PERFORMANCE CHANGES IN NBA BASKETBALL
PLAYERS VARY IN STARTERS VS. NONSTARTERS OVER
A COMPETITIVE SEASON
ADAM M. GONZALEZ,1 JAY R. HOFFMAN,1 JOSEPH P. ROGOWSKI,2 WILLIAM BURGOS,2
EDWIN MANALO,2 KEON WEISE,2 MAREN S. FRAGALA,1 AND JEFFREY R. STOUT1
1
Sport and Exercise Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida; and 2Orlando Magic Basketball Club, Orlando,
Florida
ABSTRACT
Downloaded from http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr by BhDMf5ePHKav1zEoum1tQfN4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC1y0abggQZXdtwnfKZBYtws= on 12/04/2020
Gonzalez, AM, Hoffman, JR, Rogowski, JP, Burgos, W, Manalo, E,
Weise, K, Fragala, MS, and Stout, JR. Performance changes in
NBA basketball players vary in starters vs. nonstarters over
a competitive season. J Strength Cond Res 27(3): 611–615,
2013—The purpose of this study was to compare starters (S) with
nonstarters (NS), on their ability to maintain strength, power, and
quickness during a competitive National Basketball Association
(NBA) season. Twelve NBA players were assessed at the begin-
ning and end of the competitive season. However, because of
trades and injury, only 7 (S = 4, NS = 3) players (28.2 6 3.4
years; 200.9 6 9.4 cm; 104.7 6 13.9 kg; 7.2 6 1.9% body fat)
participated in both testing sessions and underwent analysis.
Anthropometric performance (repetitive vertical jump power
[VJP], squat power [SQT power], and reaction time) and subjec-
tive feelings of energy, focus, alertness, and fatigue were
recorded during each testing session. Results were interpreted
using magnitude-based statistics to make inferences on true
differences between starters and nonstarters using the unequal
variances t-statistic. Starters played an average of 27.8 6
6.9 minutes per game and nonstarters played an average of
11.3 6 7.0 minutes per game. During the course of the season,
changes in VJP indicated that starters were likely to increase VJP
(Δ = 77.3 6 78.1 W) compared to nonstarters (Δ = 2160.0 6
151.0 W). There also appeared to be a possible beneficial effect
on maintaining reaction time in starters (Δ = 0.005 6 0.074
seconds) compared with nonstarters (Δ = 0.047 6 0.073
seconds). In addition, no clear differences in DSQT power were
seen between starters (Δ = 110.8 6 141.4 W) and nonstarters
(Δ = 143.5 6 24.7 W). Changes in subjective feelings of energy
indicated that starters were very likely to maintain their energy
over the course of a season. It also appeared possible that
Address correspondence to Dr. Jay R. Hoffman, jay.hoffman@ucf.edu.
27(3)/611–615
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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starters were able to have a more positive response to subjective
measures of fatigue and alertness than nonstarters, with only
trivial differences between starters and nonstarters in regards
to maintaining focus. Results of this study suggest that NBA
players may enhance lower-body power, repetitive jump ability,
and reaction during a competitive season, which appear to be
enhanced with the stimulus of playing time.
KEY WORDS sport, overtraining, strength, reaction time, power
INTRODUCTION
A
professional basketball season imposes a great
amount of physiological stress on athletes. The
typical competitive National Basketball Associa-
tion (NBA) season consists of 82 regular season
competitions over a span of 5.5 months (2–5 games per
week). In addition, athletes also play a month of preseason
games and practice and potentially up to 2 months of a post-
season. On top of games, players are also required to partic-
ipate in daily or twice-a-day practice sessions in preparation
for competition. The training stress incurred over the long
competitive NBA season may subject athletes to the risk of
overtraining syndrome if appropriate adjustments are not
made to training programs. Overtraining symptoms are
often noticed when an athlete is unable to fully recover from
the demands of a sport and often hinders the athlete’s ability
to maintain optimal performance (4,19,20). Assessing sport-
specific performance characteristics of professional basket-
ball players during the season may provide coaches and
training staffs an ability to identify and make necessary
adjustments to reduce the risk for overtraining.
There is limited research published pertaining to NBA
athletes and their demanding season. However, there have
been several studies examining the physiological changes
during a season of competition in intercollegiate and
European-level basketball players (2,8,16). Research has
clearly indicated that basketball is predominantly an anaer-
obic sport (5,17), and several investigations on intercollegiate
and European players have indicated that strength, power,
agility, and speed can differentiate between different levels of
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 3 | MARCH 2013 | 611
 Performance Changes in Basketball
competition or predict playing time (3,11,14). Several studies
have indicated that performance measures can be main-
tained during a season of competition (9,10), whereas others
have indicated that gains in strength can be achieved in pre-
viously untrained basketball players during a competitive
season (8). However, none of these studies examined a sea-
son that was of similar length to that seen of an NBA team.
Considering the length of the basketball season in the NBA,
those athletes who are part of the regular rotation (starters)
may experience a greater fatigue than those who are not
playing consistently (nonstarters [NS]). Identification of
players who experience decreases in performance may pro-
vide an opportunity for the coach to make appropriate
adjustments to their training volume, training intensity, or
even playing time to maximize potential as the season pro-
gresses toward the playoffs. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to compare starters (S) with nonstarters, on the ability to
maintain strength, power, and quickness during a competitive
NBA season.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
Professional basketball players on an NBA team performed
strength, power, and agility assessments during a competitive
basketball season. During each testing period, players also
completed questionnaires regarding their subjective feelings
of energy, focus, fatigue, and alertness. These measures were
part of a program designed to assess the physiological
stresses of a competitive NBA season. Testing began before
the start of the regular season and concluded a week before
the end of the regular season. Testing occurred every month,
but only the first and last testing periods were analyzed. All
players participated in a regular weekly resistance training
program during the competitive season. The frequency of
resistance training was dependent upon travel schedule, but
players did lift between 8–12 times per month. To determine
the effect of playing time on performance changes, starters
were compared with nonstarters.
Subjects
Twelve players under contract to play for the NBA franchise
Orlando Magic were assessed at the beginning of the
competitive season. However, because of trades and injury,
only 7 players (28.2 6 3.4 years; 200.9 6 9.4 cm; 104.7 6
13.9 kg; 7.2 6 1.9% body fat) participated in end of season
testing. All analyses were performed with those players that
participated in both pre- and postseason testing. All perfor-
mance assessments were part of the athlete’s normal training
routine. Players gave their informed consent as part of their
requirements as a team member, which is consistent with the
policies of the University’s Institutional Review Board for use
of human subjects in research.
Performance Variables
All athletes performed anthropometric (height, body mass,
and body composition), repetitive vertical jump power (VJP),
the TM
612 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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squat power (SQT power), quickness, and reaction time. In
addition, during each testing session, subjective feelings of
energy, focus, alertness, and fatigue were recorded. The order
of testing was consistent for all testing sessions. Upon
reporting to the training facility, athletes dressed in their
normal practice uniforms and underwent anthropometric
assessments, completed the subjective questionnaires, and
then performed the vertical jump test, reaction test and
concluded with the squat test. Test-retest reliabilities for all
assessments were R . 0.90. Total time played (total minutes),
average minutes per game, games played, and games started
were recorded from the team’s official statistics.
Anthropometric Measures
Anthropometric assessments included height, body mass,
and percent body fat (%BF). Body mass was measured to the
nearest 0.1 kg. Body composition was assessed via skinfold
analyses. Percent body fat was estimated via a 6-site skinfold
test. The sites measured were the triceps, scapula, chest, iliac
crest, anterior thigh, and abdomen, using methodology
previously described (13). Body density was calculated using
the equation of Jackson and Pollock (13), and %BF was
calculated using the equation of Siri (18). The same research
assistant performed all skinfold assessments.
Vertical Jump Power
Each player performed five consecutive countermovement
jumps. During each jump, players stood with their hands on
their waist at all times and were instructed to maximize the
height of each jump while minimizing the contact time with
the ground between jumps. Subjects wore a belt connected
to a Tendo Power Output Unit (Tendo Sports Machines,
Trencin, Slovak Republic). The velocity of each jump was
calculated, and the mean power output (VJP) for each
repetition was recorded and used for subsequent analysis.
Reaction Time
Lower-body reaction time was measured with a 20-second
reaction test on the Quick Board (The Quick Board; LLC,
Memphis, TN, USA) reaction timer. Subjects stood on
a board of 5 circles, in a 2 3 1 3 2 pattern. Subjects straddled
the middle circle and reacted to a visual stimulus located on
a display box that depicted 1 of 5 potential lights that cor-
responded with the circles on the board. Upon activation of
the light, the subject attempted to move the foot closest to
the circle that corresponded to the visual stimulus. Upon
a successful connection, the next stimulus would appear.
The total number of successful attempts for the 20-second
test and the average time between the activation of the light
and the response to the corresponding circle was recorded.
Squat Power
Power output during the squat exercise was measured for
each repetition with a Tendo Power Output Unit (Tendo
Sports Machines,). The Tendo unit consists of a transducer
attached to the end of the barbell, which measured linear
displacement and time. Subsequently, bar velocity was
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TABLE 1. Magnitude-based inferences on anthropometric and performance changes during a season of competition
in NBA starters vs. nonstarters.*

Mean Clinical % Beneficial/ % Negligible/ % Harmful/

S vs. NS increase (%) inference positive trivial negative

Body mass 1.3 Possibly 59.6 30.1 10.3

Body fat % 29.6 Possibly 57.6 30 12.4
VJP 17.15 Likely 94.5 4.8 0.8
Quickness 20.29 Unclear 33.3 30.6 36.1
Reaction time 25.66 Possibly 57.6 30 12.4
SQT power 23.28 Unclear 34 27.6 38.4

*NBA = National Basketball Association; S = starters; NS = nonstarters; VJP = vertical jump power; SQT = squat.

calculated, and power was determined when barbell load was
entered into the microcomputer. The mean power output
(SQT power) was recorded for each repetition and used for
subsequent analysis. Test-retest reliability for the Tendo unit in
our laboratory has consistently shown R . 0.90. The squat test
consisted of 2 sets of 5 repetitions at load approximating 80%
of the athlete’s 1 repetition maximum in the squat exercise.
Subjective Measures of Energy, Focus, Alertness,
and Fatigue
Subjects were instructed to assess their subjective feelings of
energy, focus, fatigue, and alertness using a 15-cm visual
analog scale (VAS). The scale was anchored by the words
“low” and “high” to represent extreme ratings where the
greater measured value represented the greater feeling.
Questions were structured as “My level of energy is,” ”My
level of focus is,” “My level of alertness is,” and “My level of
fatigue is.” The VAS was assessed at each test date, and
subjects were asked to rate their feelings at that time by
marking on the corresponding line. The validity and reliabil-
ity of VAS in assessing fatigue and energy has been previ-
ously established (15).
Statistical Analyses
The effects of the NBA season were calculated as the change
from pre- to postseason measurements among starters and
nonstarters. Magnitude-based inferential analyses were used
as an alternative to normal parametric statistics to account
for the small sample size (n = 7). Several studies have sup-
ported magnitude-based inferences as a complementary
statistical tool to null hypothesis testing for reducing inter-
pretation errors (1,12). The precision of the magnitude
inference was set at 90% confidence limits, using a p value
derived from an unpaired t-test, and the threshold values
remained constant at 60.2 for the small sample size. Infer-
ences on true differences between starters and nonstarters
were determined using the unequal variances t-statistic on
a published spreadsheet (1). Inferences were calculated on
whether the true population effect was substantially positive,
negative, or trivial based on the range of the confidence

Figure 1. Individual player scores in vertical jump power from beginning

(pre) to end (post) of season.   = NS; ¤ ¤ = S. NS = nonstarters; S = Figure 2. Pre- to postseason changes in subjective measures of
starters. energy, fatigue, focus, and alertness. NS = nonstarters; S = starters.

VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 3 | MARCH 2013 | 613

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 Performance Changes in Basketball
TABLE 2. Magnitude-based inferences on changes in subjective measures of energy, focus, fatigue, and alertness
during a season of competition in NBA starters vs. nonstarters.*
Mean Clinical
S vs. NS increase (%) inference
Energy 214.28 Very unlikely
Fatigue 227.04 Possibly
Focus 1.17 Unlikely
Alertness 8.44 Possibly
*NBA = National Basketball Association; S = starters; NS = nonstarters; VJP = vertical jump power; SQT = squat.
interval relative to the value for the smallest clinical worth-
while effect. If the likely range substantially overlaps both
positive and negative values, it is inferred that the outcome
is unclear. The chance that the effect was positive or nega-
tive was evaluated by the following scale: ,1%, almost cer-
tainly not; 1–5%, very unlikely; 5–25%, unlikely; 25–75%,
possible; 75–95%, likely; 95–99% very likely; and .99%
almost certain (12). Results were interpreted using magni-
tude-based statistics and reported as mean 6 SD.
RESULTS
Starters (n = 4) played an average of 1813 6 639 total minutes
(27.8 6 6.9 minutes per game) and nonstarters (n = 3) played
an average of 543 6 375 total minutes (11.3 6 7.0 minutes per
game) over the competitive season. Evaluation of magnitude
inferences indicated a very likely difference in playing time
between starters and nonstarters. Magnitude-based inferences
on changes in performance and anthropometric measures are
depicted in Table 1. During the season, it appeared possible that
starters maintained their body mass (0.5 6 1.2 kg), whereas
nonstarters lost their body mass (20.9 6 3.1 kg). Magnitude-
based inferences on the Dchange in body composition indi-
cated a possible beneficial effect of starters (0.025 6 1.389%)
on maintaining %BF compared with starters (0.833 6 1.443%).
The Dchanges in VJP indicated that starters were likely to
increase VJP (77.3 6 78.1 W) compared with nonstarters
(2160.0 6 151.0 W). Examining the individual responses of
each player revealed that 3 of the 4 players who are starters
increased VJP, whereas all 3 players who are nonstarters
decreased VJP during the season (see Figure 1). Magnitude-
based inferences indicated that a competitive NBA season
had a possible beneficial effect on maintaining reaction time
in starters (0.005 6 0.074 seconds) compared with nonstarters
(0.047 6 0.073 seconds). In addition, there appeared to be no
clear difference in DSQT power between starters (110.8 6
141.4 W) and v (143.5 6 24.7 W). Interestingly, all players
(both starters and nonstarters) increased SQT power during
the course of the basketball season.
Pre- to postseason changes in subjective measures of energy,
fatigue, focus, and alertness can be observed in Figure 2.
Magnitude-based inferences on these changes can be seen in
the TM
614 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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% Beneficial/ % Negligible/ % Harmful/
positive trivial negative
22.8 31.1 46.1
67.2 24.7 8.1
30.4 43.9 25.7
48.4 34.4 17.2
Table 2. Changes in subjective feelings of energy indicated that
the ability of starters to maintain their energy was very unlikely
over the course of a season. It also appeared possible that
starters were able to have a more positive response to sub-
jective measures of fatigue and alertness than nonstarters.
There appeared to be trivial differences between starters and
nonstarters in regards to the ability to maintain focus.
DISCUSSION
The NBA season is a long arduous event that may pose
a significant limitation to the athlete’s ability to maintain
performance levels. Although all players on the roster prac-
tice and travel, the athlete’s who are part of the coaches
regular playing rotation (get in the game on a consistent
basis for extended period of time) may experience greater
levels of fatigue and risk experiencing performance decre-
ments if appropriate rest and recovery are not achieved
(4,19). However, to our knowledge, this is the first study to
attempt to quantify the magnitude of performance changes
during an NBA basketball season. The results of this study
indicated that starters were not only able to maintain their
physical performance levels throughout the season but the
greater playing time appeared to have provided a greater
stimulus for enhancing VJP. In addition, starters appeared
to maintain their body composition and reaction time better
than nonstarters. Greater playing time also appeared to have
positive effects on feelings of fatigue and alertness, whereas
the only detriment associated with starters was a possible
decrease in energy as the season progressed. The team was
successful as reflected by a 52 to 30 regular season record
and made the playoffs, but lost in the first round.
The measures used to assess performance changes in this
study were consistent with what has been recommended for
basketball players (5,9,17). Basketball is predominately an
anaerobic sport (5,7,11,17), and studies have shown that
lower-body strength and power performance are indicators
of playing time in basketball players (11). As such, it appears
imperative that strength and power measures should be
maintained during a season. Interestingly, previous studies
have demonstrated that this is attainable in National Colle-
giate Athletic Association Division I basketball players, as

long as these players continue to lift through the season
(8,10). Furthermore, strength gains can be achieved during
the season, especially in novice or less experienced athletes
(10). However, in contrast to the collegiate basketball season,
the NBA season is nearly twice as long, possibly potentiating
a greater cumulative fatigue in the NBA athlete. Despite this
concern, the results of this study provide additional support
for in-season strength and power improvements in NBA
athletes. It appears that greater playing time acts as a stimulus
for enhancing jump power performance. All players were
required to perform a repetitive 5-jump test. This was
intended to mimic the repetitive jumping experienced by
players fighting for rebounds during a game. The greater
jump power performance seen in starters compared with
nonstarters suggests that the additional playing time, or
the intensity of the jumps performed in an NBA game, pro-
vides a greater stimulus for eliciting improved repeated jump
performance. This likely contributed to the greater reaction
time observed in starters as well.
Other investigators examining European basketball ath-
letes participating in longer competitive season than colle-
giate athletes, but less than NBA athletes, have reported that
anabolic/catabolic balance is maintained during the season
(16). This suggests that the physiological stress associated
with that specific competitive scenario was well tolerated
by those athletes. Although we did not measure hormonal
changes, performance results of this study do suggest that
the athletes were able to withstand the rigors of the NBA
season. Still, fatigue can manifest itself in several different
ways (4). Considering that energy levels were more affected
in starters than nonstarters suggests that some negative
results were seen toward the end of the season. Although
speculative, we may have started to see the initial signs of an
overtraining syndrome. Interestingly, fatigue appeared to
manifest itself to a greater extent in nonstarters than starters.
This may be related to dissatisfaction associated with insuf-
ficient playing time. A previous study has shown that the
mood of professional basketball players, especially fatigue
and tension, is influenced by personal factors related to the
athlete’s relationship to the coach or team administrators (6).
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The importance of monitoring elite basketball players’ per-
formance for overtraining is crucial not only to the athletes
but also the success of teams. However, it is important to
acknowledge that each athlete responds individually to the
stresses of practice and games. Although the results of
the team may be consistent, it is important for the strength
and conditioning coach to examine individual player per-
formance as well. When needed, specific adjustments to
the athlete’s daily routine (i.e., greater recovery, less time
on the court) may prevent potential performance decre-
ments that may not manifest as part of the team results.
Results of this study suggest that NBA players may enhance
lower-body power, repetitive jump ability, and reaction
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Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
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during a competitive season. This appears to be enhanced
with the stimulus of competition.
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