Introduction

Introduction
→ Farm buildings and structures are important parts of an
integrated rural development
→ Knowledge on the design and construction of farm
buildings are needed to have an effective storage
especially for the new high yielding grain varieties which
are more susceptible to pests than the traditional type
→ Improve management and breeding programmes to
increase animal production have created a need for
more appropriate animal housing
→ To improve standards of living for the rural population,
it is necessary to provide durable, comfortable and
healthy homes, with clean water, sanitation facilities and
community infrastructure.
Topics on Structures
Topics on Structure
Topics on Structure
Basic Structural Elements
1. Tension Member - Slender structural members
subjected to tensile stress (e.g. tie rods, hangers)
Basic Structural Elements
2. Beams - Structural member subjected to loads
perpendicular to the long axis of the member
- Normally in horizontal position (e.g. floor joists, girders) but
sometimes found in an inclined and vertical position (e.g.
rafters in roof and studs)
Basic Structural Elements
3. Compression members - Vertical members that resist
axial compressive loads (e.g. columns)

4. Combined members - Members subjected to

combined effects of compression/tension and bending
(eg.g beam columns)
Basic Structural Elements
Fundamental Concept of Stress Analysis
Stress – internal resistance to an external force

𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 =
𝐴𝐴
Where:
σ = unit stress, (Pa)
P = external force, (N)
A = cross sectional area (m2)
Three Basic Kind of Stress
1. Compression – results from a force that tends to
compress or crush a member
2. Tension - results from a force that tends to stretch or
elongate a member
3. Shear – results from the tendency of two equal and
parallel forces, acting in opposite directions, to cause
adjoining surfaces of a member to slide one on the
other
Fundamental Concept of Stress Analysis
Types of Shear

Horizontal shear
(slides horizontally)

Vertical shear
(dropping down between supports)
Materials of
Construction
Wood
- Most commonly used building material due to its
strength, light weight, durability, ease of fastening and
artistic and natural beauty
Wood
Lumber
Lumber Measurement
- Wood is normally priced in board foot (fbm)
- One board foot of wood has a normal size of one foot
length by one foot width by one inch thick

Board Foot Formula

𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =
12
Where:
fbm = board foot
L = length, feet
W = width, inches
T = thickness. Inches
Lumber Measurement
Example:
A partition wall with 7m long and 2.6 m high. Using 2” x
3” studs spaced at 50 cm vertically and horizontally.
*stud is a structural member where siding or
partition boards are fastened (also known as ribs of
partition) 7m

2.6 m
Lumber Measurement
7m

2.6 m

No. of Vertical Studs:

𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 7 𝑚𝑚
= +1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 0.5 𝑚𝑚

15 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2" x 3" x 9′

Lumber Measurement
7m

2.6 m

No. of Horizontal Studs:

ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 2.6 𝑚𝑚
= +1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0.5 𝑚𝑚

7 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2" x 3" x 23′

Lumber Measurement
Total number of Bdft:
2" x 3" 𝑥𝑥 10′
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑥𝑥 15 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 75 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
12

2" x 3" 𝑥𝑥 24′

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝑥𝑥 7 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 84 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
12

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 159 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

Recommended End-Uses of Philippine
Timber
Strength Group End Uses
Class I Heavy-duty construction where both
(High Strength) strength and durability are required
such as bridges, girders, rafters,
chords, purlins, balustrades, stairs, high
grade beams

Class II Medium-heavy construction such as

(Moderately High Strength) heavy duty furniture, cabinets, door
panels, and frames, tool handles,
plywood, beams, girders, rafters,
chords, purlins
Class III Medium construction such as general
(Medium Strength) framing, paneling, medium-grade
furniture, cabinet, low-grade beams,
girders, rafters, chords and purlins,
drafting tables, dry measures
Recommended End-Uses of Philippine
Timber
Strength Group End Uses

Class IV Light construction where strength,

(Moderately Low Strength) hardness and durability are not
critical requirements such as
mouldings, ceiling and acoustic
panels, pulp and paper making,
wall boards, pencil slats,
matchsticks, popsicle sticks

Class V Production of pulp paper,

(low Strength) woodcarving and sculpture, toys,
crates, pallets, conventional
furniture, form wood, shingles and
matchwoods
Plywood
- Made up of 3, 5, 7 or more veneer slices lain one upon
the other with grain of each at right angles to those of
the sheets above and below it
- Thickness varies from 3.2 mm, 4.7 mm, 12 mm, 20 mm
with a width of 1.2 m and length of 1.8 m to 2.40 m
Types of Plywood
a. Softwood - most
common for
structural use
b. Hardwood – used
for paneling and
finishing where
usually only one
face is with
hardwood finish
c. Marine – for
external use
Plywood
Example:
For the partition wall specifies the use of ¼” x 4” x 8”
plywood as partition board on both sides, determine the
no. of plywood needed.
7m

2.6 m
Plywood 7m

2.6 m

Area of wall:
2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 7𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 2.6𝑚𝑚 = 36.4𝑚𝑚2
Effective Covering of Plywood:
4′ 𝑥𝑥 8′ = 32𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 = 2.97𝑚𝑚2

36.4𝑚𝑚2
2
= 12.26~13 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
2.97𝑚𝑚 /𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏�𝟒𝟒 " 𝒙𝒙 𝟒𝟒′ 𝒙𝒙 𝟖𝟖′ 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑

Determining Board Feet in Round Wood or log

(𝐷𝐷 − 4)2 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =
16
Where:
D = the smaller diameter of the logs, inches
L = length of log, ft
Example:

24” 18’
Classification of Wood
A. Mode of Growth
a. Exogeneous – trees grow outward by adding distinct
consecutive ring every year (annual ring)
i. Coniferous – tress having cone shaped leaves and fruits. They yield
softwood
ii. Deciduous – trees having broad leaves. They yield strong wood and
hence commonly used in building construction
b. Endogenous – trees grow inwards. Fresh fibrous mass is in
the inner most portion (e.g. bamboo and cane)
Classification of Wood
Classification of Wood
B. Density
a. Softwood
b. Hardwood

Difference between soft wood and hard wood:

 In soft wood annual rings are seen distinctly whereas in hard
wood they are indistinct
 The colour of soft wood is light whereas the colour of
hardwood is dark
 Soft woods have lesser strength in compression and shear
compared to hard woods
 Soft woods are light and hard woods are heavy
 Fire resistance of soft wood is resinous while structure of
hardwood is close grained
Classification of Wood
C. Leaves
a. Needle-shaped – usually are coniferous or evergreen
b. Broad-shaped – usually hardwood tress or the deciduous
D. Shades of Color of Wood
a. White (e.g. tulip tress, spruces, silver firs, yellow pines
b. Yellow (e.g. American yellowwood)
c. Red (e.g. mahogany, acacia, ash)
d. Brown
e. Black (e.g. ebony, walnut, rosewood)
Classification of Wood
E. Grain
a. Straight
b. Cross Grain
c. Fine grain
d. Coarse grain
F. Nature of the surface when sawed
a. Plain
b. Grained
c. Figured or marked
Preparation of Wood
Stage 1. The Felling if tree

Stage 2. Bucking is the cutting of treeinto usable length.

This is also the stage where the tree trunks are
stored/stacked in a clearing
Preparation of Wood
Stage 3. The logs are transported to the sawmill using
vehicles equipped with lifting gears or by floating in rivers.
Preparation of Wood
Stage 4. Sawing. The logs are cut into ‘boards’ using
equipment such as circular saws and bandsaws. This is
called ‘conversion’. The first stage of conversion is a
process called ‘breaking down’, which means rough
sawing. The second stage is called ‘resawing’ and refers to
more accurate/precise cutting and finishing, such as
planning and further machining.
Preparation of Wood
2 Types of Rough Sawing

Stage 5. Seasoning
Defects in Wood
1. Abnormal Growth

Knot
Defects in Wood
2. Due to Deterioration

Wet Rot

Dry Rot
 Assignment
1. Search for more defects in wood.
2. Ways of seasoning lumber.