!
A shunt DC generator is shown in figure (b), in which the field winding is wired parallel to armature
winding so that the voltage across both are same. The field winding has high resistance and more number of
turns so that only a part of armature current passes through field winding and the rest passes through load.
A compound generator is shown in figure below. It has two field findings namely Rsh and Rse. They are
basically shunt winding (Rsh) and series winding (Rse). Compound generator is of two types –
1) Short shunt and 2) Long shunt

Short
shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is wired
Machines parallel toofarmature
Department EIE&ICE and series field winding is
2016-2017
connected in series to the load. It is shown in fig (a)
Long shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is parallel to both armature and series field winding (Rse is wired
in series to the armature). It is shown in figure (b)
15. Describe the various methods of speed control of dc shunt motors and discuss their
relative merits. (April/May 2015, Nov/Dec 2014)
DC motors consist of rotor-mounted windings (armature) and stationary windings (field poles). In all
DC motors, except permanent magnet brushless motors, current must be conducted to the armature
windings by passing current through carbon brushes that slide over a set of copper surfaces called a
commutator, which is mounted on the rotor. The commutator bars are soldered to armature coils. The
brush/commutator combination makes a sliding switch that energizes particular portions of the armature,
based on the position of the rotor. This process creates north and south magnetic poles on the rotor that are
attracted to or repelled by north and south poles on the stator, which are formed by passing direct current
through the field windings. It's this magnetic attraction and repulsion that causes the rotor to rotate. The
dynamic behavior of the DC machine is mainly determined by the type of the connection between the
excitation winding and the armature winding including the commutation and compensation winding. The
greatest advantage of DC motors may be speed control. Since speed is directly proportional to armature
voltage and inversely proportional to the magnetic flux produced by the poles, adjusting the armature
voltage or the field current will change the rotor speed. Speed control means change of a speed to a value
required for performing the specific work process. This adjustment should not be taken to include the
natural change in speed which occurs due to change in the load on the drive shaft.
The electrical speed control has many economical as well as engineering advantages over
mechanical speed control. There are so many methods for controlling the speed of a DC shunt motor but
field rheostat control method is most reliable, economic and independent of load on the motor. This method
is only applicable when we want speed which is higher than the normal speed of the motor.
In this method, an increase in controlling resistance reduces the field current with a consequent
reduction in flux and an increase in speed. But if we want to obtain low speed to control the low speed
mechanical drive, we use armature rheostat control method. In this method, the speed at full load can be
reduced to any desired value depending on the amount of resistance. But if we use both techniques in same
machine then we can control motor from zero speed to maximum. In field control the adjustment can be
obtained by means of a small rheostat and relatively good speed regulation is obtained for all speed but with
the armature control a bulky resistance is required. So if we use both methods simultaneously, cost of the
machine will increase a little but we will get a large range of speed control. To neutralize the effect of
power loss heat sink can be used. So by this method we can control the speed of a DC shunt motor to
perform various tasks in effective and economic way.
Circuit diagram
3. Working Principle
From
the above circuit diagram, we can conclude that
Machines if we want
Department to increase the speed of the shunt2016-2017
of EIE&ICE
motor, we will vary the field resistance. As resistance increased, the value of the field current will reduce.
On weakening of field current, flux of the field will reduced results in increase of speed.
If we want to decrease the speed, firstly we should keep the field resistance at minimum value and then we
will increase the armature resistance. As armature resistance increases, the voltage drop across armature
increases. Because the supply voltage is normally constant. So by this method we can deal with ranges of
speed and entire phenomenon can be analyzed by using following relation:
4. Advantages:
This method has lots of advantages like it has very fine speed control over whole range in both directions.
Uniform acceleration and good speed regulation can be obtained by this method.
5. Disadvantages:
Due to use of bulky rheostat across the armature, a large amount of power is wasted and arrangement is
a little bit costly. It gives low efficiency at light loads.
16. A 400V dc shunt motor runs at 1000rpm taking an armature current of 65A. its armature resistance is
0.35Ω. Calculate the speed required to develop braking torque of 280Nm when the machine is operated
with regenerative braking. (Jun 2016)
UNIT 2: TRANSFORMERS
PART – A (C213.2)
1. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers? (April/May 2015)
In core type, the windings surround the core considerably and in shell type the core surround the windings
i.e winding is placed in central limb of the core.
2. What is the purpose of laminating the core in a transformer?
To reduce the eddy current loss in the core of the transformer. Lamination construction reduces the core
area and so increases the resistance of core material hence minimizing the eddy current loss.
3. Give the emf equation of a transformer and define each term?
Emf induced in primary coil= E1 = 4.44 f ΦmN1 volt & Emf induced in secondary coil= E2 = 4.44 f ΦmN2.
Where Φm = maximum flux in the core in weber N1= number of turns in the primary winding, N2=
number of turns in the secondary winding.
4. Does transformer draw any current when secondary is open? Why?
Yes, it (primary) will draw the current from the main supply in order to magnetize the core and also to
supply for iron and copper losses on no load. There will not be any current in the secondary since
secondary is open.
5. Define voltage regulation of a transformer?[May/June 2012] (Jun 2016)
When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, the secondary voltage decreases for lagging
PF load, and increases for leading PF load because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance. The
change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load expressed as a percentage of no load or full
load voltage is termed as regulation. % Regulation down = (V2noload -V2F.L)*100/V2noload
% Regulation up = (V2noload - V2F.L)*100/V2F.L
6. Full load copper loss in a transformer is 1600W. What will be the loss at half load?
If x is the ratio of actual load to full load then Copper loss = x2 (F.L copper loss) = x2 Wcu Here Wcu = (0.5)
2
*1600=400W.
7. Define all day efficiency of a transformer?
All day efficiency of a transformer is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period,
usually for a day period of 24 hrs. All day efficiency = (Output in kWh for 24 hrs) / (Input in kWh for 24
hrs).
8. Why transformers are rated in kVA? [Dec 2013]
Copper loss of a transformer depends on current & its iron loss on voltage. Hence total losses depends on
Volt-Ampere and but not on Power factor. That is why the rating of transformers are in kVA and not in
kW.
9. What are the typical uses of auto transformer?
To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop. As induction motor starter.
10. What are the applications of step-up & step-down transformer?
Step-up transformers are used in generating stations. Normally the generated Voltage will be 11kV. This
11 kV generated voltage is stepped up to 110 kV or 220 kV or 400 kV and transmitted through
transmission lines (simply called as sending end voltage). Step-down transformers are used at receiving end
St. Joseph’s College
sub-stations. of Engineering
The voltage are stepped down to 11kV or 22kV are stepped down to ISO 9001:2008
3phase 400V by
EI6402
means of –aElectrical Machines
distribution Department
transformer and made available at of EIE&ICEpremises. The transformers
consumer 2016-2017
used at
generating stations are called Power transformers.
11. How transformers are classified according to their construction?[Nov/Dec 2012]
Core type and shell type. In core type, the winding (primary and secondary) surround the core and in shell
type, the core surrounds the winding.
12. Explain the material used for core construction?

The core is constructed by sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with
minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon content to produce a high permeability and a
low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities. The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating
the core, the laminations being used from each other by light coat of vanish or a oxide layer on the surface.
The thickness of lamination varies from 0.35mm for a frequency of 50Hz and 0.5mm for a frequency of
25Hz.
13. How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?
With a change in frequency, iron and copper loss, regulation, efficiency & heating varies so the operation
of transformer is highly affected.
14. What is the angle by which no-load current will lag the ideal applied voltage?
In an ideal transformer, there will not be any are no copper & core loss i.e loss free transformer core. The
no load current is only magnetizing current therefore the no load current lags behind by angle 900.
However the winding possess resistance and leakage reactance and therefore the no load current lags the
applied voltage slightly less than 900.
15. List the uses of stepped core in a transformer?
To reduce the space effectively .To obtains reduced length of mean turn of the winding. To reduce
I2Rloss.
16. Why are breathers used in transformers?
Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it to pass on to the
transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and contract as its temperature increases
and decreases.
17. What is the function of transformer oil in a transformer?
The function of transformer oil in a transformer is to provides good insulation and Cooling
18. Can the voltage regulation go negative? If, so under what condition?[Nov/Dec 2012]
Yes, if the load has leading PF. During leading power factor V > EO. So the voltage regulation go negative
19. Distinguish power transformers & distribution transformers?
Power transformers have very high rating in the order of MVA. They are used in generating and
transmitting end sub-stations and sophisticated controls are required to control higher operating voltage.
Whereas, distribution transformers are used in receiving end sub-stations, operating voltage levels will be
medium and power ranging will be small in order of kVA but complicated control arrangements not needed.
20. What is the purpose of providing taps in transformer and where the tapings are provided?
In order to attain the required voltage, taps are provided, normally at high voltages side (low current).
21. What are the 4 common ways of connecting a 3 phase transformers.[ Nov/Dec 2014]
Primary – Secondary
Y - Y (star to star) Y - Δ (star to delta)
Δ - Y (delta to star) Δ - Δ (delta to delta)
22. What are the two methods of testing the transformer?
(i) Open circuit test (OC) (ii) Short circuit test (SC)
23. State the principle of working of a transformer?
Transformer consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through
a path of low reluctance. The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which linked with the other
coil in which it produces mutually induced emf. If the second coil is closed current flows in it and so
electrical energy is transferred from the first coil to the second coil.
24. Define voltage transformation ratio. [Dec 2013, Nov/Dec 2014]
Transformation ratio (K) is defined as the ratio of number of turns in the secondary winding to number of
turns in primary winding. K= N2/N1 = E2/E1
25. State the methods of reducing leakage flux:
To minimize the leakage flux, transformer core is sectionalized and by interleaving the primary and
secondary windings.
26. State why the Transformer core is made of magnetic materials?
To provide a continuous magnetic path with the minimum air gap.
27.EI6402 – Electrical
State the methods Machines Department of EIE&ICE
to reduce Hysteresis and Eddy-current losses in a Transformer. 2016-2017
To reduce hysteresis loss, core is made up of CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) and eddy current loss is
minimized by laminating the core.
28. What happens when D.C Supply is given to a Transformer instead of A.C.?
Due to saturation of the magnetic core a large current flows through the windings, without inducing any
emf. This large current burns the windings of the transformer.
29. Name two types of windings used in transformers.
Primary winding: It receives the supply from the mains. Secondary winding: It supplies the power to the
load.
30. How can the iron loss be minimized in a transformer? (Jun 2016)
Iron loss can be minimized by selecting materials for core such as silicon steel & steel alloys with low
hysteresis co-efficient and electrical resistivity. Eddy current losses are minimized by laminating the core.
31. Write the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer. [June 2013]
The condition for maximum efficiency is Iron Loss = Copper Loss
Copper Loss (variable loss) = WC = (nI1)2. R1
Iron Loss (constant loss)=Wi = Hysteresis Loss + Eddy Current Loss
32. Why an open circuit test is generally performed at rated voltage on LV side of a transformer?
[June 2013]
As the transformer is open circuited, there is no output, hence the input power here consists of core losses
in transformer and copper loss in transformer during no load condition. But as said earlier, the no load
current in the transformer is quite small compared to full load current, so copper loss due to the small no
load current can be neglected.
33. Draw the no-load phasor diagram of a transformer. [Dec 2014]
34. What advantage is obtained with the delta-connection of three phase transformer? [Dec 2014]
In a delta connected group of transformers, the line voltage, VL is equal to the supply voltage,VL = VS. But
the current in each phase winding is given as: 1/√3 × IL of the line current, where IL is the line current.
Advantages are absence of third order harmonics and it requires only three phase three wire
connections.One disadvantage of delta connected three phase transformers is that each transformer must
be wound for the full-line voltage, (in our example above 100V) and for 57.7 per cent, line current. The
greater number of turns in the winding together with the insulation between turns necessitate a larger and
more expensive coil than the star connection. Another disadvantage with delta connected three phase
transformers is that there is no ―neutral‖ or common connection.
35. What are the losses present in a transformer. (April/May 2015)
Iron losses(hysteresis loss and eddy current) and copper losses(primary copper loss and secondary copper
loss).
36. Draw the equivalent circuit for transformer?

37. A single phase transformer has 180 and 190 turns respectively in its secondary and primary
windings. The respective resistances are 0.233Ω and 0.067Ω. Calculate the equivalent resistance of (i)
the primary in terms of secondary winding and, (ii) the secondary in terms of primary winding.(Jun
2016)
38. What are the advantages of three phase transformer over single phase transformer? (Nov 2015)
Advantages of Three Phase Transformer over Single Phase Transformer are:
 Less cost
 Less Weight
 less size
 Less time require to assembling
 Require less space
 Deliver more power
 Higher efficiency
 Easier to install
 Easy transportation and installation
 Easy to repair
 Easy assembling and
PART – B (C213.2)
1. Describe the Constructional details of a Transformer with neat sketch.[May/June 2012]

The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are provided
around the laminated steel core. According to the design, transformers can be classified into two:
Core- Type Transformer
In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of the core. The coils used for
this transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical type. Such a type of transformer can be
applicable for small sized and large sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will be
rectangular in shape and the coils used are cylindrical. The figure below shows the large sized type.
You–can
EI6402 see that
Electrical the round or cylindrical coils
Machines are wound
Department in such a way as to fit over a cruciform
of EIE&ICE core
2016-2017
section. In the case of circular cylindrical coils, they have a fair advantage of having good mechanical
strength. The cylindrical coils will have different layers and each layer will be insulated from the other
with the help of materials like paper, cloth, micarta board and so on. The general arrangement of the
core-type transformer with respect to the core is shown below. Both low-voltage (LV) and high voltage
(HV) windings are shown.
The low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core as it is the easiest to insulate. The effective
core area of the transformer can be reduced with the use of laminations and insulation.
Shell-Type Transformer
In shell-type transformers the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings. The comparison
is shown in the figure below.
Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Winding
The coils are form-wound but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the form of pancakes. Paper
is used to insulate the different layers of the multi-layer discs. The whole winding consists of discs
stacked with insulation spaces between the coils. These insulation spaces form the horizontal cooling
and insulating ducts. Such a transformer may have the shape of a simple rectangle or may also have a
distributed form
2. State the various losses in a Transformer. Define efficiency of a Transformer and hence
deduce the Condition for Maximum efficiency
Losses in a transformer:
Transformer losses consist of:
• Copper losses in the windings – Depend on load current
• Hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the core – Constant for constant flux (constant voltage)
conditions
• Stray losses due to currents induced by leakage fluxes in the transformer structure – Negligible
for a well-designed transformer
Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power in watts to the input power in watts
Efficiency  outputpower in watts
EI6402 – Electrical Machines Inputpower
Department in watts
of EIE&ICE 2016-2017
3. Explain with neat circuit diagram the OC and SC tests on a transformer and explain how the
efficiency and equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer can be determined?(April/May
2015, Nov/Dec 2014)

2. With a neat phasor diagram, explain about the Practical Transformer under no load and Load
condition. (Nov/Dec 2014)
We know that the turns ratio of a transformer states that the total induced voltage in each winding is
proportional to the number of turns in that winding and also that the power output and power input of a
transformer is equal to the volts times amperes, ( V x I ).
Therefore:
But we also know previously that the voltage ratio of a transformer is equal to the turns ratio of a transformer
as: “voltage ratio = turns ratio”. Then the relationship between the voltage, current and number of turns in a
transformer can be linked together and is therefore given as:
Transformer Ratio
Where: NP/NS = VP/VS - represents the voltage ratio & NP/NS = IS/IP - represents the current ratio Note
that the current is inversely proportional to both the voltage and the number of turns. This means that with a
transformer loading on the secondary winding, in order to maintain a balanced power level across the
transformers windings, if the voltage is stepped up, the current must be stepped down and vice versa. In other
words, “higher voltage — lower current” or “lower voltage — higher current”.The total current drawn from
the supply by the primary winding is the vector sum of the no-load current, Io and the additional supply
current, I1 as a result of the secondary transformer loading and which lags behind the supply voltage by an
angle of Φ. We can show this relationship as a phasor diagram.
Transformer Loading Current

If –we
EI6402 are given
Electrical currents, IS and Io, we can Department
Machines calculate the
of primary
EIE&ICE current, IP by the following
2016-2017
methods.
5. Obtain the equivalent circuit of a single phase two winding transformer.[May/June2012

,Nov/Dec 2012, June 2013, Dec 2013, June 2014,April/May 2015]
REAL TRANSFORMER AND ITS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Transformer windings are made mainly of copper. Even though copper is a good conductor, it posses a
finite resistance. Both the primary and the secondary have finite resistances R1and R2.These resistances are
uniformly spread throughout the windings. These resistances give rise to the copper losses (I2R). Consider
that Φl1 be the leakage flux caused by the MMF I1N1 in the primary windings and Φl2be the leakage flux
caused by the MMF I2N2 in the secondary windings.
Both the resistance and the leakage reactance of the transformer windings are series effects and at
operating frequencies, which is very low (50Hz / 60Hz) these can be regarded as the lumped parameters.
Hence the transformer consists of lumped resistances R1 and R2 and reactance X l1 and X l2 in series with
corresponding windings. Because of the presence of these lumped quantities the induced emf s E1and E2
may vary from the secondary voltages V1 and V2 because of the small voltage drops in the winding
resistances and leakage reactance.
The transformer ratio can be given by:
a= (N1/N2) = (E1/ E2) ≈( V1 / V2)

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER:
general– equivalent
In EI6402 circuit of transformer then;
Electrical Machines we will of
Department modify it for referring from primary
EIE&ICE side. For
2016-2017
doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is shown in the figure
below.
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,
In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary winding is E1.
Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or
I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across winding is countered by
primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as,
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced voltage across the
winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage E1 transforms to secondary and it is E2 and
load component of primary current I2′ is transformed to secondary as secondary current I2. Current of
secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding is partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before
it appears across load. The load voltage is V2.
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.
Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be ′K′ times greater and
would be written as K.Z2.I2.
Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2
Therefore,
From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,
So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure

3. i. Explain the working principle of a transformer. [June 2013]
Transformer – Working Principle
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of electric power in
one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or
lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.
The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits which is
linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically
separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The working principle
of the transformer can be understood from the figure below.

As shown above the transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core laminations are joined in the
form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some narrow gaps right through the cross-
section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual
inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that is set
up in the laminated core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage. Most of the
alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus produces the mutual induced
electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be explained with the help of Faraday’s laws
of Electroagnetic Induction as
e=M*dI/dt
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flow in it and thus electrical energy is transferred magnetically
from the first to the second coil.
The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary winding. The
energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary winding.
In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:
1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.
2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.
ii. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a single-phase transformer supplying
1. a lagging load 2. a leading load 3. A UPF load.
A UPF LOAD

A LAGGING LOAD
A LEADING LOAD
7. i. Draw an ideal single phase transformer and explain the principle of operation, the concept of
step up and step down transformer. [Dec 2013]
ii. Derive the EMF equation of a transformer. What is regulation and efficiency of
transformer?(April/May 2015) (May 2016)

Emf Equation of a transformer

Let N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
Фm = Maximum flux in core (Wb) = Bm x A
f = Frequency of ac input in Hz (1)
Average emf/turn = 4 f Фm volt (2)
Form factor = rms value/average value = 1.11
Rms value/turn = 4.44 f Фm volt
Rms value of induced emf in primary E1 = 4.44 fN1Фm volt
Rms value of induced emf in SecondaryE2 = 4.44 fN2Фm volt
E1/N1 =E2/N2 = 4.44 f Фm
Regulation: The change is secondary terminal voltage from no load condition to full load condition
expressed as a percentage of no load or full load voltage is termed as voltage regulation
Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power in watts to the input power in watts
Efficiency  outputpower in watts
Inputpower in watts
8. Draw and explain the operation of an autotransformer. What are the applications of
autotransformer? [Dec2013]

9. Explain the various types of 3-phase transformer connections. (April/May 2015)
Three Phase Transformer Connections
10. i. Draw a general schematic of a single phase transformer. Describe its working principle and
deduce the expression for emf in secondary winding. [June2014]
Let N1 = No. of turns in primary

N2 = No. of turns in secondary
Фm = Maximum flux in core (Wb) = Bm x A
f = Frequency of ac input in Hz (1)
Average emf/turn = 4 f Фm volt (2)
Form factor = rms value/average value = 1.11
Rms value/turn = 4.44 f Фm volt
Rms value of induced emf in primary E 1 = 4.44 fN1Фm volt
Rms value of induced emf in SecondaryE2 = 4.44 fN2Фm volt
E1/N1 =E2/N2 = 4.44 f Фm
ii. A 150 KVA transformer has an iron loss of 1400W and a full-load copper loss of 1600W. Find
the efficiency of the transformer at 30% of full load for
Unity power factor; 2. 0.8 power factor lagging. (Nov/Dec 2014)

11.i. Describe back-to-back test for separation of losses in two identical transformers.[Jun 2014]

ii. Derive the equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer.
12. A 25 KVA transformer has 500 turns on primary and 50 turns on the secondary winding. The
primary is connected to 3000 V, 50 Hz supply. Find the full load primary and secondary currents,
the secondary emf and the maximum flux in the core.(Nov/Dec 2014)
K=N2/N1 = 50/500 = 1/10
Full load I1 = 25000/3000 = 8.33 A Full

load I2 = I1/K = 10*8.33 = 83.3A
Emf per turn on primary = 3000/500 =6V

Secondary emf = 6*50 = 300 V
Max fluxϕm = 27 mWb
13. draw and explain the phasor diagram for a single phase transformer supplying a leading power factor
load.
(ii) draw the phasor diagram indicating different voltage phasors in the primary and secondary of a Δ-Ý
transformer. (May 2016)
14. ii. The primary and secondary windings of a 30 KVA, 6.6kV/240V transformer have resistances of 10Ω
and 0.013 Ω respectively. The leackage reactance of the windings are 17 and 0.022. Estimate the percentage
voltage regulation of the transformer when it is delivering full load at 0.8pf lagging at the rated voltage.
(May 2016)

UNIT 3:SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

PART – A (C213.3)
1. What are the principal advantages of rotating field type construction?
Relatively small amount of power required for field system can easily supplied to rotating system using
slip rings and brushes, more space is available in the stator part of the machine to provide more insulation, it
is easy to provide cooling system, stationary system of conductors can easily be braced to prevent
deformation.
2.St.What areCollege
Joseph’s the advantages of salient type pole construction used in synchronousISO
of Engineering machines?
9001:2008 (May
2016)
EI6402
They allow– Electrical Machines the pole faces are Department
better ventilation, of EIE&ICE
so shaped that 2016-2017
t h e radial air gap length increases from
pole center to pole tips so flux distortion in air gap is sinusoidal so e.m.f is also sinusoidal.
3. Which type of synchronous generators are used in hydroelectric plants and why?[May 2012]
As the speed of operation is low, for hydro turbines salient pole type synchronous generator are used
because it allows better ventilation than smooth cylindrical type rotor.
4. Why are alternators rated in KVA and not in KW?
As load increases I2R loss also increases, as the current is directly related to apparent power delivered by
generator, the alternator has only their apparent power in VA/KVA/MVA as their power rating.
5. Why the synchronous impedance method of estimating voltage regulation is considered as
pessimistic method?
Compared to other methods, the value of voltage regulation obtained by emf method is always higher than
the actual value so it is called as pessimistic method.
6. Why MMF method of estimating the voltage regulation is considered as optimistic method?
Compared to EMF method, MMF method involves more number of complex calculation steps. Further the
OCC is referred twice and SCC is referred once while predetermining the voltage regulation for each load
condition. Reference of OCC takes core saturation effect. As this method require more effort, final result
is very close to actual value, hence this method is called as optimistic method.
7. What is meant by hunting (or surging or phase swinging) of synchronous motor?[ Nov/Dec 2015]
When the load applied to the synchronous motor is suddenly increased or decreased, the rotor oscillates
about its synchronous position with respect to the stator field. This action is called hunting.
8. When the hunting will occur?[May/June ,Nov/Dec 2012]
When the motor is used for driving variable load and the supply frequency is pulsating, the hunting will
occur in operation of synchronous motor.
9.Draw the phasor diagram of synchronous machines.
10. What are the starting methods of synchronous motor?

(i) From Dc source (ii) By using AC motor (iii) By means of damper grids in the pole face
11. Draw the „V‟ curve of synchronous motor?
Armature Current
in Amps
Field Current in Amps

12. What are the applications of synchronous motor? [June 2013]
(i) Power factor correction (ii) Constant speed, constant load drives and (iii) Voltage regulation
13. How to control the speed of synchronous motor?
(i) By changing the no. of poles, (ii) By varying the supply frequency.
22. Define slip?
Slip is defined the difference between stator revolving magnetic field and the actual speed of the motor. It is
usually expressed as percentage of synchronous speed.
%S = (NS – N) / NS NS = synchronous speed in rpm; N= rotor speed in rpm.
23. Why a 3-phase synchronous motor will always run at synchronous speed?
Because of the magnetic coupling between the stator poles and rotor poles the motor runs exactly at
synchronous speed. of Engineering
St. Joseph’s College ISO 9001:2008
24. Explain "phase Spread" in the armature winding.
In EI6402 – Electrical
order to obtain the better-wave shape the coil
Machines are not concentrated
Department of EIE&ICE or bunched in one slot, but are
2016-2017
distributed in a number of slots to form polar groups under each pole. This is called phase spread. The
winding so obtained is known as distributed winding.
25. What is an exciter?[Nov/Dec 2012]
The field windings of an alternator are excited by means of direct current from some external source. For
this purpose D.C generator is used. This D.C generator is called as exciter.
26. What is phase swinging? (Nov 2015)
Phase swinging is otherwise called as hunting. When the load on the synchronous motor is varying or the
supply frequency is pulsating the speed of the machine will fluctuate causing vibration on the rotor, which
is called hunting or phase swinging.
27. What is meant by pull out torque?
When the load on the motor is increased, the load angle is also increased, i.e. the rotor goes on
progressively falling back in phase and draws more current. If we increase the load further, then the motor
pulls out of synchronism and stops. The torque developed at pull out point is called pull out torque.
28. What are the essential elements for generating EMF in alternators? [June 2014]
The essential elements for generating EMF in alternators are field winding, field excitation, prime mover
and three phase armature winding
29. State the relationship between the rotational speed of rotor, the frequency of generated emf and
the number of poles in an alternator. [June 2013]
One cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair of field poles passes over a point on the
stationary winding. The relation between speed and frequency is N = 120 f / P where f is the frequency in
Hz (cycles per second). P is the number of poles (2,4,6...) and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per
minute (RPM).
30. What is synchronous speed? [Dec 2013]
Synchronous speed = Ns = 120 f / P rpm
f= frequency in Hz, P = Number of poles.
31. What is the purpose of damper winding? [Dec 2013]
The damper winding (also known as ammortisseur) is mostly used in synchronous machine- in stator of
synchronous generator and rotor of synchronous motor. It provides some specific advantage to
synchronous machines like – smooth starting and compensating the transient effect or unbalanced condition.
32. What are the various torques associated with synchronous motors? [June 2014]
1) The Armature winding in the rotor produces Starting Torque and Accelerating Torque to bring
the synchronous motor up to speed.
2) When the motor speed reaches approximately 97% of name plate RPM, the DC field current is applied
to the rotor producing Pull-in Torque and the rotor will pull-in -step and ―synchronize‖ with the rotating
flux field in the stator. The motor will run at synchronous speed and produce Synchronous Torque.
33.Why almost all large sized synchronous machines are constructed with rotating field system
type?(April/ May 2015)
 It provide better cooling for rotors or field conductor.
 Require less insulation on field circuit compared to armature circuit
 Less mechanical friction.
 It require lesser no of slip rings compare to rotating armature type.
34. Draw the phasor diagram of synchronous machine at leading PF.[Nov 2015]
35. What are V and inverted V curves of synchronous motor. ? [April/ May 2015]
V curves are plotted between field current and armature current inverted V curves are plotted
between field current and power factor.
36.Name the types of alternators based on their rotor construction. [Nov/Dec 2014]
Smooth cylindrical type and salient pole type.
37. At a particular load, an 11kV, 3phase, Y-connected synchronous motor draws 80A. Its effective
resistance is 1Ω and synchronous reactance is 20Ω per phase. Find the power drawn by the motor and
St. induced
the Joseph’s College
emf forofa Engineering
power factor of 0.8 lagging. [May 2016] ISO 9001:2008
PART – B (C213.3)
1. Derive the emf equation of alternator.[May/June 2012] [June 2013][Nov/Dec 2014]
E.M.F. EQUATION OF AN ALTERNATOR OR AC GENERATOR:
Let, P= No. of poles
Z= No. of Conductors or Coil sides in series/phase i.e. Z= 2T…Where T is the number of coils or
turns per phase (Note that one turn or coil has two ends or sides)
f = frequency of induced e.m.f in Hz
ф = Flux per pole (Weber)
N = rotor speed (RPM)
Kd= Distribution factor =

Kc or KP = Cos α/2
If induced e.m.f is assumed sinusoidal then,
Kf= Form factor = 1.11
In one revolution of the rotor i.e. in 60/N seconds, each conductor is cut by a flux of Pф
Webers.
dф= фP and also dt= secionds60/N
then induced e.m.f per conductor ( average) = dф/ dt= Pф/(60/N) =P N
ф/60…..(a) But We know that f = PN/120 or N= 120f/P
Putting the value of N in Equation (a)… We get the average value of e.m.f per conductor is
= Pф/60 x 120 f/P = 2f ф Volts. –à{N= 120f/P}
If there are Z conductors in series per phase,
then average e.m.f per phase = 2fфZ Volts= 4fфT Volts ….{Z=2T}
Also we know that Form factor= RMS Value/Average Value…
= RMS value= Form factor x Average Value,
= 1.11 x 4fфT = 4.44fфT Volts. ( Note that is exactly the same equation as the e.m.f equation
of the transformer)
And the actually available voltage per phase = 4 Kc Kd fфT =4 KfKc Kd fфT Volts.
Note: If alternator or AC Generator is Star Connected as usually the case, then the
Line Voltage is √3 times the phase voltage.
2. a) Why a synchronous motor is not self-starting? What methods is used to make a synchronous
motor self-starting b) Write short notes on armature reaction of an alternator
illustrating the effect of powerfactor on armature reaction. [Nov/Dec 2014] [Apr/May
2015] Synchronous motor is not self-starting
Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e two electrical inputs are provided to it. It’s stator winding
which consists of a 3 phase winding is provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is provided with DC supply.
The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux. The rotor
carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering the frequency to be 50 Hz, from the above
relation we can see that the 3 phase rotating flux rotates about 3000 revolution in 1 min or 50 revolutions in 1
sec. At a particular
St. Joseph’s College instant rotor and stator poles might be of same polarity (N-N or S-S)
of Engineering ISOcausing repulsive
9001:2008
force on rotor and the very next second it will be N-S causing attractive force. But due to inertia of the rotor,
it is unable
to rotate Machines
in any direction due to attractive or repulsive
Department force and remain in standstill2016-2017
of EIE&ICE condition.
Hence it is not self starting.
Methods of starting synchronous motor :
Basically there are three methods that are used to start a synchronous motor:
• To reduce the speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator to a low enough value that the rotor can
easily accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the rotating magnetic field’s rotation. This
is done by reducing the frequency of the applied electric power. This method is usually followed in the
case of inverter-fed synchronous motor operating under variable speed drive applications.
• To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of synchronous motor near to its synchronous
speed and then supply the rotor as well as stator. Ofcourse care should be taken to ensure that the
direction of rotation of the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic field of the stator are the same.
This method is usually followed in the laboratory- the synchronous machine is started as a generator
and is then connected to the supply mains by following the synchronization or paralleling procedure.
Then the power supply to the prime mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will
continue to operate as a motor.
• To use damper windings or amortisseur windings if these are provided in the ma -chine. The damper
windings or amortisseur windings are provided in most of the large synchronous motors in order to
nullify the oscillations of the rotor whenever the synchronous machine is subjected to a periodically
varying load.
b) Armature Reaction in Alternator
In an alternator like all other synchronous machines, the effect of armature reaction depends on the power
factor i.e the phase relationship between the terminal voltage and armature current.
Reactive power (lagging) is the magnetic field energy, so if the generator supplies a lagging load, this
implies that it is supplying magnetic energy to the load. Since this power comes from excitation of
synchronous machine, the net reactive power gets reduced in the generator. Hence, the armature reaction is
demagnetizing in nature. Similarly, the armature reaction has magnetizing effect when the generator supplies
a leading load (as leading load takes the leading VAR ) and in return gives lagging VAR (magnetic energy)to
the generator. In case of purely resistive load, the armature reaction is cross magnetizing only.The armature
reaction of alternator or synchronous generator, depends upon the phase angle between, stator armature
current and induced voltage across the armature winding of alternator.
The phase difference between these two quantities, i.e. Armature current and voltage may vary from
– 90° to + 90°
If this angle is θ, then,
To understand actual effect of this angle on armature reaction of alternator, we will consider three standard
cases,
1) When θ = 0
2) When θ = 90°
3) When θ = – 90°
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Unity Power Factor
At unity power factor, the angle between armature current I and induced emf E, is zero. That means,
armature current and induced emf are in same phase. But we know theoretically that emf induced in the
armature is due to changing main field flux, linked with the armature conductor.
As field is excited by DC, the main field flux is constant in respect to field magnets, but it would be
alternating in respect of armature as there is a relative motion between field and armature in alternator. If
main field flux of the alternator in respect of armature can be represented as
Then induced emf E across the armature is proportional to, dφf/dt.
Hence, from this above equations (1) and (2) it is clear that, the angle between, &phif and induced emf E will
be 90°. Now, armature flux φa is proportional to armature current I. Hence, armature flux φa is in phase with
armature current I.
Again at unity electrical power factor I and E are in same phase. So at unity pf, φa is phase with E. So at this
condition, armature flux is in phase with induced emf E and field flux is in quadrature with E. Hence,
armature flux φa is in quadrature with main field flux φf.
As this two fluxes are perpendicular to each other, the armature reaction of alternator at unity power
St. Joseph’s
factor College
is purely of Engineering
distorting or cross-magnetizing type. ISO 9001:2008
AsEI6402 – Electrical
the armature flux Machines
pushes the main field flux perpendicularly,distribution
Department of EIE&ICE of main field flux under a pole
2016-2017
face does not remain uniformly distributed. The flux density under the trailing pole tips increases somewhat
while under the leading pole tips it decreases.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Lagging Zero Power Factor
At lagging zero electrical power factor, the armature current lags by 90° to induced emf in the armature. As
the emf induced in the armature coil due to main field flux. The emf leads the main field flux by 90°. From
equation (1) we get, the field flux,
Hence,at ωt=0, E is maximum and φf is zero. At ωt = 90°, E is zero and φf has maximum value.At ωt=180°,
E is maximum and φf zero. At ωt = 270°, E is zero and φf has negative maximum value.
Here, φf got maximum value 90° before E. Hence φf leads E by 90°.
Now, armature current I is proportional to armature flux φa, and I lags E by 90°. Hence, φa lags E by 90°. So,
it can be concluded that, field flux φf leads E by 90°.
Therefore, armature flux and field flux act directly opposite to each other. Thus, armature reaction of
alternator at lagging zero power factor is purely demagnetizing type. That means, armature flux directly
weakens main field flux.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Leading Power Factor

At leading power factor condition, armature current I leads induced emf E by an angle 90°. Again, we have
shown just, field flux φf leads, induced emf E by 90°.
Again, armature flux φa is proportional to armature current I. Hence, φa is in phase with I. Hence, armature
flux φa also leads E, by 90° as I leads E by 90°.
As in this case both armature flux and field flux lead induced emf E by 90°, it can be said, field flux and
armature flux are in same direction. Hence, the resultant flux is simply arithmetic sum of field flux and
armature flux. Hence, at last it can be said that, armature reaction of alternator due to a purely leading
electrical power factor is totally magnetizing type.
3a) Write in detail about the construction of synchronous machine.
CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
A synchronous machine works as a generator when the rotor is rotated and as a motor when three phase
supply is connected across its armature. The basic construction of a synchronous generator and a
synchronous motor is same. Fig 1.3a shows the field is stationary and armature is rotating has limited
applications. In almost all commercial synchronous machines, the rotating field and stationary armature
system as shown in fig 1.3b.
Fig 1.3 a
Fig 1.3 b
ADVANTAGE OF ROTATING FIELD AND STATIONARY ARMATURE SYSTEM
 Easy construction.
 Number of slip rings required is less.
 Better Insulation to armature.
 Reduced rotor weight and rotor inertia.
 Improved ventilation arrangement.
 Reduce leakage reactance.
 Increased armature tooth strength.
 Ease current collection.
Stator:
The stator frame is made up of cast iron for small size machines and for large machine-steel. In order to
reduce the hysteresis and eddy current losses, the stator core is assembled with high grade silicon content
steel laminations. The slots for housing thearmature conductors lie along the inner periphery of the core.
Rotor:
SALIENT TYPE ROTOR:

 In this type has its rotor poles projecting out from the rotor core.
  Its mechanical strength is low.
 this type of rotor used for low speed hydroelectric generator. Approximately the speed is from 120 to
 400 rpm.
 It has large diameter but small axial length.
 It has non uniform air gap.
 Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
NON-SALIENT TYPE ROTOR:
 In this type has its rotor in smooth cylindrical form.
  Its mechanical strength is high.
 This type of rotor used for high speed turbo generator. Approximately the speed is from 1000 to
 3000 rpm.
 It has large axial length but small diameter.
 It has uniform air gap.
 Lesswindage loss.
 Better in dynamic balancing and quieter in operation

b) For the Single phase alternator, since the field current is same for O.C. And S.C. conditions Zs =
1160/200 = 5.8 ohms
Xs = √(5.82 – 0.52) = 5.7784 ohms.
3. a.) State the characteristics of Synchronous motor. b) Write a brief note on hunting[May/June 2012]
Characteristics of Synchronous motor :
V AND INVERTED V - CURVES
Connection diagram for V and inverted V curves of synchronous motor as shown in fig
V curves for variable load
Inverted V curves for variable

load Hunting :
Unloaded synchronous machine has zero degree load angle. On increasing the shaft load gradually load angle
will increase. Let us consider that load P1 is applied suddenly to unloaded machine shaft so machine will
slow down momentarily. Also load angle (δ) increases from zero degree and becomes δ1. During the first
swing electrical power developed is equal to mechanical load P1. Equilibrium is not established so rotor
swings further. Load angle exceeds δ1 and becomes δ2. Now electrical power generated is greater than the
previous one. Rotor attains synchronous speed. But it does not stay in synchronous speed and it will continue
to increase beyond synchronous speed. As a result of rotor acceleration above synchronous speed the load
angle decreases. So once again no equilibrium is attained. Thus rotor swings or oscillates about new
equilibrium position. This phenomenon is known as hunting or phase swinging.
Causes of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
 Sudden change in load.
 Sudden change in field current.
 A load containing harmonic torque.
 Fault in supply system.
Effects of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
 It may lead to loss of synchronism.
  Produces mechanical stresses.
 Increases machine losses and cause temperature rise.
Cause greater surges in current and power flow.
Reduction of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
Two techniques should be used to reduce hunting. These are –
Use of Damper Winding : It consists of low electrical resistance copper / aluminium brush embedded in
slots of pole faces in salient pole machine. Damper winding damps out hunting by producing torque opposite
to slip of rotor. The magnitude of damping torque is proportional to the slip speed.
Use of Flywheels : The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This increases the
inertia of prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed constant.
5a) A 3-phase ,16-pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 100 conductors per
slot. The chording is by one slot pitch. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb sinusoidally distributed and the
speed is 375 rpm. Find the frequency, phase and line voltage.
b) If a field excitation of 100 A in a certain alternator gives a current of 150 A on short circuits and a
terminal voltage of 900V on open circuit, find the internal voltage drop with a load current of
60A.[May/June 2012] : Ans 360V[May 2016]
Solution :
a) f= PN/120 = 16*375/120 = 50Hz
Since kc is not given, it would be taken as
unity. n = 144/16 = 9;
ᵝ= 180o/9 =120o
m = 144/16*3 = 3
kd = sin 3*(20o/2)/3 sin(20o/2) =
0.96 Z = 144*100/3 = 4800
T = 4800/2 = 2400/phase
Eph = 4.44*1*0.96*50*0.03*240 = 15.34 V
EL = √3 Eph = √3* 1534 = 2658 V.
6. A 3-Phase ,10-pole, star-connected alternator runs at 600 rpm. It has 120 stator with 8 conductors per slot,
and the conductors of each phase are connected in series. Determine the phase electro-motive force if the
flux/pole is 56 mWb.
Solution :
Conductor/slot =8
Ф = 56 mWb ; m = 12/3 = 4 Kc = 1
Kd = 0.957 Kw =0.957 Z = 960 T = 480
Tph = 160 (turns per phase) F = 40 Hz Egph = 152208V Egll = 2637.56V
7. a) Calculate the emf of a 4 pole, 3-phase star connected alternator of running at 1500 rpm from the
following data: Flux per pole=0.1wb; Total no of slots=48; Conductors per slot (in to layers) =4; Coil
span=150
Solution:
α= 30o Kc = 0.9659 Kd = 0.957 n=12 m=4 Kw = 0.9250 Z
=192 T = 96 Tph = 32
Egph = 657.12 Egll = 1138.16V
b) The Input to 6600V, 3-phase, and star-delta connected synchronous motor is 900KW. The
synchronous reactance per phase is 10 ohm. If the generated voltage is 8,900V. Calculate the motor
current. Neglect resistance.
Solution :
Vph = 3810.5V Eph = 5138.4 V Z= 10 Pin = 900Kw
Ia cos Ф = 78.7295 IL = 148.56A
8. Draw the phasor diagrams of a synchronous motor working under (i) lagging p.f (ii) UPF and (iii)
leading p.f
9. Draw the family of V curve for different loading of a synchronous machine. Explain the procedure
to obtain the same experimentally in a lab,[Nov/Dec 2012]
Refer question number 4
11. Draw and explain the vector diagrams of a loaded alternator. [June 2013]
12.Derive the torque equation of synchronous motor. [June 2013]. April/May 2015]

13. Draw and explain the construction details and operating principle of an alternator. Derive the emf
equation and draw the vector diagrams. [Dec 2013]
Construction Details And Operating Principle Of An Alternator :
The working principle of alternator is very simple. It is just like basic principle of DC generator. It also
depends upon Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction which says the current is induced in the
conductor inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion between that conductor and the magnetic
field.
Brief explanation required for all the parts of stator and rotor
14. Draw and explain the principle of operation of a synchronous motor. Explain the methods of
starting with illustration. What is hunting? [Dec 2013]
Principle of operation
In order to understand the principle of operation of a synchronous motor, let us examine what
happens if we connect the armature winding (laid out in the stator) of a 3-phase synchronous machine to a
suitable balanced 3-phase source and the field winding to a D.C source of appropriate voltage. The current
flowing through the field coils will set up stationary magnetic poles of alternate North and South. ( for
convenience let us assume a salient pole rotor, as shown in Fig. 50). On the other hand, the 3-phase currents
flowing in the armature winding produce a rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed. In other
words there will be moving North and South poles established in the stator due to the 3-phase currents i.e at
any location in the stator there will be a North pole at some instant of time and it will become a South pole
after a time period corresponding to half a cycle. (after a time = 1/ 2f , where f = frequency of the supply).
Let us assume that the stationary South pole in the rotor is aligned with the North pole in the stator moving
in clockwise direction at a particular instant of time, as shown in Fig.
These two poles get attracted and try to maintain this alignment ( as per lenz’s law) and hence the
rotor pole tries to follow the stator pole as the conditions are suitable for the production of torque in the
clockwise direction. However the rotor cannot move instantaneously due to its mechanical inertia, and so it
needs sometime to move.
In the mean time, the stator pole would quickly (a time duration corresponding to half a cycle)
change its polarity and becomes a South pole. So the force of attraction will no longer be present and
instead the like poles experience a force production of torque in the anticlockwise direction. Even this
condition will not last longer as the stator pole would again change to North pole after a time of 1/2f . Thus
the rotor will experience an alternating force which tries to move it clockwise and anticlockwise at twice
the frequency of the supply, i.e. at intervals corresponding to 1/ 2f seconds. As this duration is quite small
compared to the mechanical time constant of the rotor, the rotor cannot respond and move in any direction.
The rotor continues to be stationary only.

On the contrary if the rotor is brought to near synchronous speed by some external means say a small
motor (known as pony motor-which could be a D.C or AC induction rotor) mounted on the same shaft as
that of the rotor, the rotor poles get locked to the unlike poles in the stator and the rotor continues to run at
the synchronous speed even if the supply to the pony motor is disconnected. Thus the synchronous rotor
cannot start rotating on its own or usually we say that the synchronous rotor has no starting torque. So,
some special provision has to be
made either inside the machine or outside of the machine so that the rotor is brought to near about its
synchronous speed. At that time, if the armature is supplied with electrical power, the rotor can pull into
step and continue to operate at its synchronous speed.
15. i. Write the advantages of stationary armature and rotating field in an alternator. [June 2014]
ii. Explain V-curves as applied to synchronous motors.
iii. Briefly explain the phenomenon of ‘hunting’ in a synchronous machine. How is it remedied?
Advantages of rotating field and stationary armature system
1. In this case of high voltage generation, the instruction problem is server. If the armature is rotating,
this is due to centrifugal states develop in the body due to the rotation. But if the armature is the
stationery armature can be included easily even from vary high voltage up to 33000 volt.
2. If the rotating armature stationary field system is provides. If require three slip ring to collect the emf and
send it in the external circuit from rotating field system no slip ring are required. The emf which is
produced in the armature and can be load out directly from the armature as the armature is stationary.
ii) & iii) Refer 4th question
16. i. Develop the formula for the open circuit voltage of an alternator and explain in general terms
the effect of distribution and coil span factors.
ii. Describe with circuit diagram any one method of starting a synchronous motor. [June
2014] Solution :
i) Refer the 1st question of E.M.F Equation Of An Alternator Or Ac Generator
b) Damper winding : In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional winding is placed in
rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill, relative speed between damper winding and
rotating air gap flux in large and an emf is induced in it which produces the required starting torque.
As speed approaches synchronous speed , emf and torque is reduced and finally when magnetic
locking takes
place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous is first run as three phase induction
motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the frequency.
ii) Discuss the load characteristics of alternators for different values of load power factors.
(April/May 2015)
Power factor is defined as the cosine of the power angle , the difference in phase between voltage
and current, or simplified as the ration of the real power (P) and the apparent power (S). People will often
refer to power factor as leading or lagging. This is because the power angle can only range between -90°
and +90°, and the cosine of an angle in the fourth quadrant (between 0 and -90°) is always positive.
Therefore the power factor is also always positive and the only way to distinguish whether the power angle
is negative or positive from the power factor is to denote it leading or lagging.Lagging power factor: when
the current lags the voltage, this means that the current waveform comes delayed after the voltage
waveform (and the power angle is positive). In the context of the power generation it means that the
generator injects reactive power (over-excited regime), with respect to the Q-maximum defined by the
capability curve (i.e. S = P + jQ). Leading power factor: when the current leads the voltage, this means that
the current waveform comes before the voltage waveform (and the power angle is negative). The generator
absorbs reactive power (under-excited regime), with respect to the Q-minimum defined by the capability
curve (i.e. S = P - jQ).
 
Unity power factor: refers to the case when the current and voltage are in the same phase.
The physical significance of power factor is in the load impedance. Inductive loads (e.g. coils, motors,
etc) have lagging power factors, capacitative loads (e.g. capacitors) have leading power factors and
resistive loads (e.g. heaters) have close to unity power factors.
A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any electric utility company since if the power
factor is less than one, they have to supply more current to the user for a given amount of power use. In
doing so, they incur more line losses. They also must have larger capacity equipment in place than would
be otherwise necessary. As a result, an industrial facility will be charged a penalty if its power factor is
much different from 1.
Industrial facilities tend to have a "lagging power factor", where the current lags the
voltage (like an inductor). This is primarily the result of having a lot of electric induction motors - the
windings of motors act as inductors as seen by the power supply. Capacitors have the opposite effect and
can compensate for the inductive motor windings. Some industrial sites will have large banks of
capacitors strictly for the purpose of correcting the power factor back toward one to save on utility
company charges.
UNIT 4: THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
PART – A (C213.4)
1. Write two extra features of slip ring induction motor?[May/June 2012]
Rotor has 3 phase winding external resistance can be added into the rotor circuit for speed control and
also for improving power factor with the help of three slip rings.
2. What are the 2 types of 3phase induction motor?
Squirrel cage and slip ring induction motor.
3. Why an induction motor is called as rotating transformer?
The rotor receives same electrical power in exactly the same way as the secondary of a two winding
transformer receiving its power from primary. That is why induction motor is called as rotating
transformer.
4. Why an induction motor never runs at its synchronous speed?
If it runs at synchronous speed then there would be no relative speed between the rotor and stator, hence
there is no emf induced in the rotor, so no rotor current. Due to absence of rotor current the net torque is
zero. So the induction motor never runs at synchronous speed.
5. What are slip rings?
The slip rings are made of copper alloys and are fixed around the shaft insulating it. Through these slip
rings and brushes rotor winding can be connected to external circuit.
6. What is the advantage of cage motor?
Since the rotor has low resistance, the copper loss is low and efficiency is very high. On account of simple
construction of rotor it is mechanically robust, initial cost is less; maintenance cost is less, simple starting
arrangement.
7. Give the condition for maximum torque for 3phase induction motor, when it is running?
The rotor resistance will be slip times the rotor reactance to active the condition for max. Torque i.e. R2
=s X 2.
8. List out the method for speed control of 3phase cage type induction motor?(April/May
2015,Nov/Dec 2014)
By changing supply frequency, by changing no. of poles, By operating the two motors in cascade.
9. State the expression for starting torque of a 3-phase induction motor and state the factors
affecting starting torque.
Tstart = K E22R22 N-m
(R22 +X22)1/2
E2 = Rotor induced EMF R2 = Rotor resistance X2 = Rotor reactance K = 3/2 ns ns=
Synchronous speed in rps
10. What is the need for starters in 3-phase induction motors? (Nov/Dec 2011, April/May 2015)
To limit the high starting current by supplying reduced voltage to the motor at the time of
starting. Such a reduced voltage is applied only for a short period and once rotor gets accelerated,
full normal rated voltage can be applied.
11. State the different types of starters used in induction motor.
1.Stator resistance starter 2.Autotransformer starter 3.Star-Delta starter 4.Rotor resistance starter
5. Direct on line starter
12. List the various losses in a 3-phase induction motor.
i. Stator Copper loss ii. Rotor Copper loss iii. Iron loss iv. Friction and windage loss
13. Why skewing is used in rotor core assembly? (AU Nov/Dec 2011)
Skewing is used in rotor core assembly to avoid magnetic hum.
14. Why-squirrel cage induction motors are commonly used in domestic pump sets?
Squirrel cage motor has moderate starting torque and constant speed characteristic hence
commonly used in domestic pump sets
15. What is the frequency of the induced e.m.f of an induction motor?
fr = S f where fr - frequency of rotor induced emf S - slip f - frequency of the supply voltage
16. Why an induction motor cannot develop torque when running at synchronous speed?
Induction motor cannot develop torque since the slip is zero when the motor runs at synchronous
speed .
17. Briefly explain the phenomenon of crawling in 3-phase induction motors.
Crawling occurs particularly in Squirrel Cage Induction motor. Motor runs at a speed as low as one-
seventh of their synchronous speed Ns. This phenomenon is known as Crawling. This is due to the
fact that the ac winding of the stator produces a flux wave which is not a pure sine wave. It
consist of a fundamental wave , which revolves at synchronous speed and odd harmonics. Due to
this harmonic content the motor will not accelerate up to its normal speed but will remain
running at a speed, which is nearly one seventh of its full speed.
18. Briefly explain the phenomenon of Cogging in 3-phase induction motors.
The rotor of squirrel cage Induction motor sometimes refuses to start at all, particularly when the
voltage is low. This happens when the number of stator teeth S1 is equal to the number of rotor
teeth S2 and due to the magnetic locking between the stator and rotor teeth. This is also referred as
teeth-locking.
19. What are the factor affecting the starting torque of a 3-phase induction motor?
The factors affecting the starting torque is
1. square of the rotor resistance 2. Square of the induced emf in the rotor.
Tstart = E22R22 N-m (R22 +X22)1/2
E2 = Rotor induced EMF R2 = Rotor resistance X2 = Rotor reactance
20. State the condition for achieving maximum torque and state the expression for maximum
running torque.
Sm = R2/X2
Tmax= k E22 N-m2X2
21. State the methods of speed control of a 3-phase induction motors.
The speed of an induction motor can be controlled from stator and rotor sides.
i. From Stator side a. Stator frequency control
b. Stator voltage control
c. v/f control
d. controlling number of stator poles
ii. From Rotor side a. Adding external resistance in rotor circuit
b. Slip power recovery scheme
22. Why the name called as induction for induction motor?
Induction motor rotor receive current from the stator winding by means of mutual induction so its called
induction motor. There is no electrical connection for rotor and hence the current in the rotor is received
by induction rather than conduction.
23. What are the advantages of primary resistance starter of induction motor?
(i) Starting torque to full load torque is x2 of that obtained with direct switching or across the line starting.
(ii) This method is useful for smooth starting of small machines only.
24. Draw the equivalent circuit of an induction motor.
25. What are the advantages of autotransformer starter?[Nov/Dec 2012]

(i)Reduced voltage is applied across the motor terminal. (ii)There is a provision for no-voltage and over-
load protection.
26. Name the test Conducted for obtaining the equivalent circuit parameters of 3-ϕ IM. [May/2012]
Blocked rotor test and No Load test
27. Draw torque – speed curve of an induction motor.
28. How the starting current is reduced using rotor resistance starter.
The controlling resistance is in the form of a rheostat, connected in star. The resistance being gradually
cut-out of the rotor circuit as the motor gathers speed. Increasing the rotor resistance, not only in the rotor
current reduced at starting, but at the same time starting torque is also increased due to improvement in
power factor.
29. What is meant by plugging?
Plugging is one of the electrical braking in induction motors. Plugging involves interchanging of stator
terminals. That changing the direction of revolving magnetic field to oppose the direction of former
Magnetic field by changing the phase sequence of three phase voltages supply to the stator windings, and
then the motor will be brought to a halt by opposing torque in a short time. As the rotor always tries to
catch up with the rotating field, it can be reversed rapidly simply by interchanging any two of the supply
leads .If the leads on the stator windings are reversed suddenly, the direction of rotation of the stator field
is reversed.
30. What are the types of single phase induction motor?
Capacitor start and capacitor run induction motors.
31. State the torque equation of 3 phase Induction motor at running condition. [June 2013]
The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors:
Firstly the magnitude of rotor current, secondly the flux which interact with the rotor of three phase
induction motor and is responsible for producing emf in the rotor part of induction motor, lastly the power
factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor.
Combining all these factors together we get the equation of torque as- T α Φ I2 cosθ2 .
32. Define the term „slip‟ of a 3 phase induction motor. [June 2013,Nov/Dec 2014]
Slip, S, is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and operating speed, at the same
frequency, expressed in rpm or in percent or ratio of synchronous speed. Thus S = (Ns - Nr) / Ns,
33. What is the importance of slip in a three phase induction motor? [Dec 2013] (Nov 2015)
Slip, which varies from zero at synchronous speed and 1 when the rotor is at rest, determines the motor's
torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have small resistance, a small slip induces a large current
in the rotor and produces large torque. At full rated load, slip varies from more than 5% for small or
special purpose motors to less than 1% for large motors. These speed variations can cause load-sharing
problems when differently sized motors are mechanically connected. Various methods are available to
reduce slip, VFDs often offering the best solution.
34. Why the air-gap between stator core and rotor of an induction motor is made very small?
[June2014]
In between the rotor and stator is the air gap. The air gap has important effects, and is generally as small as
possible, as a large gap has a strong negative effect on the performance of an electric motor.
35.What are the advantages of slip ring induction motors over cage motors?(April/May 2015)
The windings are designed to with stand high mechanical forces as these motors are used for high-torque
applications.
Wound Rotors are used for applications which require soft-starts and adjustable speeds
36. Draw the slip-torque characteristics of a three phase induction motor. [Dec 2013]
37. Rotor resistance starting is preferred to reduce voltage starting of a wound rotor induction
motor. Why? [June 2014]
A wound-rotor motor is a type of induction motor where the rotor windings are connected through slip
rings to external resistances. Adjusting the resistance allows control of the speed/torque characteristic of
the motor. Wound-rotor motors can be started with low inrush current, by inserting high resistance into the
rotor circuit; as the motor accelerates, the resistance can be decreased.
Compared to a squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor of the slip ring motor has more winding turns; the
induced voltage is then higher, and the current lower, than for a squirrel-cage rotor. During the start-up
a typical rotor has 3 poles connected to the slip ring. Each pole is wired in series with a variable power
resistor. When the motor reaches full speed the rotor poles are switched to short circuit. During
start-up the resistors reduce the field strength at the stator. As a result the inrush current is reduced.
Another important advantage over squirrel-cage motors is higher starting torque
38. What are the advantages of skewing of cage rotor conductors?(May 2016)
It helps in reduction of magnetic hum, thus keeping the motor quiet. It also helps to avoid “Cogging", i.e.
locking tendency of the rotor. The tendency of rotor teeth remaining under the stator teeth due to the direct
magnetic attraction between the two, Increase in effective ratio of transformation between stator &
rotor, Increased rotor resistance due to comparatively lengthier rotor conductor bars, & Increased slip for a
given torque.
39. Two three phase induction motors when connected across a 400V, 50Hz supply runs at 1440 rpm
and 940rpm respectively. Determine which of the two motor is running at higher slip. (May 2016)
The motor running at 940 rpm will be running at higher slip as (Ns-N) will be higher for it.
40. How to reverse the direction of rotation of three phase induction motor? (Nov 2015)
The windings in a 3 phase induction motor, when activated by a 3 phase supply produce a rotating
magnetic field in the rotor area of the motor. Swapping phase A with phase B re-orders the fluxes so that
the flux rotates in the opposite direction. Swapping B with C does exactly the same thing as does swapping
A with C. Thus we can reverse the direction of rotation of three phase induction motor.
PART – B (C213.4)
PART – B
1. Explain how a rotating magnetic field is produced when a 3-phase supply is connected across the
3-phase stator windings of an induction motor.



2. With the help of neat diagrams explain the construction of a 3-phase induction motor.(Nov/Dec 2014)
Jun 2016


3. Deduce an expression for torque developed by a 3-phase induction motor and obtain an
expression for the ratio of full load torque to maximum torque.(April/May 2015)


4. Derive the condition for maximum torque and hence obtain an expression for maximum torque of
a polyphase induction motor.[May/June 2012] [June 2013]
5. Explain the principle of operation of a cage rotor induction motor. Indicate how the direction of
rotation of this motor can be reversed. [Nov/Dec 2012] [June 2013]

2. Explain with diagram any one method of starting a slip ring induction motor. [May/June 2012]


3. Draw the star-delta starter of 3- phase Induction motor and explain its working. [May/June 2012]
[June 2014](Nov/Dec 2014)
4. Draw and explain the torque-slip curve of a 3- phase Induction motor.


8. Discuss the operation of synchronous Induction motor.
9. Draw the torque /slip curves for several values of rotor circuit resistance of a induction motor /slip
curve.


10. Explain the starting method of slip ring induction motor.(April/May 2015)

11. Explain the following: i. Auto transformer starter; ii. Star-delta starter. [June 2013]
(April/May 2015)


12. Draw and explain the construction and principle of operation of three phase slip ring induction
motor. How is the construction different in squirrel cage induction motor? [Dec 2013] ](Jun 2016)

13. Derive the torque equation and also the condition for maximum torque under starting and
running conditions. [Dec 2013] [June 2014]

14. i. Bring out clearly with the help of neat sketches, the differences between the three-phase slip
ring induction motor and the three-phase squirrel cage induction motor. [June 2014]
15. Discuss any two methods of speed control of three-phase squirrel cage induction motors [June
2014]


12. Discuss the different methods of speed control of three-phase induction motors [June2014, Nov/Dec
2014](Jun 2016)
UNIT 5: SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS AND SPECIAL MACHINES
PART – A (C213.5)
1. Name the two winding of single phase induction motor?
Running and starting winding.
2. What are the methods available for making single phase induction motor a self-starting?
By splitting the single phase and by providing phase shift in starting and running winding current.
3. What is the function of capacitor in single phase induction motor?
To create phase difference between starting and running winding and also to improve PF and to get more
torque.
4. State any 4 use of single phase induction motor?
Fans, wet grinders, vacuum cleaner, small pumps, compressors, drills.
5. Explain why single phase induction motor is not a self-starting one?[Jun 2016]
When motor fed supply from single phase, its stator winding produces an alternating flux, which doesn‘t
develops any torque.
6. What kind of motors used in ceiling fan and wet grinders? [Nov/Dec 2012]
Ceiling fan - Capacitor start and capacitor run single phase induction motor, wet grinders- Capacitor start
capacitor run single phase induction motor.
7. What is the application of shaded pole induction motor?
Because of its small starting torque, it is generally used for small toys, instruments, hair driers, ventilators
8. Is it possible to change the direction of rotation of a shaded pole type induction motor?[Jun 2016]
The rotor starts rotation in the direction from unshaded part to the shaded part.
9. Why single phase induction motors have low PF?
The current through the running winding lags behind the supply voltage by large angle so only single
phase induction motors have low PF.
10. Differentiate between “capacitor start” & “Capacitor start capacitor run” single phase
induction motor?
In Capacitor start induction motor, the capacitor is connected series with starting winding, but it will be
disconnected from supply when motor pick up its speed. Whereas in Capacitor start capacitor run motor,
the starting winding and capacitor will not be disconnected from supply even though motor pickup its
speed. So in the capacitor start capacitor run induction motor runs at better power factor.
11. What is brushless DC motor?
A brushless DC motor (BLDC) is a synchronous type of motor which is powered by direct-current
electricity (DC) and which has an electronically controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes. In such motors, current and torque, voltage and rpm are linearly
related.
12. Mention the two theories with which 1Ø induction motors operation can be explained.
Double revolving field theory and Cross filed theory.
13. What is double revolving field theory?
It is based on the fact that the stator magnetic field which is pulsating can be resolved in to two
components one flux rotates in clock wise and other flux rotates in counter clock wise direction with
synchronous speed.
14. What is the specialty of hysteresis motor?
1. Uniform torque from no load to full load
2. Rotor doesn‘t carry any winding, hence provide smooth noiseless operation.
3. It can run at synchronous speed.
15. What are the various methods available for making a single-phase motor self-starting?
(i) By splitting the single phase (ii) By providing shading coil in the poles (iii) Repulsion
16. What type of single-phase induction motors is employed in high-speed fractional KW
applications?
Single phase A.C series motor
17. Classification of single phase motor?
(i) Split-phase motor (ii) Shaded pole motor (iii) Single phase series motor (iv) Repulsion motor
(v)Reluctance motor
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 77
18. What are the inherent characteristics of plain 1-phase Induction motor?
A plain 1-phase Induction motor is not used in practice due to the following inherent characteristics (i)A
plain 1-phase Induction motor does not have any starting torque (ii)However, if the rotor is initially given a
starting torque, by some means, the motor can pick up its speed in a direction at which the initial torque is
given and deliver the required output.
19. State the advantages of using capacitor start motor over a resistance split phase motor.
(i)The starting current of capacitor start motor is less than resistance split phase motor (ii) Starting torque
of the capacitor motor is twice that of resistance start motor.
20. What is an universal motor? (April/May 2015,Nov/Dec 2014)
A universal motor is defined as a motor, which may be, operated either on direct current or single phase
A.C supply, at approximately, the same speed and output.
21 State some applications of universal motor.
Used for sewing machines, table fans, vacuum cleaners, hair driers, blowers and kitchen appliances etc.
22. What is the function of centrifugal switch in a single phase - induction motor?(April/May
2015,Nov/Dec 2014)
Centrifugal switch is to automatically disconnect the starting winding from the supply when the motor has
reached 70 to 80 percent of its rated speed.
23. State the advantages of capacitor-run over capacitor start motor.
(i) Running torque is more. (ii) Power factor during running is more, thereby line current is reduced.
24. What happens when centrifugal switch fails to open?
If the centrifugal switch fails to open the starting winding will gets overheated and burn out. If next
attempt is made to start the motor, then it will result in increased sound and no rotation. This can cause
failure of main winding unless the fuses blow out.
25. Explain why the power factor of single phase induction motor is low?
The low power factor is mainly due to the large magnetizing current which ranges from 60% to 70% of FL
current. Consequently even at no load, these motors reach temperatures close to FL temperature.
26. What are the advantages of brushless motors over conventional brush motors? [June 2013]
The advantages of brushless motors are they require little or no maintenance, they have a much longer
operating life , risk of explosion of possibility of RF radiation due to arcing, Capable of submersed
operation in fluids, combustible gases and even they may hermetically be sealed. More efficient than
conventional dc servo motors Rapid response and produce fairly linear characteristics.
27. How can a universal motor rotation be reversed?
The direction of rotation of the concentrated-pole (or salient-pole) type universal motor may be reversed
by reversing the flow of current through either the armature or field windings. The direction of rotation of
the distributed field compensating type universal motor may be reversed interchanging either the armature
or field leads and shifting the brushes against the direction in which the motor win rotate.
28. How will you change the direction of rotation of a split phase induction motor?
By changing the direction of current either in the starting winding or in the running winding, the
direction of rotation can be changed.
29. Why should a motor be named as universal motor?
The available supply in the universe is both A.C and D.C. So the motor, which works on both A.C and
D.C, is called universal motor.
30. What is the use of shading ring in a shaded pole motor?[May/June 2012]
The shading coil causes the flux in the shaded portion to lag behind the flux in unshaded portion of pole.
This gives in effect a rotation of flux across the pole face and under the influence of this moving flux a
starting torque is developed.
31. What role do magnetic bridges play in the operation of a shaded pole rotor? (AU Nov/Dec 2011)
The simplest shaded-pole motor consists of a rotor assembly and a stator pole and contains a series of
shaded and unshaded windings. Shaded windings consist of copper conductors that typically produce a
weak magnetic field once a rotor starts spinning. This magnetic field is often used to create an increased
torque that can be altered to maintain and adjust rotor speed.
Generally, induction motors rely on the magnetic production of torque for much of their operations. A
shaded-pole motor is a unique induction motor because the copper shade windings do not receive any
direct electrical charge. Instead, it is the magnetic flux created by the interactions of the windings in the
pole with the moving rotor that further increases the torque once started.
32. State the principle of reluctance motor[May/June 2012]
The variable reluctance motor is based on the principle that an unrestrained piece of iron will move to
complete a magnetic flux path with minimum reluctance, the magnetic analog of electrical resistance.
33. Brief the working principle of universal motor. [June 2013]
An universal motor is a specifically designed series wound motor, that operates at approximately the same
speed and output on either ac or dc voltage. In case of universal motor, the speed of rotation is slightly
lesser when opearting in AC. Becuase, the reactance voltage drop is present on ac but not on dc. So, the
motor speed is somewhat lower for same load in ac operation than dc . This takes place especially at high
loads . Most universal motors are designed to operate at speeds exceeding 3500 rpm . We will explain
discuss the construction of this type of motor.
34. Why is single phase induction motor not self starting? [Dec 2013]
Single phase induction motor is not self starting because , when the main winding is excited from a single
phase supply, it produces an alternating magnetic field instead of rotating magnetic field in two phase and 3
phase induction motor. According to double field revolving theory any alternating vector can be
resolved into two vectors rotating in opposite directions, each having magnitude equal to one half the
magnitude of the actual vector. The vectors will be rotating in such a way that their resultant will be zero
at every instant. Thus a single phase induction motor fails to produce a net starting torque, and is not self
starting.
35. How is the construction of linear induction motor different from induction motor? [Dec 2013]
A linear induction motor (LIM) is an AC asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general
principles as other induction motors but is very typically designed to directly produce motion in a straight
line. Characteristically, linear induction motors have a finite length primary or secondary, which generates
end-effects, whereas a conventional induction motor is arranged in an endless loop.
Despite their name, not all linear induction motors produce linear motion; some linear induction motors
are employed for generating rotations of large diameters where the use of a continuous primary would be
very expensive. They also, unlike their rotary counterparts, can give a levitation effect. A linear electric
motor's primary typically consists of a flat magnetic core (generally laminated) with transverse slots
which are often straight cut with coils laid into the slots, with each phase giving an alternating
polarity and so that the different phases physically overlap.
The secondary is frequently a sheet of aluminum, often with an iron backing plate. Some LIMs are double
sided, with one primary either side of the secondary, and in this case no iron backing is needed.
36. State the principle that the double revolving field theory makes use of. [June 2014]
A single-phase ac current supplies the main winding that produces a pulsating magnetic field.
Mathematically, the pulsating field could be divided into two fields, which are rotating in opposite
directions. The interaction between the fields and the current induced in the rotor bars generates opposing
torque.
37. What are the advantages of permanent magnet synchronous motor? [June 2014]
Generally, the term "brushless motor" or brushless DC electric motor traditionally refers to a permanent-
magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) or permanent-magnet motor (PMM), a synchronous motor that
uses permanent magnets rather than windings in the rotor. Electronic excitation control with
integrated power inverter and rectifier, sensor, and inverter electronics is required for practical operation.
Form-factors for the PMSMs are either axial flux, radial flux, transverse flux, or flux switching depending
on the arrangement of components, with each topology having different tradeoffs among efficiency, size,
weight, and operating speed. Also in the axial flux or radial flux form-factor, other brushless motors are
the brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed synchronous motor system and the magnetic reluctance, which
require electronic excitation control for practical operation, and the asynchronous induction motors, which
is with or without electronic excitation control depending on the application.
38. Write the application of single phase induction motor.(Nov 2015)

Ceiling fan, blower, compressor, driller
39. State the working principle of switched reluctance motor. (Nov 2015)
Switched reluctance motor works on the principle of reluctance.It states that the conductor always align
at minimum reluctance position or maximum inductance position when the motor is supplied by switched
converter in sequence manner by exiting each phase.
PART-B (C213.5)
1. Explain the working of single phase induction motor based on cross field theory in
detail.[May2012] [June 2013] [June 2014],(Nov/Dec 2014)
Single-phase induction motors are the most familiar of all electric motors because they are used in home
appliances, businesses, and small industries. In general, they are employed when three-phase power is not
available. Single-phase induction motors are usually two-pole or four-pole, rated at 2 hp or less, while
slower and larger motor can be manufactured for special purposes. They are widely used in domestic

appliances and for a very large number of low power drives in industry. The single phase induction motor
resembles, three-phase, squirrel-cage motor except that, at full speed, only a single winding in the stator is
excited. In a single-phase motor we have only a single field winding excited with alternating current;
therefore, it does not have a revolving field like three-phase motors. Thus, it does not self-starting. Several
methods have been devised to initiate rotation of the squirrel-cage rotor and the particular method employed
to start the motor will designate the specific type. Synchronous Speed As in the case of three-phase motors,
the synchronous speed of all single-phase induction motors is given by the equation
ns = 120f /P,
Where ns= synchronous speed [rpm]
f = frequency of the source [Hz]

p = number of poles.
The rotor turn at slightly less than synchronous speed, and the full-load slip is typically 3 percent to 5 percent
for fractional horsepower motors. Cross-field theory The principle of operation of a single-phase induction
motor can be explained from the cross-field theory. As soon as the rotor begins to turn, a speed emf E is
induced in the rotor conductors, as they cut the stator flux Fs. This voltage increases as the rotor speed
increases. It causes current IR to flow in the rotor bars facing the stator poles as shown in Fig. Fig. Current
induced in the rotor bars due to rotation These currents produce an ac flux FR which act at right angle to the
stator flux Fs. Equally important is the fact that FR does not reach its maximum value at the same time as FS
does, in effect, FR lags almost 90o behind FS, owing to the inductance of the rotor The combined action of
Fs and FR produces a revolving magnetic field, similar to that in a three-phase motor. The value of FR
increases with increasing speed, becoming almost equal to Fs at synchronous speed. The flux rotates counter
clockwise in the same direction as the rotor and it rotates at synchronous speed irrespective of the actual
speed of the rotor. As the motor approaches synchronous speed, FR becomes almost equal to Fs and a nearly
perfect revolving field is produces.
2. Explain sequential circuit reluctance motor and Hysteresis motor with neat sketches the
principle of operation and the application.
Single-phase motors are generally built in the fractional-horsepower range and may be classified into the
following four basic types: 1. Single-phase induction motors (i) split-phase type (ii) capacitor type (iii)
shaded-pole type 2. A.C. series motor or universal motor 3. Repulsion motors (i) Repulsion-start induction-
run motor (ii) Repulsion-induction motor 4. Synchronous motors (i) Reluctance motor (ii) Hysteresis motor
Construction :
A reluctance motor (also called synchronous reluctance motor) consists of: (i) a statorcarrying a single-phase
winding along with an auxiliary winding to produce a synchronous-revolving magnetic field. (ii) a squirrel-
cage rotorhaving unsymmetrical magnetic construction. This is achieved by symmetrically removing some of
the teeth from the squirrelcage rotor to produce salient poles on the rotor. As shown in Fig. , 4 sailent poles
have been produced on me rotor. The salient poles created on the rotor must be equal to the poles on the
stator. Note that rotor salient poles offer low reductance to the stator flux and, therefore, become strongly
magnetized. Applications: the reluctance motor is cheaper than any other type of synchronous motor. They
are widely used for constant-speed applications such as timing devices, signalling devices etc.
Hysteresis Motor:
It is a single-phase motor whose operation depends upon the hysteresis effect i.e., magnetization produced in
a ferromagnetic material lags behind the magnetizing force. Construction It consists of: (i) a statordesigned
to produce a synchronously-revolving field from a single-phase supply. This is accomplished by using
permanent-split capacitor type construction. Consequently, both the windings (i.e., starting as well as main
winding) remain connected in the circuit during running operation as well as at starting. The value of
capacitance is so adjusted as to result in a flux revolving at synchronous speed. (ii) a rotor consisting of a
smooth cylinder of magnetically hard steel, without winding or teeth.
Applications:

Due to their quiet operation and ability to drive high-inertia toads, hysteresis motors are particularly well
suited for driving
(i) electric clocks
(ii) timing devices
(iii) tape-decks
(iv) from-tables and other precision audio-equipment.
3. Explain why a single phase induction motor is not a self starting motor. What are its starting
methods? Explain each method with neat sketch.
Single phase induction motor is not self starting because, when the main winding is excited from a single
phase supply, it produces an alternating magnetic field instead of rotating magnetic field in two phase and 3
phase induction motor. According to double field revolving theory any alternating vector can be resolved
into two vectors rotating in opposite directions, each having magnitude equal to one half the magnitude of
the actual vector. The vectors will be rotating in such a way that their resultant will be zero at every instant.
Thus a single phase induction motor fails to produce a net starting torque, and is not self starting.
Depending upon the methods for making asynchronous motor as Self Starting Motor, there are mainly four
types of single phase induction motor namely,
 Split phase induction motor,
 Capacitor start inductor motor,
 Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor,
 Shaded pole induction motor.


4. Explain the principle of operation of shaded pole single phase induction motor.[May 2012]
[June2014,Apr/May 2015] (Nov/Dec 2014)

5. Explain the principle of operation of repulsion type motor. (Apr/May 2015)

6. Explain the working of brushless DC motor.[May 2012]

7. Explain the principle of operation of a Hysteresis motor.[Nov 2012,Nov/DEC 2014] [May 2016]
8. Explain with neat sketch construction and operation of a permanent magnet synchronous
motor.[May 2012, ],(Nov/Dec 2014)


10. Describe the construction and operation of a switched reluctance motor. Write the advantages of
switched reluctance motor. [June 2013] [June 2014, May 2016], (Apr/May 2015)

11. Explain double revolving fi e l d theory for single phase induction motor. [Dec
2013,Apr/May 2015].

12. What are the constructional features of universal motors? Explain the operation with neat
diagrams. What are its applications? [Dec 2013] [June 2014] [May 2016]
A.C SERIES motor is also known as UNIVERSAL MOTOR: A d.c. series motor will rotate in the same
direction regardless of the polarity of the supply. One can expect that a d.c. series motor would also operate
on a single-phase supply. It is then called an a.c. series motor. However, some changes must be made in a
d.c. motor that is to operate satisfactorily on a.c. supply.
The changes effected are:
(i) The entire magnetic circuit is laminated in order to reduce the eddy current loss. Hence an a.c. series
motor requires a more expensive construction than a d.c. series motor.
(ii) The series field winding uses as few turns as possible to reduce the reactance of the field winding to a
minimum. This reduces the voltage drop across the field winding.
(iii) A high field flux is obtained by using a low-reluctance magnetic circuit.
(iv) There is considerable sparking between the brushes and the commutator when the motor is used on a.c.
supply. It is because the alternating flux establishes high currents in the coils short-circuited by the
brushes. When the short-circuited coils break contact from the commutator, excessive sparking is produced.
This can be eliminated by using high-resistance leads to connect the coils to the commutator segments.


EI6402 - Electrical Machines Department of EIE&ICE 2016-2017

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St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

38. What is the significance of back emf in DC motor.(Nov 2015)

 The rotor has a ring-shaped laminated iron core with slots.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC GENERATOR:

• A turbine or other machine drives the rotor.

• The cutting of the field lines generates voltage in the conductors.

• In Figure A, the induced voltage in b is positive, and in a is negative.

• The negative terminal is connected to segment 1 and to the conductors in slot a.

• When the coil passes the neutral zone:

• St. Joseph’s College

• The voltage induced in a is now positive, and in b is negative.

• The negative terminal is connected to segment 2 and to the conductors in slot b.

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

• The force is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and conductor

• The result of this current reversal is the maintenance of the rotation

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

Characteristics of Shunt Motors:

1. Separately excited DC generator

2. Self excited DC generator

Let’s take a brief look at how all these differ.

2. Self Excited DC Generator

1) Short shunt and 2) Long shunt

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

12. Explain the material used for core construction?

33. Draw the no-load phasor diagram of a transformer. [Dec 2014]

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

1. Describe the Constructional details of a Transformer with neat sketch.[May/June 2012]

Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Winding

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

Transformer Loading Current

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

5. Obtain the equivalent circuit of a single phase two winding transformer.[May/June2012

REAL TRANSFORMER AND ITS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The transformer ratio can be given by:

a= (N1/N2) = (E1/ E2) ≈( V1 / V2)

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2

From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

3. i. Explain the working principle of a transformer. [June 2013]

Transformer – Working Principle

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

Emf Equation of a transformer

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

9. Explain the various types of 3-phase transformer connections. (April/May 2015)

Three Phase Transformer Connections

Let N1 = No. of turns in primary

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering ISO 9001:2008

ii. Derive the equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer.