VECTOR SPACE

UINT 3: VECTOR SPACE

INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will be introduced a special type of mathematical structure called vector space
which is set closed under addition and scalar multiplication. This mathematical structure is
applicable to a wide range of real-world problems and allows for incredible economy of thought.
In addition you will also be introduced to the most important concepts: the idea of subspace, the
idea of linear combination, the idea of linearly dependence and independence of vectors, the idea
of basis and dimension, and so on.
Objectives: At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define vector spaces and subspaces.

Check whether a given subset of a vector space is a subspace or not.

Express a vector as a linear combination of one or more vectors.

Define linear independence and linear dependence of vectors.

Identify whether a given set of vectors is linear independent or dependent set.

Characterize basis of a vector space.

Identify whether a given set of vectors is a basis for a vector space or not.

Find basis of a vector space.

Define the dimension of vector space.

Find the dimension of vector space and subspace.

Define direct sum

3.1 VECTOR SPACES

DEFINITION 3.1(Field): Let ‫ ܭ‬be a subset of the complex numbers ℂ. We shall say that ‫ܭ‬
is a field if it satisfies the following conditions:
i) If ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬are elements of ‫ܭ‬, then ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬and ‫ ݕݔ‬are also elements of ‫ܭ‬.
ii) If ‫ܭ ∈ ݔ‬, then −‫ ݔ‬is also an element of ‫ܭ‬. If also ‫ ≠ ݔ‬0, then ‫ି ݔ‬ଵis an element of ‫ܭ‬.
iii) The elements 0 and 1are elements of ‫ܭ‬.

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We observe that both ℝ and ℂ are fields. Let us denote by ℚ the set of rational numbers, i.e. the
, where ݉, ݊ are integers, and ݊ ≠ 0. Then it is easily
௠
௡
set of all fractions of the form

verified that ℚ is a field.

Let ℤ denote the set of all integers. Then ℤ is not a field, because condition (ii) above is not

satisfied. Indeed, if ݊ is an integer ݊ ≠ 0, then ݊ିଵ =

ଵ
௡
is not an integer (except in the

trivial case that ݊ = 1 or ݊ = −1.

Definition 3.2(Vector space): A vector space ܸ over a field ‫ܭ‬, is a set of objects, known as
vectors, together with vector addition + and multiplication of vectors by element of ‫ܭ‬, and
satisfying the following properties:
1. For every ‫ݑ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬. (Adding two vectors gives a vector.)
2. For every ‫ݑ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ ݒ = ݒ‬+ ‫ݑ‬.( order of addition does not matter)
3. For every ‫ݑ‬, ‫ݒ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݓ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ݓ‬ሻ = ሺ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ + ‫ݓ‬.(Additive associative)
4. There exists an element 0 ∈ ܸ such that for every ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ 0 = 0 + ‫ݑ = ݑ‬.
5. For every ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬,there exists −‫ ܸ ∈ ݑ‬such that ‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ−‫ݑ‬ሻ = 0.
6. For every ܿ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ܿ ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬.( Scalar times a vector is a vector.)
7. For every ܿ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ݑ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬, we have ܿሺ ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ = ܿ‫ ݑ‬+ ܿ‫ݒ‬.
8. For every ܽ, ܾ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ሺ ܽ + ܾሻ‫ ݑܽ = ݑ‬+ ܾ‫ݑ‬.
9. For every ܽ, ܾ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ሺ ܾܽሻ‫ܽ = ݑ‬ሺܾሻ‫ݑ‬.
10. For every ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have 1‫ݑ = ݑ‬.

Example 3.1: Let ݊ ∈ ℕ. Consider the set ܸ = ℝ௡ of all vectors of the form ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ,
where ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݑ‬௡ ∈ ℝ. For any two vectors ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ and ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ in ℝ௡ and
any number ܿ ∈ ℝ , write

‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ + ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ , and ܿ‫ = ݑ‬ሺܿ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ܿ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ

Then show that ሺℝ௡ , +,∙ሻ is a vector space.

Solution: To check condition 1, simply note that ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ + ‫ݒ‬௡ ∈ ℝ.

To check condition 2, note that ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ + ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ

= ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௡ + ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ

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=‫ݒ‬+‫ݑ‬

To check condition 3, note that if ‫ = ݓ‬ሺ‫ݓ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݓ‬௡ ሻ, then

‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ݓ‬ሻ = ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ + ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݓ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௡ + ‫ݓ‬௡ ሻ

= ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݓ‬ଵ ሻ, ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ + ሺ‫ݒ‬௡ + ‫ݓ‬௡ ሻሻ

= ൫ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ ሻ + ‫ݓ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ሺ‫ݑ‬௡ + ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ + ‫ݓ‬௡ ൯

= ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ ‫ݑ‬௡ + ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ + ሺ‫ݓ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݓ‬௡ ሻ = ሺ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ + ‫ݓ‬

Condition 4, if we take 0 to be the zero vector ሺ0,0, ⋯ ,0ሻ, then

‫ ݑ‬+ 0 = ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ + ሺ0,0, ⋯ ,0ሻ = ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + 0, ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ + 0ሻ

= ሺ0 + ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ ,0 + ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ = 0 + ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ = ‫ݑ‬

Condition 5, ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ ∈ ℝ௡ . Next, writing– ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ−‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , −‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ−‫ݑ‬ሻ = 0

Condition 6, since ܿ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ܿ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ܿ‫ݑ‬௡ ∈ ℝ, then ܿ‫ = ݑ‬ሺܿ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ܿ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ܿ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ ∈ ℝ௡ .

Condition 7, note that ܿሺ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ = ܿሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ + ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ = ሺܿሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ ሻ, ⋯ , ܿሺ‫ݑ‬௡ + ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻሻ
= ሺܿ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ܿ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ܿ‫ݑ‬௡ + ܿ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ
= ሺܿ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ܿ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ܿ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ + ሺܿ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ܿ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ
= ܿሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ + cሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ = ܿ‫ ݑ‬+ ܿ‫ݒ‬
Condition 8, note that
ሺܽ + ܾሻ‫ = ݑ‬൫ሺܽ + ܾሻ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ሺܽ + ܾሻ‫ݑ‬௡ ൯ = ሺܽ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ܾ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ܽ‫ݑ‬௡ + ܾ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ
= ሺܽ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ܽ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ + ሺܾ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ܾ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ = ܽሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ + ܾሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ
= ܽ‫ ݑ‬+ ܾ‫ݒ‬
Condition 9, note that ሺܾܽሻ‫ = ݑ‬൫ሺܾܽሻ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ሺܾܽሻ‫ݑ‬௡ ൯ = ሺܽሺܾ‫ݑ‬ଵ ሻ, ⋯ , ܽሺܾ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻሻ
= ܽሺܾ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ⋯ , ܾ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ
= ܽሺܾ‫ݑ‬ሻ
Condition 10, note that 1‫ = ݑ‬ሺ1‫ݑ‬ଵ , 1‫ݑ‬ଶ , ⋯ , 1‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ = ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ

It follows that ℝ௡ is a vector space over ℝ. This is known as the n-dimensional Euclidean space.

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Example 3. 2:
Consider the set ℝଷ of all vectors of the form ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ, where ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݑ‬ଷ ∈ ℝ.
Consider vector addition and also multiplication of vectors by real numbers. It is easy to check
that we have properties analogous to 1 − 5 and 6 − 10 in the previous example, with reference
to ℝ௡ being replaced by ℝଷ .
Example3. 3: Let ܸ be the set of 2 × 2 matrices with real entries, and take the vector space
operations on ܸ to be the usual operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication; that is,
ܽ ܾ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݓ‬ ܽ+‫ݔ‬ ܾ+‫ݓ‬
ቀ ቁ + ቀ‫ݕ‬ ‫ ݖ‬ቁ = ൬ܿ + ‫ݕ‬ ൰
ܿ ݀ ݀+‫ݖ‬
ܽ ܾ ݇ܽ ܾ݇
݇ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ
ܿ ݀ ݇ܿ ݇݀
Solution: The set ܸ is closed under addition and scalar multiplication because the foregoing
operations produce 2 × 2 matrices as the end result. Thus it remains to check that conditions
2,3,4,5,7,8,9,and 10 hold. Some of these are standard properties of matrix operations. That
means, conditions 2,3,7,8, and 9 follow from standard properties of matrix operations. This
leaves conditions 4,5, and 10 that remain to be verified.
Condition 4, to verify this condition, we must find a 2 × 2 matrix 0 in ܸ for which ‫ ݑ‬+ 0 = 0 +
0 0
‫ ݑ‬for all 2 × 2 matrices in ܸ. We can do this by taking 0 = ቀ ቁ with this definition,
0 0
0 0 ܽ ܾ 0+ܽ 0+ܾ ܽ ܾ
0+‫= ݑ‬ቀ ቁ+ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ=‫ݑ‬+0
0 0 ܿ ݀ 0+ܿ 0+݀ ܿ ݀
ܽ ܾ −ܽ −ܾ ܽ ܾ −ܽ −ܾ
Condition 5, ‫ = ݑ‬ቀ ቁ ∈ ܸ, then – ‫ = ݑ‬ቀ ቁ, and ‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ−‫ݑ‬ሻ = ቀ ቁ+ቀ ቁ
ܿ ݀ −ܿ −݀ ܿ ݀ −ܿ −݀
ܽ−ܽ ܾ−ܾ 0 0
=ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ , and ሺ– ‫ݑ‬ሻ + ‫ = ݑ‬0
ܿ−ܿ ݀−݀ 0 0
ܽ ܾ ܽ ܾ
Finally, condition 10 holds because 1‫ = ݑ‬1 ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ=‫ݑ‬
ܿ ݀ ܿ ݀
Example 3.4: Let ܸ = ℝଶ and define addition and scalar multiplication operations as follows:
If ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ and ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻ, then define ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻ and if ݇ is any real
number, then define ݇‫ = ݑ‬ሺ݇‫ݑ‬ଵ , 0ሻ.

Solution: The addition operation is the standard one from ℝଶ , but the scalar multiplication is not.
It is easy to verify that the first nine vector space conditions are satisfied. But, condition 10 fails
to hold for certain vectors. For example, if ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ such that ‫ݑ‬ଶ ≠ 0, then

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1‫ = ݑ‬1ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ = ሺ1. ‫ݑ‬ଵ , 0ሻ = ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , 0ሻ ≠ ‫ݑ‬

Thus, ܸ is not a vector space with the stated operations.

Example3. 5: Let ܲሺℝሻ be the set of all polynomials ܲ: ℝ ⟶ ℝ with coefficients in ℝ.

Moreprecisely, ‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is a polynomial if there exist ܽ଴ , ܽଵ , ܽଶ , … , ܽ௡ such that ‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ܽ଴ + ܽଵ ‫ ݔ‬+
ܽଶ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܽ௡ ‫ ݔ‬௡

Addition and scalar multiplication are defined as

ሺ‫ ݌‬+ ‫ݍ‬ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ + ‫ݍ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ,

ሺ݇‫݌‬ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ݇‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ,where ‫݌‬, ‫ܲ ∈ ݍ‬ሺℝሻ and ݇ ∈ ℝ.

It can be easily verified that ܲሺℝሻ forms a vector space over ℝ. The additive identity in this case
is the zero polynomial, for which all coefficients are equal to zero. The additive inverse of

‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ܽ଴ + ܽଵ ‫ ݔ‬+ ܽଶ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܽ௡ ‫ ݔ‬௡ is −‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = −ܽ଴ − ܽଵ ‫ ݔ‬− ܽଶ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ − ⋯ − ܽ௡ ‫ ݔ‬௡

Theorem 3.1:

Let ܸ be a vector space, ‫ ݑ‬a vector in ܸ, and ݇ a scalar; then:

a) 0‫ = ݑ‬0
b) ݇0 = 0
c) ሺ−1ሻ‫ = ݑ‬−‫ݑ‬
d) If ݇‫ = ݑ‬0, then ݇ = 0 or ‫ = ݑ‬0.

Exercise 3.1: Determine whether the set ܸ is a vector space over a field ‫ ܭ‬or not.

ܽ 0
1. ܸ = ቄቀ ቁ : ܽ, ܾ ∈ ℝቅ , ‫ = ܭ‬ℝ- With the usual addition and scalar multiplication of
0 −ܾ
matrices.
2. ܸ = the set of all 2 × 2 invertible matrices of real number with the standard matrix addition
and scalar multiplication.
ܽ ܾ
3. ܸ = the set of all 2 × 2 matrices of the form ቀ ቁ with the standard matrix addition and
0 0
scalar multiplication.

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4. Let ܸ be the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers, and consider the following addition
and scalar multiplication operations on ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ and ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻ:
‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻ, ݇‫ = ݑ‬ሺ0, ݇‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ.
5. Let ܸ be the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers, and consider the following addition
and scalar multiplication operations on ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ and ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻ:
‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ + 1, ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ + 1ሻ, ݇‫ = ݑ‬ሺ݇‫ݑ‬ଵ , ݇‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ

3.1.1SUBSPACES

Definition 3.3: Let ܸ be a vector space over a field ‫ܭ‬, and let ܹ be a subset of ܸ. If ܹ is a
vector space with respect to the operations in ܸ, then ܹ is called a subspace of ܸ.( That is, A
subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W is itself a vector space under the
addition and scalar multiplication defined on V.)
Example 3.6: Consider the vector space ℝଶ of all points ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ, where ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝ . Let ܹ be a
line through the origin 0 = ሺ0,0ሻ. Suppose that ܹ is represented by the equation ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ‫ = ݕ‬0;
in other words , ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ ∈ ℝଶ : ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ‫ = ݕ‬0ሽ.
Solution: Since 0 = ሺ0,0ሻ ∈ ܹ, so that conditions 4 and 5 clearly hold in ܹ.Also conditions 2
and 3 clearly hold in ܹ.
To check condition 1, note that if ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ, ሺ‫ݑ‬, ‫ݒ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ , then ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ‫ = ݕ‬0 and ܽ‫ ݑ‬+ ܾ‫ = ݒ‬0, so
that ܽሺ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݑ‬ሻ + ܾሺ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ = 0, whence ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ + ሺ‫ݑ‬, ‫ݒ‬ሻ = ሺ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݑ‬, ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ. Next, note that
conditions 7 − 10 clearly hold in ܹ. To check condition 6, note that if ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ, then
ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ‫ = ݕ‬0, so that ܽሺܿ‫ݔ‬ሻ + ܾሺܿ‫ݕ‬ሻ = 0, whence ܿሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ = ሺܿ‫ݔ‬, ܿ‫ݕ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ.
It follows that ܹ forms a vector space over ℝ.

Theorem 3.2: Let ܸ be a vector space over a field ‫ܭ‬. A nonempty subset ܹ of ܸ is called a
subspace of ܸ if thefollowing two conditions hold:

1.For any‫ݑ‬, ‫ ݒ‬in ܹ,‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ ݒ‬is in ܸ.

2.For any vector ‫ ݒ‬in ܹ, and ܽ ∈ ‫ܭ‬is any scalar ,ܽ‫ ݒ‬is in ܹ.

Example 3.7: Consider the vector space ℝଷ of all points, where ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ ∈ ݖ‬ℝ.

Let ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ ∈ ℝଷ : ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ‫ ݕ‬+ ܿ‫ = ݖ‬0ሽ. Then show that ܹ is a subspace of ܸ.

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Solution: To check condition 1, note that if ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ, ሺ‫ݑ‬, ‫ݒ‬, ‫ݓ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ , then ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ‫ ݕ‬+ ܿ‫ = ݖ‬0
and ܽ‫ ݑ‬+ ܾ‫ ݒ‬+ ܿ‫ = ݓ‬0, so that ܽሺ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݑ‬ሻ + ܾሺ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ + ܿሺ‫ ݖ‬+ ‫ݓ‬ሻ = 0, whence

ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ + ሺ‫ݑ‬, ‫ݒ‬, ‫ݓ‬ሻ = ሺ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݑ‬, ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݒ‬, ‫ ݖ‬+ ‫ݓ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ

To check condition 2, note that if ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ , then ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ‫ ݕ‬+ ܿ‫ = ݖ‬0, so that

ܽሺ݇‫ݔ‬ሻ + ܾሺ݇‫ݕ‬ሻ + ܿሺ݇‫ݖ‬ሻ = 0 , whence ܿሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ = ሺܿ‫ݔ‬, ܿ‫ݕ‬, ܿ‫ݖ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ.

Therefore, ܹ is a subspace of ℝଷ .

Example3.8: In every vector space ܸ , the subsets ሼ0ሽ and ܸ are trivial subspaces.

Example3.9. ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ , 0ሻ: ‫ݔ‬ଵ ∈ ℝሽ-is a subspace of ℝଶ .

Justification: i) Sinceሺ0,0ሻ ∈ ܹ, then ܹ is nonempty.

ii)‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, 0ሻ, and ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ ∈ ܹ,‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, 0ሻ + ሺ‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ = ሺ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ ∈ ܹ,since ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝ

iii) ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, 0ሻ ∈ ܹ, and ݇ ∈ ℝ , ݇‫݇ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, 0ሻ = ሺ݇‫ݔ‬, 0ሻ ∈ ܹ,since ݇‫ ∈ ݔ‬ℝ.

Therefore, ܹ is a subspace of ℝଶ .

Remark: The subspaces of ℝଶ are ሼ0ሽ, all lines through the origin, and ℝଶ .

Example3.10: Show that ܷ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ , ‫ݔ‬ଶ , ‫ݔ‬ଷ ሻ ∈ ℝଷ : 2‫ݔ‬ଵ + ‫ݔ‬ଶ − 3‫ݔ‬ଷ = 0ሽ is a subspace of ℝଷ .

Solution: To see this we need to check the three conditions of above theorem. The zero vector

ሺ0, 0, 0ሻ ∈ ℝଷ is in ܷ since it satisfies the condition 2‫ݔ‬ଵ + ‫ݔ‬ଶ − 3‫ݔ‬ଷ = 0. To show that ܷ is
closed under addition, take two vectors ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻ and ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ. Then by the
definition of ܷ we have 2‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ − 3‫ݒ‬ଷ = 0 and 2‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ − 3‫ݑ‬ଷ = 0. Adding these two
equations it is not hard to see that then the vector ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻ + ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ =
ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ satisfies.

2ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଵ ሻ + ሺ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ − 3ሺ‫ݒ‬ଷ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ = 2‫ݒ‬ଵ + 2‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ − 3‫ݒ‬ଷ − 3‫ݑ‬ଷ

= ሺ2‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ − 3‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻ + ሺ2‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ − 3‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ = 0 + 0 = 0

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Hence ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ܷ ∈ ݑ‬.

Similarly, to show closure under scalar multiplication, take ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻ ∈ ܷ, and ݇ ∈ ℝ

Then ݇‫ = ݒ‬ሺ݇‫ݒ‬ଵ , ݇‫ݒ‬ଶ , ݇‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻ satisfies the equation

2݇‫ݑ‬ଵ + ݇‫ݑ‬ଶ − 3݇‫ݑ‬ଷ = ݇ሺ2‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ − 3‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ = ݇. 0 = 0, so that ݇‫ܷ ∈ ݒ‬.

Remark: The subspaces of ℝଷ are ሼ0ሽ, all lines through the origin, all planes through the
origin, and ℝଷ .

Example 3.11: Let ܸ = ‫ܯ‬ଶ×ଶ ሺℝሻ (with the usual addition and scalar multiplication of
ܽ ܾ
matrices). Consider the subset ܹ = ቄቀ ቁ , ܽ, ܾ, ܿ ∈ ℝቅ of ‫ܯ‬ଶ×ଶ ሺℝሻ.Then show that ܹ is a
ܿ 0
subspace of ‫ܯ‬ଶ×ଶ ሺℝሻ.

ܽ ܾ ݀ ݁ ܽ ܾ ݀ ݁ ܽ+݀ ܾ+݁
Solution: i) ‫ = ݑ‬ቀ ቁ, and ‫ = ݒ‬൬ ൰ ∈ ܹ, ቀ ቁ+൬ ൰=൬ ൰∈ܹ ,
ܿ 0 ݂ 0 ܿ 0 ݂ 0 ܿ+݂ 0
since ܽ + ݀, ܾ + ݁, and ܿ + ݂ ∈ ℝ.

ܽ ܾ ܽ ܾ ݇ܽ ܾ݇
ii) ቀ ቁ ∈ ܹ, and ݇ ∈ ℝ ,݇ ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ∈ܹ
ܿ 0 ܿ 0 ݇ܿ 0

Hence, ܹ is the subspace of ‫ܯ‬ଶ×ଶ ሺℝሻ.

Exercise 3.2: Determine whether the given set ܹ is a subspace of a given vector spaceܸ.

a) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬, ‫ݓ‬ሻ: ‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݖ‬+ 3‫ = ݓ‬0, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬, ‫ ∈ ݓ‬ℝሽ,ܸ = ℝସ .
b) ܹ = ሼ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ݒ‬. ‫ = ݑ‬0, where ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ1,2, −1ሻ ∈ ℝଷ ሽ,ܸ = ℝଷ .
c) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ: ‫ = ݔ‬−2‫ݕ‬, ‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝሽ,ܸ = ℝଶ .
0 ‫ݔ‬
d) ܹ = ൜൬ ൰ : ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝൠ , ܸ = ‫ܯ‬ଶ×ଶ ሺℝሻ ( with the usual addition and scalar multiplication
0 ‫ݕ‬
of matrices)
e) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ݕ = ݔ‬,and 3‫ݖ = ݕ‬ሽ, ܸ = ℝଷ .
f) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݖ‬ሽ, ܸ = ℝଷ

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3.1.2 LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS

Definition 3.4: Suppose that ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ are vectors in a vectors space ܸ over ℝ. By a linear
combination of the vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ , we mean an expression of the type

ܿଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܿ௠ ‫ݒ‬௠ , where ܿଵ , ܿଶ , ⋯ , ܿ௠ ∈ ℝ.

Definition 3.5: Let ܸ be a vector space over a field ‫ ܭ‬and let ‫ݒ‬ଵ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݒ‬௞ in ܸ.An element ‫ ݒ‬in
ܸ said to be a linear combination of ‫ݒ‬ଵ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݒ‬௞ if there exist scalars ܿଵ , ܿଶ , … , ܿ௞ in the field
‫ ܭ‬such that ‫ܿ = ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܿ௞ ‫ݒ‬௞ .These scalars are called the coefficients of the
linear combination.

Example 3.12: Take the vector space ℝଶ .Show that ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ2,3ሻis a linear combination of the
vectors ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ1,5ሻ, ‫ = ݓ‬ሺ2, −2ሻ.

Solution: Suppose that there exist scalars ߙଵ , ߙଶ such thatߙଵ ‫ ݒ‬+ ߙଶ ‫ݑ = ݓ‬.Then

⟹ ሺ2,3ሻ = ߙଵ ‫ ݒ‬+ ߙଶ ‫ߙ = ݓ‬ଵ ሺ1,5ሻ + ߙଶ ሺ2, −2ሻ = ሺߙଵ + 2ߙଶ , 5ߙଵ − 2ߙଶ ሻ

ߙ + 2ߙଶ = 2

⟹൜ ଵ ⟹ 6ߙଵ = 5 ⟹ ߙଵ = ଺, and ߙଶ = ଵଶ
ହ ଻
5ߙଵ − 2ߙଶ = 3

Thus ‫ ݑ‬is a linear combination of‫ݒ‬, and ‫ݓ‬.

Example3.13: Take the vector space ܲଷ ሺℝሻof polynomials of degree less than or equal to 3.

Show that ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ‫ ݔ‬ଷ − ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬+ 4 –is a linear combination of ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 5 and

ℎሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ‫ ݔ‬ଷ − 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ݔ‬

Solution: We need to find scalars ܽ and ܾ such that ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ܽ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ + ܾℎሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ implies

3ܽ + ܾ = 1
1 5
ቐܽ − 4ܾ = −1 ⟹ ܾ = , ܽ =

6ܾ = 3 2 4
4ܽ = 5

5 1
⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ − ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬+ 4 = ሺ3‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 5ሻ + ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ − 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ݔ‬ሻ
4 2

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Therefore, ݂ is the linear combination of ݃, and ℎ.

Example3.14: Let ܸ = ℝଷ , ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ−4,5,3ሻ,then show that ‫ ݒ‬is linear combination of the vectors

‫ = ݑ‬ሺ1, −2,7ሻ, ‫ = ݓ‬ሺ0, −1,1ሻ, and ‫ = ݖ‬ሺ2,0, −1ሻ.

Solution: It suffices to find three scalars ܽ, ܾ,and ܿ such that ‫ ݑܽ = ݒ‬+ ܾ‫ ݓ‬+ ܿ‫ݖ‬

⟹ ሺ−4,5,3ሻ = ܽሺ1, −2,7ሻ + ܾሺ0, −1,1ሻ + ܿሺ2,0, −1ሻ

ܽ + 2ܿ = −4
⟹ ൝ −2ܽ − ܾ = 5
⟹ ܾ = −5 − 2ܽ
7ܽ + ܾ − ܿ = 3
ܽ + 2ܿ = −4
⟹ቄ ⟹ ܽ = ହ , ܿ = ହ
, and ܾ = ହ
଺ ିଵଷ ିଷଶ
5ܽ − ܿ = 8
6 −32 −13
⟹ ሺ−4,5,3ሻ = ሺ1, −2,7ሻ + ሺ0, −1,1ሻ + ሺ2,0, −1ሻ
5 5 5
Therefore, ሺ−4,5,3ሻ is linear combination of the vectors ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ1, −2,7ሻ, ‫ = ݓ‬ሺ0, −1,1ሻand

‫ = ݖ‬ሺ2,0, −1ሻ.

Example 3.15: In ℝସ , the vector ሺ1, 4, −2, 6ሻ is a linear combination of the two vectors
ሺ1, 2, 0, 4ሻ and ሺ1, 1, 1, 3ሻ, for we have ሺ1, 4, −2, 6ሻ = 3ሺ1, 2, 0, 4ሻ − 2ሺ1, 1, 1, 3ሻ. On the other
hand, the vector ሺ2, 6, 0, 9ሻ is not a linear combination of the two vectors ሺ1, 2, 0, 4ሻ and
ሺ1, 1, 1, 3ሻ, for
ሺ2, 6, 0, 9ሻ = ܿଵ ሺ1, 2, 0, 4ሻ + ܿଶ ሺ1, 1, 1, 3ሻ would lead to the system of four equations
ܿଵ + ܿଶ = 2;
2ܿଵ + ܿଶ = 6;
ܿଶ = 0;
4ܿଵ + 3ܿଶ = 9:
It is easily checked that this system has no solutions.
Example 3.16: In ℝଶ , every vector ሺ‫ݕ ;ݔ‬ሻ is a linear combination of the two vectors ݅ = ሺ1, 0ሻ
and ݆ = ሺ0, 1ሻ, for clearly ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ = ‫ ݅ݔ‬+ ‫݆ݕ‬.
Example 3.17: In ℝଷ , every vector ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ is a linear combination of the three vectors
݅ = ሺ1, 0, 0ሻ, ݆ = ሺ0, 1, 0ሻ , and ݇ = ሺ0, 0, 1ሻ, for clearly (‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ = ‫ ݅ݔ‬+ ‫ ݆ݕ‬+ ‫݇ݖ‬.

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3.1.4 SPAN OF A SET OR GENERATOR OF A SET

Definition (Span of a set or Generator of a set):

Definition 3.6: Suppose that ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ are vectors in a vector space ܸ over ℝ. The set span
ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ = ሼܿଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܿ௠ ‫ݒ‬௠ , ܿଵ , ܿଶ , ⋯ , ܿ௠ ∈ ℝሽ is called the span of the vectors
‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ . We also say that the vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ span ܸ if spanሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ = ܸ ;
in other words, if every vector in ܸ can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors
ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ.
Example 3.18: The two vectors ݅ = ሺ1, 0ሻ and ݆ = ሺ0, 1ሻ span ℝଶ .
Example 3.19: The three vectors ݅ = ሺ1, 0, 0ሻ, ݆ = ሺ0, 1, 0ሻ and ݇ = ሺ0, 0, 1ሻ span ℝଷ .
Example 3.20: The two vectors ሺ1, 2, 0, 4ሻ and ሺ1, 1, 1, 3ሻ do not span ℝସ .
Example 3.21: Show that the set ܵ = ሼሺ−1, 1, 2ሻ, ሺ0, 1, 2ሻ, ሺ1, 0, 2ሻሽ generates ℝଷ .

Solution: To check that the set ܵ = ሼሺ−1, 1, 2ሻ, ሺ0, 1, 2ሻ, ሺ1, 0, 2ሻሽ spans ℝଷ , it is enough to
show that every vector ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ in ℝଷ can be expressed as a linear combination of vectors in
ܵ.Taking an arbitrary element ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ of ℝଷ , then we need to find scalars ܽ, ܾ,and ܿ such
that ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ = ܽሺ−1,1,2ሻ + ܾሺ0,1,2ሻ + ܿሺ1,0,2ሻ , which leads to the linear system

−ܽ + ܿ = ‫ݔ‬
ܽ+ܾ =‫ݕ‬
2ܽ + 2ܾ + 2ܿ = ‫ݖ‬

So that the solution of the system is ܽ = ,ܾ = ,ܿ =

௭ିଶ௫ିଶ௬ ଶ௫ାସ௬ି௭ ௭ିଶ௬
ଶ ଶ ଶ

Therefore,ℝଷ is generated by ܵ, that is ℝଷ = spanሺܵሻ.

Exercise: 3.3.
1. Express the following as linear combinations of ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ2,1,4ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ1, −1,3ሻ, and
‫ݒ‬ଷ = ሺ3,2,5ሻ
a) 3, −2, −1ሻ b) ሺ13,12,21ሻ c) ሺ0,0,0ሻ
2 0 1 −1
2. Which of the following are linear combinations of ‫ = ܣ‬ቀ ቁ,‫ = ܤ‬ቀ ቁ,
−1 −1 2 3
0 2
‫=ܥ‬ቀ ቁ
1 4
6 −8 0 0 −1 5
a) ቀ ቁ b) ቀ ቁ c) ቀ ቁ
−1 −8 0 0 7 1

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3. Show that the set ܵ = ሼ1, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ሽ generates ܲଷ , where ܲଷ is the set of polynomial

function of degree ≤ 3.

4. Do the vectors ሺ1, 2ሻ, ሺ 2, 5ሻ span ℝଶ ?

5. Determine whether the given vectors span ℝଷ .

a) ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ2,2,2ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ0,0,3ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଷ = ሺ0,1,1ሻ

b) ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ2, −1,3ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ4,1,2ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଷ = ሺ8, −1,8ሻ
c) ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ3,1,4ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ2, −3,5ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଷ = ሺ5, −2,9ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ସ = ሺ1,4, −1ሻ
PROPOSITION 3.1: Suppose that ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ are vectors in a vector space ܸ over ℝ.

(a) Then spanሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ is a subspace of ܸ .

(b) Suppose further that ܹ is a subspace of ܸ and ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ∈ ܹ. Then

spanሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ ⊆ ܹ

3.1.5 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND BASIS

Definition 3.7: Let ܵ = ൛‫ݒ‬ଵ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݒ‬௞ ൟ be a set of distinct vectors in a subspace ܸof ℝ௡ . The set
ܵ is said to be linearly dependent if we can find constants ܿଵ , ܿଶ , … , ܿ௞ , not all zero, such that

ܿଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܿ௞ ‫ݒ‬௞ = 0 ---------------------------------------------- (1)

Otherwise, ܵ is said to be linearly independent. That is, ܵ is linearly independent if equation (1)
can be satisfied only with ܿଵ = ܿଶ = ⋯ = ܿ௞ = 0.

Example 3.22. Determine whether the vectorsሺ1, −1, 0ሻ, ሺ4, −2, 1ሻ, ሺ−2, 1, 0) in ℝ૜ are
linear independent.

Solution: consider the equation ߙଵ ሺ1, −1, 0ሻ + ߙଶ ሺ4, −2, 1ሻ + ߙଷ ሺ−2, 1,0ሻ = ሺ 0, 0, 0ሻ

Thus, we get a homogeneous system ߙଵ + 4ߙଶ − 2ߙଷ = 0

−ߙଵ − 2ߙଶ + ߙଷ = 0

0ߙଵ + ߙଶ + 0ߙଷ = 0 ⟹ ߙଶ = 0

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−ߙଵ + ߙଷ = 0
⟹ ⟹ ߙଷ = 0, ߙଵ = 0
ߙଵ − 2ߙଷ = 0

Hence, the vectors ሺ1, −1, 0ሻ, ሺ4, −2, 1ሻ, ሺ−2, 1, 0) are linearly independent.

Example 3.23: Show that the vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ1, −1ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ−2, 1ሻ in ℝ૛ are linearly
independent.

Solution: consider the relation ܽ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܾ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ0,0ሻ , where ܽ, ܾ are scalars.

ܽ − 2ܾ = 0
⟹ ܽሺ1, −1ሻ + ܾሺ−2,1ሻ = ሺ0,0ሻ ⟹ ⟹ ܾ = 0, ܽ = 0
−ܽ + ܾ = 0

Therefore, ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ1, −1ሻ, and‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ−2, 1ሻ are linearly independent.

Theorem 3.3: Let ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௡ be vectors in ℝ௡ .Then ܵ = ሼ ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௡ ሽ is a linearly
dependent subset of ℝ௡ if the determinant of the square matrix formed using ‫ݒ‬௜ as its ݅ ௧௛ -
column is 0. That is, det (‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௡ ሻ = 0

Example 3.24: Determine whether the vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ1, 2, 3ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ3, 2, 1ሻ, ሺ3, 3, 3) in ℝ૜ are
linear independent.

Solution: Consider the equation ܿଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ܿଷ ‫ݒ‬ଷ = 0. This can be rewritten in matrix
form as

1 3 3 ܿଵ 0
൭2 2 3൱ ൭ܿଶ ൱ = ൭0൱
3 1 3 ܿଷ 0
1 3 3
Since อ2 2 3อ = 0, the system has non-trivial solutions; for example, ሺܿଵ , ܿଶ , ܿଷ ሻ =
3 1 3
ሺ3, 3, −4ሻ,

so that 3‫ݒ‬ଵ + 3‫ݒ‬ଶ − 4‫ݒ‬ଷ = 0.

Hence ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ are linearly dependent.

Example 2.25: consider the three vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ = ሺ1, 1, 0ሻ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ = ሺ5, 1, −3ሻ and ‫ݒ‬ଷ = ሺ2, 7, 4ሻ in
ℝ૜ . Consider the equation ܿଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ܿଷ ‫ݒ‬ଷ = 0. This can be rewritten in matrix form as
1 5 2 ܿଵ 0
൭1 1 7൱ ൭ܿଶ ൱ = ൭0൱
0 −3 4 ܿଷ 0

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1 5 2
Since อ1 1 7อ ≠ 0, the only solution is ܿଵ = ܿଶ = ܿଷ = 0. Hence ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ are linearly
0 −3 4
independent.
PROPOSITION 3.2: Suppose that ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ are vectors in the vector space ℝ࢔ . If
݉ > ݊, then ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ are linearly dependent.

3.1.6 BASIS, DIMENSIONS AND COORDINATES

Definition 3.8: Suppose that ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ are vectors in a vector space ܸ over ℝ . We say
3.1.6.1 BASIS

that ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ is a basis for ܸ if the following two conditions are satisfied:
1. We have spanሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ = ܸ .
2. The vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ are linearly independent.

Example3.26. Show that the set ܵ = ሼ ሺ1,2ሻ, ሺ−1,1ሻ ሽ is a basis for ℝ૛

Solution: Here we need to check two things, i) ܵ generates ℝ૛

ii) ܵ- is linearly independent set.

(i) ܵ-spans ℝ૛ .

ܽ−ܾ = ‫ݔ‬
Let ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬ሻ ∈ ℝ૛ .Then, from the equation ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ = ܽሺ1, 2ሻ + ܾሺ−1, 1ሻwe have
2ܽ + ܾ = ‫ݕ‬
, solving this system of equations, we get ܽ = ܾ=
௫ା௬ ௬ିଶ௫
ଷ ଷ
, and .

And hence,ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ = ሺ1, 2ሻ + ሺ−1, 1ሻ

௫ା௬ ௬ିଶ௫
ଷ ଷ

⟹ ܵ = ሼ ሺ1,2ሻ, ሺ−1,1ሻ ሽ spans ℝ૛ .

ii) ܵ-is linearly independent

ܿ−݀ =0
Consider the equationܿሺ1,2ሻ + ݀ሺ−1,1ሻ = ሺ0,0ሻ.Then we have the system
2ܿ + ݀ = 0

⟹ ܿ = 0, ݀ = 0

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Therefore, ܵ = ሼ ሺ1,2ሻ, ሺ−1,1ሻ ሽ-is linearly independent set.

From (i) and (ii), ܵ = ሼ ሺ1,2ሻ, ሺ−1,1ሻ ሽ is a basis for ℝ૛ .

Remark: ܵ = ሼ ሺ1,0ሻ, ሺ0,1ሻ ሽis a basis for ℝ૛ which is referred to as the standard basis for ℝ૛ .

Example 3.27: Show that the set ܵ = ሼ ሺ2,1,1ሻ, ሺ1,1,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1ሻ ሽ is a basis for ℝ૜

Solution: i) ܵ = ሼ ሺ2,1,1ሻ, ሺ1,1,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1ሻ ሽ spans ℝ૜ .

Let ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ ݖ‬ሻ ∈ ℝ૜ .Then, from the equation ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ሻ = ܽሺ2, 1,1ሻ + ܾሺ1, 1,0ሻ + cሺ0,0,1ሻ

2ܽ + ܾ = ‫ݔ‬
ܽ+ܾ = ‫ݕ‬
we have

‫ ܽ = ݖ‬+ ܾ, and solving this system of linear equation, we get

ܽ = ‫ ݔ‬− ‫ݕ‬, ܾ = 2‫ ݕ‬− ‫ݔ‬, and ܿ = ‫ ݖ‬− ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬, and

Hence,ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ = ሺ ‫ ݔ‬− ‫ݕ‬ሻሺ2, 1,1ሻ + ሺ2‫ ݕ‬− ‫ݔ‬ሻሺ1, 1,0ሻ + ሺ‫ ݖ‬− ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕ‬ሻሺ0,0,1ሻ

Therefore, ܵ = ሼ ሺ2,1,1ሻ, ሺ1,1,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1ሻ ሽ spans ℝ૜

ii) ܵ = ሼ ሺ2,1,1ሻ, ሺ1,1,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1ሻ ሽ is linearly independent.

2 1 0
Since อ1 1 0อ = 1 ≠ 0, then the set ܵ = ሼ ሺ2,1,1ሻ, ሺ1,1,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1ሻ ሽ is linearly independent.
1 0 1

From (i) and (ii), ܵ = ሼ ሺ2,1,1ሻ, ሺ1,1,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1ሻ ሽ is a basis for ℝ૜ .

Example 3.28: Find the basis of the subspace ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݖ‬ሽ of the vector space,

ܸ = ℝଷ .

Solution: ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݖ‬ሽ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, 2‫ ݖ‬− ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ∈ ݖ‬ℝሽ

= ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, −‫ݔ‬, 0ሻ + ሺ0,2‫ݖ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ∈ ݖ‬ℝሽ

= ሼ‫ݔ‬ሺ1, −1,0ሻ + ‫ݖ‬ሺ0,2,1ሻሽ-this means that every vector in ܹ can be expressed as a linear
combination of the vectors ሺ1, −1,0ሻ, and ሺ0,2,1ሻ.

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⟹ ܹ = ‫ ݊ܽ݌ݏ‬ሼሺ1, −1,0ሻ, ሺ0,2,1ሻሽ

Next we need to show that the vectors ሺ1, −1,0ሻ, and ሺ0,2,1ሻare linearly independent.

ܽ=0
Consider the relation ܽሺ1, −1,0ሻ + ݀ሺ0,2,1ሻ = ሺ0,0,0ሻ ⟹ ⟹݀=0
−ܽ + 2݀ = 0
Therefore, ሺ1, −1,0ሻ, and ሺ0,2,1ሻ are linearly independent.

Thus, ܵ = ሼሺ1, −1,0ሻ, ሺ0,2,1ሻሽ –is a basis for ܹ.

Exercise 3.4: 1. Determine whether the following sets are linearly dependent or linearly
independent.
a) ሼሺ−4,3ሻ, ሺ0,2ሻሽin ℝଶ
b) ሼሺ1, −1,3ሻ, ሺ2,4, −2ሻ, ሺ1,2,2ሻሽin ℝଷ
c) ሼ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ , ‫ ݔ‬ଶ − 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1, ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ − ‫ ݔ‬+ 1ሽin ܲଷ .

2. Show that the set ሼ݁ ௫ , ݁ ି௫ , ݁ ଶ௫ ሽ in ‫ܨ‬ሺℝሻ is linearly independent.

3. Find the basis of a subspace

a) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ: ‫ = ݔ‬−2‫ݕ‬, ‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝሽ,ܸ = ℝଶ .
b) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ݕ = ݔ‬,and 3‫ݖ = ݕ‬ሽ, ܸ = ℝଷ .
a 0
c) ܹ = ቄቀ ቁ : ܽ, ܾ ∈ ℝ ቅ , ܸ = ‫ܯ‬ଶ×ଶ ሺℝሻ.
0 b

PROPOSITION 3.3: Suppose that ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ is a basis for a vector space ܸ over ℝ.
Then every element ‫ ܸ ∈ ݑ‬can be expressed uniquely in the form ‫ܿ = ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ +
ܿ௠ ‫ݒ‬௠ ; where ܿଵ , ܿଶ , ⋯ , ܿ௠ ∈ ℝ.

Definition 3.9: Let ܵ = ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௡ ሽ be a basis for a vector space ܸ over a field ‫ ܭ‬and let
3.1.6.2 COORDINATES OF A VECTOR

‫ ܸ ∈ ݒ‬such that ‫ߙ = ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ߙଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ߙ௡ ‫ݒ‬௡ .Then ሺߙଵ , ߙଶ , … , ߙ௡ ሻ are called the coordinates
of ‫ ݒ‬with respect to the basis ܸ and it is denoted by ሾ‫ݒ‬ሿௌ .

Example 3.29: Find the coordinates of ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ4, 5ሻ with respect to the basis ‫ = ܤ‬ሼሺ1, 2ሻ, ሺ−2, 1ሻሽ.

Solution:‫ = ݒ‬ሺ4, 5ሻ = ܽሺ1,2ሻ + ܾሺ−2,1ሻ = ሺܽ − 2ܾ, 2ܽ + ܾሻ

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ܽ − 2ܾ = 4 14 −3
⟹ ⟹ܽ= ,ܾ =
2ܽ + ܾ = 5 5 5

Hence ሾ‫ݒ‬ሿ஻ = ሺ ହ , ሻ
ଵସ ିଷ
ହ

3.1.6.3 DIMENSION OF A VECTOR SPACE

Definition 3.10:
The number of elements of the basis of a vector space is called the dimension of the vector
space. If ݊ is the dimension of the vector space ܸ, we say that ܸ is࢔-dimensional vector space
and if ݊ is finite, then ܸ is said to be finite dimensional.
If ܸ consists of ܱ alone, then ܸ does not have a basis, and we shall say that ܸ has
dimension 0.
Example 3.30:

1. ሼሺ1,0,0ሻ, ሺ01,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1ሻሽis the standard basis of ℝଷ .Then 3 is the dimension of ℝଷ .

2.ℝସ is a four dimensional vector space, since ሼሺ1,0,0,0ሻ, ሺ0,1,0,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,1,0ሻ, ሺ0,0,0,1ሻሽis a
basis for R4.

Exercise 3.5:1. Find the coordinates of

a) ሺ5, 3, 8ሻ with respect to the standard unit basis of ℝ૜ .

b) ‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬− 3, with respect to the basis ሼ1, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሽ of ܲଶ .
c) ሺ9,8ሻ, with respect to the basis ሼሺ1,2ሻ, ሺ−1,3ሻሽ of ℝ૛ .

2. Find the base and dimension of the subspace

a) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬− 2‫ = ݖ‬0, ሽof ℝଷ .

b) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ: ‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ = ݕ‬0ሽof ℝଶ .
c) ܹ = ሼܽ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ܾ‫ ݔ‬+ ܿ: ܽ + ܿ = 0ሽof ܲଶ .

3.1.7 DIRECT SUM

Definition 3.11 (Sum of Subspaces):

Let ܷ and ܹ be subspaces of a vector ܸ over a field‫ܭ‬. Then the sum of ܷ and ܹ is defined by

ܷ + ܹ = ሼ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݓ‬: ‫ܷ ∈ ݑ‬, ‫ܹ ∈ ݓ‬ሽ

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Theorem 3.5: If ܷ and ܹ are subspace of ܸ over a field ‫ܭ‬, then ܷ + ܹ is a subspace of ܸ.

Justification: i) Since ܷ and ܹ are subspace of ܸ, then the zero vector ܱ ∈ ܷ, ܹ

⟹ܱ ∈ܷ+ܹ

Therefore, ܷ + ܹ is non-empty subset of ܸ.

ii) Let ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ܷ ∈ ݕ‬+ ܹ , then ‫ݑ = ݔ‬ଵ + ‫ݓ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ݓ‬ଶ ,for some ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ∈ ܷ and ‫ݓ‬ଵ , ‫ݓ‬ଶ ∈ ܹ.

‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݓ‬ଵ ሻ + ሺ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݓ‬ଶ ሻ = ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ + ሺ‫ݓ‬ଵ + ‫ݓ‬ଶ ሻ ∈ ܷ + ܹ.

Let ܿ ∈ ‫ܭ‬, ܿ‫ݑܿ = ݔ‬ଵ + ܿ‫ݓ‬ଵ ∈ ܷ + ܹ ⟹ ܿ‫ ܷ ∈ ݔ‬+ ܹ.And hence, the theorem.

Theorem 3.6: Let ܸ be a vector space over the field‫ܭ‬, and let ܷ, ܹ besubspaces.

If ܷ + ܹ = ܸ, and if ܷ ∩ ܹ = ሼܱሽ , then ܸ is the directsum of ܷand ܹ.

Definition 3.12 (Direct Sum)

Let ܷ and ܹ be subspaces of a vector space ܸ over a field ‫ܭ‬.ܸ is said to be a direct sum of ܷ
and ܹ, written as ܸ = ܷ ⊕ ܹ if the following conditions hold true.

1. ܷ + ܹ = ܸ
2. ܷ ∩ ܹ = ሼܱሽ.That is, for every element ‫ ݒ‬of ܸ there exist unique elements ‫ܷ ∈ ݑ‬and
‫ ܹ ∈ ݓ‬such that ‫ ݑ = ݒ‬+ ‫ݓ‬.

Example 3.31:.Let ܸ = ℝଷ , ܷ = ሼሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ: ܽ, ܾ ∈ ℝሽ and,ܹ = ሼሺ0,0, ܿሻ: ܿ ∈ ℝሽ.Then show

that

i) ܷ, and ܹ are subspaces of ܸ.

ii) ܸ is the direct sum of ܷ and ܹ.

Solution: 1. ܷ, and ܹ are subspaces of ܸ.

i) Sinceሺ0,0,0ሻ ∈ ܷ, then ܷ is nonempty.

ii) ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ, and ‫ = ݒ‬ሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ ∈ ܷ,‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ + ሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ

= ሺ‫ ݔ‬+ ܽ, ‫ ݕ‬+ ܾ, 0ሻ ∈ ܷ,since ‫ ݔ‬+ ܽ, ‫ ݕ‬+ ܾ ∈ ℝ

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iii) ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ ∈ ܹ, and ݇ ∈ ℝ , ݇‫݇ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ = ሺ݇‫ݔ‬, ݇‫ݕ‬, 0ሻ ∈ ܷ,since ݇‫ݔ‬, ݇‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝ.

Therefore, ܷ is a subspace of ℝଷ .

Similar argument shows that ܹ is also subspaces of ܸ.

2. ܸ is the direct sum of ܷ and ܹ.

i) Let ‫ = ݒ‬ሺܽ, ܾ, ܿሻ ∈ ܸ,then ‫ = ݒ‬ሺܽ, ܾ, ܿሻ = ሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ + ሺ0,0, ܿሻ ∈ ܷ + ܹ ⟹ ܸ ⊆ ܷ + ܹ
ii) Let ‫ܷ ∈ ݑ‬, ‫ ܹ ∈ ݓ‬then ‫ = ݑ‬ሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ, ‫ = ݓ‬ሺ0,0, ܿሻ

‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݓ‬ሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ + ሺ0,0, ܿሻ = ሺܽ, ܾ, ܿሻ ∈ ܸ

⟹ܷ+ܹ ⊆ܸ

Hence, ܸ = ܷ + ܹ = ℝଷ , that is ܸ is the sum of ܷ and ܹ

3. To show that ܷ ∩ ܹ = ሼܱሽ .

Let ‫ ܷ ∈ ݑ ⟹ ܹ ∩ ܷ ∈ ݑ‬, & ‫ = ݑ ⟹ ܹ ∈ ݑ‬ሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ and ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ0,0, ܿሻ, ܽ, ܾ, ܿ ∈ ℝ
⟹ ሺܽ, ܾ, 0ሻ = ሺ0,0, ܿሻ ⟹ ܽ = ܾ = ܿ = 0
⟹ ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ0,0,0ሻ = ܱ
⟹ ܷ ∩ ܹ = ሼܱሽ
Thus, ܸ = ܷ ⊕ ܹ

Example 3.32: Let ܸ = ℝଶ , ܷ = ሼሺܽ, 0ሻ, ℝሽ and ܹ = ሼሺܾ, ܿሻ, ܾ, ܿ ∈ ℝሽ

i) Show that ܷ and ܹ are subspaces of ܸ.

ii) Is ܸ the direct sum of ܷ, and ܹ?

Solution: i) It is easy to check that ܷ and ܹ-are subspaces of ܸ.

ii) Is ℝଶ = ܷ ⊕ ܹ?

Let ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ3,4ሻ ∈ ℝଶ , then ሺ3,4ሻ = ሺ3,0ሻ + ሺ0,4ሻ or we can write it as ሺ3,4ሻ = ሺ3,0ሻ + ሺ0,4ሻ

⟹ ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ3,4ሻ is not uniquely expressed.

Therefore, ܸ = ℝଶ is not the direct sum of ܷand ܹ.

Exercise: Let ܸ = ℝସ , ܷ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, 0, ‫ݖ‬, 0ሻ: ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ∈ ݖ‬ℝሽ and, ܹ = ሼሺ0, ‫ݕ‬, 0, ‫ݓ‬ሻ: ‫ݕ‬, ‫ ∈ ݓ‬ℝሽ.

Then show that i) ܷ , and ܹ are subspaces of ܸ.

ii) ܸ-is the direct sum of ܷ and ܹ.

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Unit Summery
A vector space ܸ over a field ‫ܭ‬, is a set of objects, known as vectors, together with vector
addition + and multiplication of vectors by element of ‫ܭ‬, and satisfying the following
properties:
1. For every ‫ݑ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬. (Adding two vectors gives a vector.)
2. For every ‫ݑ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ ݒ = ݒ‬+ ‫ݑ‬.( order of addition does not matter)
3. For every ‫ݑ‬, ‫ݒ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݓ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ݓ‬ሻ = ሺ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ + ‫ݓ‬.(Additive associative)
4. There exists an element 0 ∈ ܸ such that for every ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ‫ ݑ‬+ 0 = 0 + ‫= ݑ‬
‫ݑ‬.
5. For every ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬,there exists −‫ ܸ ∈ ݑ‬such that ‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ−‫ݑ‬ሻ = 0.
6. For every ܿ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ܿ ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬.( Scalar times a vector is a vector.)
7. For every ܿ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ݑ‬, ‫ܸ ∈ ݒ‬, we have ܿሺ ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ = ܿ‫ ݑ‬+ ܿ‫ݒ‬.
8. For every ܽ, ܾ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ሺ ܽ + ܾሻ‫ ݑܽ = ݑ‬+ ܾ‫ݑ‬.
9. For every ܽ, ܾ ∈ ‫ ܭ‬and ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have ሺ ܾܽሻ‫ܽ = ݑ‬ሺܾሻ‫ݑ‬.
10. For every ‫ܸ ∈ ݑ‬, we have 1‫ݑ = ݑ‬.
Let ܸ be a vector space over a field ‫ܭ‬. A nonempty subset ܹ of ܸ is called a subspace of ܸ
if thefollowing two conditions hold:
1. For any‫ݑ‬, ‫ݒ‬in ܹ,‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ ݒ‬is in ܸ.
2. For any vector ‫ݒ‬in ܹ, and ܽ ∈ ‫ܭ‬is any scalar ,ܽ‫ ݒ‬is in ܹ.
Let ܸ be a vector space over a field ‫ ܭ‬and let ‫ݒ‬ଵ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݒ‬௞ in ܸ.An element ‫ ݒ‬in ܸ said to
be a linear combination of ‫ݒ‬ଵ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݒ‬௞ if there exist scalars ܿଵ , ܿଶ , … , ܿ௞ in the field ‫ܭ‬
such that ‫ܿ = ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܿ௞ ‫ݒ‬௞ .These scalars are called the coefficients of the
linear Combination
Suppose that ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ are vectors in a vector space ܸ over ℝ. The set span
ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ = ሼܿଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܿ௠ ‫ݒ‬௠ , ܿଵ , ܿଶ , ⋯ , ܿ௠ ∈ ℝሽ is called the span of the
vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ . We also say that the vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ span ܸ if
spanሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ = ܸ ;
in other words, if every vector in ܸ can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors
ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ.
Let ܵ = ൛‫ݒ‬ଵ, ‫ݒ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݒ‬௞ ൟ be a set of distinct vectors in a subspace ܸof ℝ௡ . The set ܵ is said to
be linearly dependent if we can find constants ܿଵ , ܿଶ , … , ܿ௞ , not all zero, such that

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ܿଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܿଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ܿ௞ ‫ݒ‬௞ = 0 . Otherwise, ܵ is said to be linearly independent. That is, ܵ is

linearly independent if equation (1) can be satisfied only with ܿଵ = ܿଶ = ⋯ = ܿ௞ = 0.

Suppose that ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ are vectors in a vector space ܸ over ℝ . We say that
ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ is a basis for ܸ if the following two conditions are satisfied:
1. We have spanሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ ሽ = ܸ .
2. The vectors ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , … , ‫ݒ‬௠ are linearly independent.
Let ܵ = ሼ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ⋯ , ‫ݒ‬௡ ሽ be a basis for a vector space ܸ over a field ‫ ܭ‬and let ‫ ܸ ∈ ݒ‬such
that ‫ߙ = ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ߙଶ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ⋯ + ߙ௡ ‫ݒ‬௡ .Then ሺߙଵ , ߙଶ , … , ߙ௡ ሻ are called the coordinates of ‫ݒ‬
with respect to the basis ܸ and it is denoted by ሾ‫ݒ‬ሿௌ .

The number of elements of the basis of a vector space is called the dimension of the vector
space. If ݊ is the dimension of the vector space ܸ, we say that ܸ is࢔-dimensional vector
space and if ݊ is finite, then ܸ is said to be finite dimensional.
Let ܷ and ܹ be subspaces of a vector space ܸ over a field ‫ܭ‬.ܸ is said to be a direct sum of
ܷ and ܹ, written as ܸ = ܷ ⊕ ܹ if the following conditions hold true.
1. ܷ + ܹ = ܸ
2. ܷ ∩ ܹ = ሼܱሽ.That is, for every element ‫ ݒ‬of ܸ there exist unique elements
‫ ܷ ∈ ݑ‬and ‫ ܹ ∈ ݓ‬such that ‫ ݑ = ݒ‬+ ‫ݓ‬.

SOLUTION TO EXERCISES ON UNIT THREE

Exercise 3.1:

ܽ 0
1. ܸ = ቄቀ ቁ : ܽ, ܾ ∈ ℝቅ , ‫ = ܭ‬ℝ
0 −ܾ
Conditions 1,2,3,6,7,8, and 9 follow from properties of matrix operations. This leaves conditions
4,5, and 10 that remain to be verified.
0 0 ܽ 0
Condition 4, the additive identity is 0 = ቀ ቁ, for ‫ = ݑ‬ቀ ቁ ∈ ܸ,
0 0 0 −ܾ
0 0 ܽ 0 ܽ 0
‫ݑ‬+0=ቀ ቁ+ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ=0+‫ݑ‬
0 0 0 −ܾ 0 −ܾ
ܽ 0 −ܽ 0
Condition 5, the additive inverse of ‫ = ݑ‬ቀ ቁ is −‫ = ݑ‬ቀ ቁ and
0 −ܾ 0 ܾ
‫ ݑ‬+ ሺ−‫ݑ‬ሻ = −‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ = ݑ‬0
ܽ 0 ܽ 0 ܽ 0
Condition10, for ‫ = ݑ‬ቀ ቁ ∈ ܸ, 1‫ = ݑ‬1 ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ=‫ݑ‬
0 −ܾ 0 −ܾ 0 −ܾ

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Therefore, ܸ –is a vector space.

2. ܸ-is not a vector space, because condition 2 fails to hold. That is, the sum two invertible
1 2 3 −2
matrices need not be invertible. For example, ‫ = ܣ‬ቀ ቁ,‫ = ܤ‬ቀ ቁ are invertible but
1 4 5 −4
4 0
‫ܣ‬+‫= ܤ‬ቀ ቁ- is not invertible.
6 0
3. ܸ-is not a vector space, because condition 10 fails. For example, if ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ such that
‫ݑ‬ଵ ≠ 0, then1‫ = ݑ‬1ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ = ሺ0,1. ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ = ሺ0, ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ ≠ ‫ݑ‬
4. Condition 7 fails to hold. For example, if ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ, and ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻ ∈ ܸ, then
ܽሺ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݒ‬ሻ = ܽሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଵ + 1, ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ + 1ሻ
= ሺܽ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ܽ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ܽ, ܽ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ܽ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ܽሻ , and
ܽ‫ ݑ‬+ ܽ‫ = ݒ‬ሺܽ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ܽ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ + ሺܽ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ܽ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻ = ሺܽ‫ݑ‬ଵ + ܽ‫ݒ‬ଵ + 1, ܽ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ܽ‫ݒ‬ଶ + 1ሻ
Thus, ܸ is not a vector space with the stated operations.

Exercise 3.2:

a) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬, ‫ݓ‬ሻ: ‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݖ‬+ 3‫ = ݓ‬0, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬, ‫ ∈ ݓ‬ℝሽ,ܸ = ℝସ
i) The zero vector ሺ0, 0, 0ሻ ∈ ℝଷ is in ܹ since it satisfies the condition ‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݖ‬+ 3‫= ݓ‬
0. To show that ܹ is closed under addition, take two vectors ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , vସ ሻ and

‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݑ‬ଷ , uସ ሻ. Then by the definition of ܹ we have ‫ݒ‬ଵ + 2‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬ଷ + 3vସ = 0 and
‫ݑ‬ଵ + 2‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ + 3‫ݑ‬ସ = 0. Adding these two equations it is not hard to see that then the
vector ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , ‫ݒ‬ସ ሻ + ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݑ‬ଷ , ‫ݑ‬ସ ሻ = ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ , ‫ݒ‬ସ + ‫ݑ‬ସ ሻ
satisfies.

ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଵ ሻ + 2ሺ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ ሻ + ሺ‫ݒ‬ଷ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻ + 3ሺ‫ݒ‬ସ + ‫ݑ‬ସ ሻ = 2‫ݒ‬ଵ + 2‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ − 3‫ݒ‬ଷ − 3‫ݑ‬ଷ

= ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ + 2‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬ଷ + 3‫ݒ‬ସ ሻ + ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + 2‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ + 3‫ݑ‬ସ ሻ = 0 + 0 = 0

Hence ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ܷ ∈ ݑ‬.

ii. Similarly, to show closure under scalar multiplication, take ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ , ‫ݒ‬ଶ , ‫ݒ‬ଷ , ‫ݒ‬ସ ሻ ∈ ܹ,
and ݇ ∈ ℝ.Then ݇‫ = ݒ‬ሺ݇‫ݒ‬ଵ , ݇‫ݒ‬ଶ , ݇‫ݒ‬ଷ , ݇‫ݒ‬ସ ሻ satisfies the equation
݇‫ݑ‬ଵ + 2݇‫ݑ‬ଶ + ݇‫ݑ‬ଷ + ݇‫ݒ‬ସ = ݇ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ + 2‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ + 3‫ݑ‬ସ ሻ = ݇. 0 = 0, so that ݇‫ܹ ∈ ݒ‬.
Therefore, ܹ is a subspace of ܸ.
b) ܹ = ሼ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ݒ‬. ‫ = ݑ‬0, where ‫ = ݑ‬ሺ1,2, −1ሻ ∈ ℝଷ ሽ,ܸ = ℝଷ .
i) For ‫ݒ‬, ‫ܹ ∈ ݓ‬, that is ‫ݒ‬. ‫ = ݑ‬0, and ‫ݓ‬. ‫ = ݑ‬0. Then ሺ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ݓ‬ሻ. ‫ݒ = ݑ‬. ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݓ‬. ‫ = ݑ‬0
‫ݒ‬+‫ܹ∈ ݓ‬
ii) For ‫ܹ ∈ ݒ‬, and for a scalar ݇, ݇‫(ܹ ∈ ݒ‬because ሺ݇‫ݒ‬ሻ. ‫݇ = ݑ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬. ‫ݑ‬ሻ = 0)

Hence, ܹ is a subspace of ܸ

c) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ: ‫ = ݔ‬−2‫ݕ‬, ‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝሽ,ܸ = ℝଶ .

i) Let ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ, and ‫ = ݓ‬ሺ‫ݓ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ.Then ‫ = ݔ‬−2‫ݕ‬, and ‫ = ݓ‬−2‫ݖ‬.
Now, we need to show that ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݓ‬−2ሺ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݖ‬ሻ.

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‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݓ‬−2‫ ݕ‬− 2‫ = ݖ‬−2ሺ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ⟹ ‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ܹ ∈ ݓ‬

ii) For ‫ = ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ ∈ ܹ, ݇‫ܹ ∈ ݒ‬, since if ‫ = ݔ‬−2‫ݕ‬, then ݇‫ = ݔ‬−2݇‫ ݕ‬, for any scalar ݇.
Therefore, ܹ is a subspace of ܸ

1. a) ሺ3, −2, −1ሻ = 2ሺ2,1,4ሻ + 2ሺ1, −1,3ሻ − ሺ3,2,5ሻ

Exercise: 3.3.

b) ሺ13,12,21ሻ = 5ሺ2,1,4ሻ − 3ሺ1, −1,3ሻ + 2ሺ3,2,5ሻ

c) ሺ0,0,0ሻ = 0ሺ2,1,4ሻ + 0ሺ1, −1,3ሻ + 0ሺ3,2,5ሻ

3. ܵ = ሼ1, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬ሽ , since any function ‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ = ܽ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ܾ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ܿ‫ ݔ‬+ ݀ in ܲଷ can be written as
2. a) yes b) yes c) no
ଶ ଷ

ܽሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ሻ + ܾሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ + ܿሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ + ݀ሺ1ሻ. Then ܵ = ሼ1, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ሽ generates ܲଷ .
4. Yes
5. a) Span b) the vectors do not span c) the vectors do not span

−4 0
Exercise 3.4
1. a) ሼሺ−4,3ሻ, ሺ0,2ሻሽ is linearly independent, because ቚ ቚ = −8 ≠ 0
3 2
b) ሼሺ1, −1,3ሻ, ሺ2,4, −2ሻ, ሺ1,2,2ሻሽ is linearly independent, because
1 2 1
อ−1 4 2อ = 18 ≠ 0
3 −2 2
c) ሼ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ , ‫ ݔ‬ଶ − 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1, ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ − 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1ሽ is linearly dependent, because
‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ − 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1 = ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ + ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ − 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1ሻ
݁ ௫ ݁ ି௫ ݁ ଶ௫
2. ሼ݁ , ݁ , ݁ ሽ is linearly independent, because อ݁ ௫ −݁ ି௫ 2݁ ଶ௫ อ ≠ 0
௫ ି௫ ଶ௫

݁ ௫ ݁ ି௫ 4݁ ଶ௫
3. a) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ: ‫ = ݔ‬−2‫ݕ‬, ‫ ∈ ݕ‬ℝሽ = ሼሺ−2y, yሻሽ = ሼyሺ−2,1ሻሽ = spanሼሺ−2,1ሻሽ
and a single non-zero vector is linearly independent. Hence, ሺ−2,1ሻ -is the basis of ܹ.
b) ܹ = ሼሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ: ‫ݕ = ݔ‬,and 3‫ݖ = ݕ‬ሽ = ሼሺ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݕ‬, 3‫ݕ‬ሻሽ = ሼyሺ1,1,3ሻሽ = spanሼሺ1,1,3ሻሽ, and

Therefore, ሺ1,1,3ሻ is the basis of ܹ.

linearly independent .

a 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
c) ܹ = ቄቀ ቁ : ܽ, ܾ ∈ ℝ ቅ = ቄa ቀ ቁ+ܾቀ ቁ ቅ = span ቄቀ ቁ,ቀ ቁቅ
0 b 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
and ܿ ቀ ቁ + dቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ⟺c=d=0
0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
Therefore, ቄቀ ቁ,ቀ ቁ ቅ - is linearly independent set
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
Hence, ‫ = ܣ‬ቀ ቁ and B = ቀ ቁ are bases of ܹ.
0 0 0 1
Exercise 3.5

1. a) ሺ5, 3, 8ሻ b) ሺ1,2,3ሻ c) ሺ11, 2ሻ

2. a) ሼሺ1, −1,0ሻ, ሺ0,2,1ሻሽ -is the basis set and dimሺܹሻ = 2.
b) ሼሺ−3,1ሻሽ -is the basis and dimሺܹሻ = 1 c) ሼ‫ ݔ‬ଶ − 1, ‫ݔ‬ሽ-is the basis and dimሺܹሻ = 2

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CHEK-LIST

For each of the following, put "
" mark if your answer is "Yes" and Put "X" if your answer is
"NO" in the box provided after each question.

Can you state the definition of a vector space?

Can you define a subspace of a vector space?

Can you give an example of a subspace of a vector space?

Can you express a vector as a linear combination of given vectors?

Can you define linearly independence of vectors?

Can you define linearly dependence of vectors?

Can you identify linearly independent vectors and linearly dependent vectors?

Can you define a basis for a vector space?

Can you determine components of a vector with respect to a given basis?

Can you determine a basis for a vector space?

Can you define the dimension of a vectors space?

 Have you completed all the boxes with (
)? If not, please, go back
and review the unit once more, before you go to the next unit

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