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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sport Management Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/smr

Dress for fit: An exploration of female activewear consumption

Xiaochen Zhoua,* , Clare Hanlonb , Jonathan Robertsonc , Ramon Spaaijb ,
Hans Westerbeekb , Allison Hossackd, Daniel C. Funka
a
Temple University,[49_TD$IF] School of Sport, Tourism and Hospitality Management, 309 Speakman Hall, 1810 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, PA 19122,
USA
b
Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria University, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC, 8001, Australia
c
Faculty Business and Law, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood VIC 3125, Australia
d
Think Company, 1315 Walnut Street, Suite 201, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 3 March 2017 While the female activewear market is growing rapidly, research on activewear
Received in revised form 10 September 2017 consumption and female consumers is lagging. Existing researchers have failed to produce
Accepted 11 September 2017 an in-depth understanding of female consumers’ perceptions of activewear, thereby
Available online xxx providing limited insights for the activewear industry. Drawing upon brand association
theory and the functional, expressive, and aesthetic model, the authors identify important
Keywords: attributes of activewear brands and how attributes lead to benefits pursued by female
Activewear activewear consumers. Focus groups were conducted with 72 female activewear
Female
consumers in Australia. Findings reveal three product-related attributes (functional
Brand association
design, colour, and size and fit) and two non-product-related attributes (price and model
Marketing
imagery) influence the fulfillment of four benefits (mood enhancement, exercise
facilitation, healthy and active lifestyle, and physical fit body image). This research
contributes theoretical and empirical knowledge about activewear consumption and the
vertical structure of brand associations. Findings of this research can help activewear
brands deliver benefits to female consumers through improved product designs and
marketing strategies.
Crown Copyright © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Sport Management
Association of Australia and New Zealand. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Women’s apparels have dominated the activewear market. In the U.S., which is the world’s largest market for activewear,
sales of female activewear totaled $15.1 billion in 2014, representing half of the U.S. activewear market (Kell, 2014). On the
global level, the female activewear market outpaces the male’s counterpart and is expected to grow at the speed of 5.7% per
year from 2015 to 2020 (Allied Market Research, 2015). Sports apparel brands such as Under Armour, which has traditionally
focused on the men’s market, are now developing new lines of women’s garments. New brands have entered this market,
including lululemon, Lorna Jane, and Athleta. As a result, women have emerged as an important and lucrative segment in the
activewear industry on a global level.
To succeed in the competitive market, brand managers should focus on design and marketing strategies that specifically
address female consumer needs. Women consider a variety of factors, such as fashion and brand name, when purchasing and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zxcchen@temple.edu (X. Zhou).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.09.001
1441-3523/Crown Copyright © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand. All rights reserved.

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using sport garments, and they require activewear designs that symbolize a modern way of living for active females
(O’Sullivan, Hanlon, Spaaij & Westerbeek, 2017). However, the needs of female activewear consumers remain unclear, as
existing researchers have yet to systematically investigate this growing consumer segment. Furthermore, past scholars have
focused on females’ overall attitude toward activewear, providing limited guidance on what activewear brands can or should
do to address females’ needs (Chi & Kilduff, 2011; Tong & Hawley, 2009). In a review of the relevant literature, O'Sullivan et al.
(2017) identify a knowledge gap regarding female activewear consumers and suggest “this gap limits the industry’s ability to
effectively market to and cater for the activewear consumption needs of females” (p. 11). Further research is necessary to
specifically consider activewear consumption from the female perspective.
In the current research, we advance research on female activewear consumption by examining female consumers’
perceptions of activewear brands. To guide this investigation, we integrate research on brand association with clothing and
textile research to investigate female consumers’ perceptions of the attributes and benefits in activewear usage. The paper is
organized into four sections. The first provides a review of brand association research and integrates Lamb and Kallal’s (1992)
functional, expressive, aesthetic model (FEA) to develop two research questions. The second section describes the method
used to collect information from female activewear consumers using a series of focus groups. The third reports identified
categories and related quotes that emerged from the focus groups. The final section discusses the findings followed by
theoretical and managerial implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

2. Literature review and theory

2.1. Brand association

Brand associations are informational nodes that exist within a consumer’s memory network linked to a specific brand
(Aaker, 1989). Brand associations allow consumers to develop knowledge about a brand, build brand image, and assign
meaning to that brand (Keller, 1993). Strong, unique, and positive brand associations lead to positive market outcomes and
facilitate business strategy. Brand associations represent an important concept in sport business because they facilitate the
creation of market segments and allow sport entities to market athletes, teams, and sport leagues (Arai, Ko, & Ross, 2014;
Bouzdine-Chameeva, Ferrand, Valette-Florence, & Chanavat, 2015; Kunkel, Funk, & King, 2014).
Brand associations are classified into three categories: attributes, benefits, and attitudes (Keller, 1993). Attributes refer to
the descriptive features of a brand and include product-related and non-product-related attributes. Product-related
attributes represent the inherent features that allow a product to perform while non-product-related attributes are factors
that do not impact product performance but affect purchase or consumption experience. Benefits are the values consumers
attach to a product and consist of three types: functional benefits, experiential benefits, and symbolic benefits. Functional
benefits are the intrinsic advantages derived from product performance (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001). Experiential benefits
relate to consumers’ affective state and also include the sensory experience during product usage (Orth & De Marchi, 2007).
Symbolic benefits represent the extrinsic advantages related with consumers’ self-concepts when using a product (Solomon,
1983). Finally, the third association category is brand attitude and represents consumers’ overall evaluations of a brand.
Within sport management research, Gladden and Funk (2002) acknowledge sport brand attitudes are abstract which may
limit their usefulness when in-depth perceptions of a brand are required. Hence, the current research focuses on attributes
and benefits because they relate more closely to basic features and values of activewear garments and can ultimately
determine consumers’ attitudes toward activewear brands (Gladden & Funk, 2002).
Sport management researchers have mainly focused on developing scales that capture a broad range of brand
associations with sports entities (e.g., Gladden & Funk, 2002; Kunkel et al., 2014; Ross, James, &Vargas, 2006). While varying
in their scopes, the authors generally draw from the same conceptual framework by assuming attributes and benefits are two
types of brand associations that are conceptually horizontal. In developing the team association model (TAM), Gladden and
Funk (2002) suggested attributes and benefits are two parallel factors that explain team brand association. The model
yielded marginal fit, and the authors reported a number of possible paths that could improve the fit of structural model. Ross
et al. (2006) advanced the TAM and identified 11 dimensions of team brand association. However, with a focus on adjusting
items instead of modifying the structure, Ross et al. (2006) also assumed a horizontal structure of brand association. In a
similar vein, Kunkel et al. (2014) examined brand association at the sport league level. Although being aware of the attribute
and benefit classification, Kunkel et al. (2014) have not tested the dimensionality of the 17-item brand association scale
developed, thus providing limited insight on the structure of sport brand association. To date, sport management researchers
have focused on discovering the content of brand association of different sport brands. Little progress has been made in
exploring the relationships between attributes and benefits to understand the structure of brand association.
Brand association might have a vertical structure that allows a cause-and-effect relationship from attributes to benefits.
Conceptually, Keller (1993) proposed that attributes and benefits have different levels of abstraction. Attributes are less
abstract because they relate closer with the tangible features of a brand. Benefits are more abstract because they connect
with consumer values and can be regarded as consumers’ evaluations of product attributes. Keller (1993) further proposed
that functional and experiential benefits usually connect with product-related attributes while symbolic benefits usually
connect with non-product-related attributes. In a similar vein, the means-end chain theory considers attributes and benefits
as hierarchically organized (Gutman, 1982). Attributes exist on the bottom level and serve as the means through which
consumers achieve higher-level benefits as the desired end of consumption. To illustrate the connection between attributes

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and benefits, Gutman (1982) used apparel consumption as an example and pointed out that “knowing that consumers want
to look well dressed doesn’t tell us much unless we know why they want to look that way . . . and what attributes in
clothing they associate with being well dressed” (p. 60). We argue the benefits associated with an activewear brand are
established through experiencing and evaluating attributes of the brand. The connections between attributes and benefits
are supported in [51_TD$IF]Bauer, Stokburger-Sauer, and Exler (2008)’s study on sport team brand association. While using items in
TAM, Brauer et al. (2008) modified the structural model by connecting attributes to benefits. Results reveal attributes are
positively associated with benefits, indicating that attribute associations contribute to benefit associations. Conceptually, a
vertical structure in which lower-level attributes lead to higher-level benefits should also exist in activewear brand
associations.

2.2. Activewear brand association

Few researchers have examined the content of activewear brand associations. Tong and Hawley (2009) investigated
brand associations as one facet of customer-based brand equity of activewear. Brand association was operationalized as
brand personality and organizational associations and was measured with items reflecting social benefits, such as “I admire
and respect people who wear X [brand name]” (Tong & Hawley, 2009, p. 267). Approximating the conceptualization of brand
association, Chi and Kilduff (2011) examined consumer-perceived value of activewear with the perceived value scale
(PERVAL) developed by Sweeney and Soutar (2001). The PERVAL is unspecific in its context. For example, the item
“[Activewear] would make a good impression on other people” was used to reflect a symbolic benefit (Chi & Kilduff, 2011, p.
424). However, it is not clear what “good impression” means to activewear consumers. Considering brand associations are
context-sensitive and usually vary by product category (Keller, 1993), it is necessary to understand the specific attributes and
benefits that females associate with activewear brands.
Specific associations linked with activewear brands and their possible structure can be explored through the FEA model
(Lamb & Kallal, 1992). The model guided the design of apparel attributes through identification of consumer benefits. These
benefits associated with activewear can be classified as functional, expressive, and aesthetic (Lamb & Kallal, 1992). Aligning
with the brand association theory, functional benefits in apparel consumption include performance-related considerations
and tend to be associated with product-related attributes such as textile and protection features (e.g., Troynikov &
Wardiningsih, 2011). Expressive benefits correspond to symbolic benefits in brand association theory. For example,
activewear consumers believe that activewear can convey an image of competence, sincerity, and ruggedness (Tong & Su,
2014). Aesthetic benefits reflect female consumers’ desire for beauty and connect with product-related attributes such as art
elements, design principles, and body/garment relationships. Compared to males, the pursuit of aesthetic benefits is
especially salient for female consumers because females are sensitive to aesthetic information of a product (Meyers-Levy &
Zhu, 2010). Particularly in clothing consumption, females, regardless of age, income level, and other demographic
characteristics, place a major emphasis on aesthetic factors and are prepared to pay higher prices for apparel that has high
aesthetic value despite the low functional value (Morganosky, 1984). The same association applies to sport garments that
have strong functional foci: female consumers regard aesthetic aspects such as fashion more important than functional
aspects such as comfort (Dickson & Pollack, 2000). These findings indicate females are conscious of their body image and are
focused on how apparel can complement their body shape (LaBat & DeLong, 1990). Hence, while aesthetic benefits are not
identified in brand association theory, they are likely to represent an important brand association for female activewear
consumers in addition to functional, expressive (i.e., symbolic), and experiential benefits that are identified in the brand
association theory.
Synthesizing brand association theory and the FEA model, the current research explores the content and structure of
activewear brand associations with females by incorporating two research questions:
Research Question 1: What are the product-related and non-product-related attributes female consumers associate with
activewear brands?
Research Question 2: How do the attributes connect to functional, expressive, experiential, and aesthetic benefits female
consumers associate with activewear brands?

3. Method

We conducted a qualitative investigation with female activewear consumers to answer the research questions.
Recognizing that qualitative researchers apply literature to facilitate investigations instead of taking a purely grounded
approach (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), we used brand association literature and the FEA model to conceptually guide [52_TD$IF]our study.
This investigation is particularly useful for the current research to make discoveries in activewear consumption and add
value to existing literature on brand associations.

3.1. Participants

We used purposeful sampling to recruit participants (Patton, 2002). Female participants were recruited from
metropolitan or regional locations in the states of New South Wales (NSW) and Victoria in Australia. Over half of the
population of Australia reside within NSW and Victoria, and relative to this population size, these states contain a large active

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population of approximately 3.2 million females (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015a, 2016). Female residents in NSW and
Victoria are also likely to have convenient access to activewear retailers because 45% of the shopping centers and 53% of the
specialty shops in Australia are located in these two states (Shopping Centre Council of Australia, 2015). Recruiting
participants from metropolitan and regional locations in NSW and Victoria allowed the study to investigate the research
questions in a rich activewear culture.
Additional selection criteria were implemented based on participants’ age and exercise behaviour. According to
Australian Bureau of Statistics’ National Health Survey (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015b), on average only half (50.3%) of
adult Australian females (older than 18 years of age) were sufficiently active (i.e., participate in physical activity for more
than 150 min a week). Proportionally, 18 to 34 years old were 4–29% more likely to be physically active than other age groups
within this demographic. This segment is also considered a key market segment for activewear consumption. Therefore,
women between the ages of 18 to 34 who participated in physical activity for more than 150 min a week at the time of the
study were used as the frame of reference to select participants. A total of 72 females participated in the study, aged 16–35,
and participated in moderate-intensity physical activity for at least 150 min a week at the time data were collected. Examples
of physical activities include rock climbing, running, swimming, netball, and cycling. Participants were recruited via
advertisements in local sport club newsletters, on community notice boards, and through local government websites.

3.2. Procedure

We collected data via focus groups. Brand association researchers have used focus groups to gain a preliminary
understanding of commonly held brand associations among consumers and facilitate further testing (e.g., Gladden & Funk,
2002). Focus groups also provide an environment where participants can brainstorm, and collectively give meaning to, brand
associations they have with activewear brands (Krueger & Casey, 2000). To provide a safe and familiar environment known to
participants, we conducted the focus groups in a meeting room in a local library or community centre in each region. A
moderator guided focus group discussions, which were audio-recorded while a research assistant took notes of key points
made during the discussions and non-verbal communication. In the introduction of the session to participants, the
moderator defined activewear as “clothing designed for active use such as exercise, sport, or leisure”. The moderator took a
semi-structured approach by asking open-ended questions to elicit thoughts from participants (Fontana & Frey, 2000).
Sample questions included: “how do you feel when you wear activewear,” “what features do you like in activewear,” and
“what influences you to purchase a particular activewear product?”
A component of the focus group discussion involved stimulus materials to help introduce the research topic to
participants, stimulate discussion, understand behaviour, and improve the cultural meaningfulness of research questions
(Harper, 1994; Wibeck, Dahlgren, & Öberg, 2007). Given the visual and sensory importance in developing perceptions of
activewear consumption, participants were shown images to elicit responses and stimulate discussion within the focus
groups. Photo elicitation has been used in sport management as a tool to elicit data from respondents that would have been
assumed or disguised without visual representation (e.g. perceptions of activewear models) (Snyder & Kane, 1990). A total of
18 images of activewear stores, advertisements, and online shopping sites were presented, and participants were asked to
express their thoughts about each image. The images represented Australian physical and online retail environments.[53_TD$IF] Brands
were apparent due to their strategic and prominent positions located within each setting.
We conducted 8 focus groups, with an average of 9 participants in each group, and each focus group lasting for
approximately 90 min. We transcribed the audio recordings of [54_TD$IF]focus groups into more than 400 pages of 12-point, double-
spaced text.

3.3. Analysis

To determine the main brand associations emphasized by female activewear consumers, focus group data were coded
using QSR International NVIVO 11 qualitative analysis software. Three-step constant comparison analysis was employed
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Although constant comparison originates from grounded theory research, it can also be used to
analyze focus group data, especially when multiple focus groups are conducted (Onwuegbuzie, Dickinson, Leech, & Zoran,
2009).
The first step of analysis was open coding, in which transcripts of two focus groups were randomly selected and coded by
the first author (Zhou). While sentence was the primary unit of analysis, paragraph was also used as the unit of analysis when
consecutive sentences form a coherent meaning (Spiggle, 1994). The first author openly coded the transcripts into nodes that
represent the specific attributes and benefits of activewear. Once coding was conducted, the first author generated a
codebook containing nodes and a description of each node. The codebook was given to a second coder who was a sport
management doctoral student that was familiar with constant comparison analysis and was informed of the purpose of this
research. The second coder used the codebook as a reference to code the same transcripts and provided feedback to the
codebook. While there exists the argument that using multiple coders conflicts the constructivist nature of qualitative
research (Goodwin & Goodwin, 1984), using a second coder benefits the current study because it allowed us to see a different
perspective, discuss coding disagreement, and refine the codebook (Berends & Johnston, 2005).
The second step was axial coding, in which the nodes were grouped into categories (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Under the
guidance of brand association theory and the FEA model, the lead researcher and second coder discussed connections

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amongst the nodes to group the nodes into different categories of attributes and benefits. We revised the codebook and used
it to re-code the two randomly selected transcripts independently. The first author then compiled the revised coding to
calculate inter-coder reliability using the coding comparison function in NVIVO software. According to Fleiss (1981), Cohen’s
Kappa should be used to measure reliability while controlling for agreement by chance and a score of 0.75 and higher
indicates a high level of inter-coder reliability. We discussed discrepancies in codings and revised the coding until reliability
of all categories met suggested criteria, with the lowest figure at 0.80 (functional design) and the highest figure at 0.95
(colour). From there, we split the six remaining transcripts and independently coded the transcripts using the codebook. The
final step was selective coding, in which the first author connected the categories, discovered their relationships, and
developed a story based on the brand association theory and the FEA model (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).

4. Findings

We identified[5_TD$IF]9 categories, reflecting 3 product-related attributes and two non-product-related attributes that led to four
benefits female consumers associate with activewear brands. A summary of categories and the number of references for each
category are presented in Table 1. Descriptions of the five attributes are presented to address the first research question. To
address the second question, findings are presented on how each benefit is connected to the identified attributes. In this
section, brand names are anonymized and referred to as “Brand X”. “Brand Y” and “Brand Z” are used when different brand
names were mentioned in the same quote. We do so to focus on answering the second question rather than specific
activewear brands. In addition, at times participant responses have been critical about certain brands.[56_TD$IF] There is a need to
detract attention from this to a more general focus on how respective benefits are connected to identified attributes.

4.1. Product-related and non-product-related attributes

With the first research question, we identify the product-related and non-product-related attributes female consumers
associate with activewear brands. Findings reveal three product-related attributes (functional design, size, [57_TD$IF]and fit and
colour) and two non-product-related attributes (price and model imagery).

4.1.1. Functional design

Functional design included product features related to the performance of activewear. Participants commonly referred to
functional design. Discussions on functional design focused on two aspects. The first was practical features. Participants
cared about whether activewear incorporates practical features such as bra straps that do not dig into the shoulder or
pockets that can carry personal items. The second aspect was fabric. Participants were able to identify fabric technology used
by different activewear brands. Brands that succeeded in creating positive association related with fabric were noted, and an
example statement was “The Dri-Fit from Brand X, that’s really thin and good, and you can’t see that I’m sweating a lot. So
that’s nice.”

4.1.2. Colour
Although participants did not mention colour frequently, it represented an important product-related attribute
association. When asked about important features of activewear, multiple participants indicated that colour, especially
bright colour, is a feature they desire. For some participants, purchasing activewear was based on being attracted by the
colour instead of functional considerations. One participant said: “Bright colours always get me. If I see it and it attracts me
by just the colour of it, I’ll go and have a look at it, and then I go back to the sizing.”

Table 1
Identified Categories.

Category # of references
[43_TD$IF]Product related attributes
[4_TD$IF]Functional design 183
Colour 59
Size and fit 124
[45_TD$IF]Non-product-related attributes
[46_TD$IF]Price 60
Model imagery 245
[47_TD$IF]Benefits
Functional (exercise facilitation) 149
Experiential (mood enhancement) 15
Aesthetic (physical fit body image) 79
Expressive (healthy and active lifestyle) 112
[48_TD$IF]Totals 1026

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4.1.3. Size and fit

Size and fit, with a large number of references, constituted a dominant product-related association. Participants
associated some brands with “they don’t do my size” or “they don’t fit.” These negative associations could result in complete
rejection of a brand. A participant said: “I refuse to buy Brand X because they don’t cater to women like me. I’m short,
curvaceous, not particularly tall, long limbs at all. So I don’t think I could buy anything there.” In contrast, another participant
said:
I like my Brand X running pants. They always fit right, because they’re designed for your weight, not just your height.
They’re always comfy, and they’re like my only running pants that I wear. That’s how much I love them. I’m never going
back to my Brand Y ones or Brand Z because I love my Brand X pants.

[58_TD$IF]The participant developed favorable associations with Brand X based on size and fit. The association allowed the
participant to differentiate a brand from its competitors. The association was also regarded as an exemplar that sets
standards for other brands.

4.1.4. Price
Satisfying product-related attributes comes with a price. While participants generated a long list of features activewear
should have, they did not believe these features always justify the price of activewear. There was a consensus that activewear
is “ridiculously priced” compared to what it offers. One participant said:
I don’t understand why activewear needs to be so expensive. That can deter me a lot from buying something. I want to be
active. I want to look good, feel nice, feel confident and comfortable— all those things, all in one very good priced product.
I don’t want to compromise one thing for another.

[58_TD$IF]When discussing price, participants usually associated price with specific brand names. Some brands were labeled as
“expensive” while others were labeled as “reasonably priced”. Participants had formed the impression that products from
expensive brands do not regard them as the target consumer. “Brand X is very popular for young girls,” one participant
commented, “but every time I walk in there I’m like, ‘Ok, no [it is too expensive]”'.

4.1.5. Model imagery

Given its large number of references, activewear model imagery represented a dominant non-product-related attribute
association. Particularly, participants paid attention to body image of models who promote activewear. Commenting on a
website page showing two women exercising, a participant stated:
There’s not that much difference between the two ladies, but they do have contrasting [in their body images]. Like that
one does have big breasts and a little bit of muscle . . . and looks like she’s going to have a curvy body as in the other
one does have a little bit of muscle but it looks like she has more of a square type body.

[59_TD$IF]In addition to models’ physical appearances, participants were conscious of whether models are presented in an
authentic or fake manner. According to participants, an authentic female model [60_TD$IF]should be: (a) physically fit, but not so thin as
to look unhealthy, (b) be focused on exercising, and (c) not posed professionally in front of the camera. As typified in the
following conversation:
Participant A: I hate the Brand X pictures.
Moderator: Why?
Participant A: Because I think, in my opinion, they’re the most modeled pictures.
Participant B: The fake ones.
Participant C: Very unrealistic.
Participant D: That’s always like, “I’m sexy looking.”
Participant A: It’s always someone posing and never someone doing [exercise] like they’ll pose like “this,” why would you
do that when you’re working out?
Participants often directed fake modeling perceptions at a specific brand and [61_TD$IF]these perceptions became a stigma
associated with that brand. On the contrary, participants expressed positive associations when models are authentic. For
example, a participant acknowledged: “[I like] pictures where the people look happy and look genuinely like they’re enjoying
themselves. They’re not going and forcing themselves to do exercise . . . I think it’s more the fact that they’re doing exercise
and they treat themselves.”

4.2. Connections from attributes to benefits

In the second research question, we examined the structure of female consumers’ activewear brand association by
examining the connections from attributes to benefits. Emergent [62_TD$IF]categories included functional, expressive, experiential,
and aesthetic benefits, and they linked with attributes identified in the first research question.

4.2.1. Functional benefits

The functional benefits associated with activewear related to the ability to facilitate physical exercise, which for these
participants was the default purpose of using activewear. An attribute that contributed to functional benefits was functional

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design. Participants indicated practical features of activewear clothing could facilitate physical exercise. A participant said: “I
found when I was running, whether it was my iPhone or iPod, being able to listen to music while you run is handy, but you
have nowhere to put it. So I found that having a pocket was always easier.” In addition, participants emphasized activewear
fabric has to be comfortable so that physical exercises are not hindered. As one participant said: “You have to be comfortable
when you’re working out, you don’t want to be uncomfortable and try to run on the treadmill while you’re uncomfortable.”
Size and fit, as a product-related attribute, influenced functional benefits by supporting physical exercise participation.
Participants spoke for their family and friends who were unable to exercise because of size and fit problems. One participant
told a story of her mother: “My mum is a bit bigger, and she just wouldn’t fit in Brand X’s things. She’s like, ‘well, if I can’t have
the clothing, how am I going to do it [exercise].”' This example reflected the issue that limited size and poor fit create barriers
for women to derive functional benefits from activewear.
Price was an attribute that did not influence functional benefits but was usually discussed jointly with functional benefits.
Participants evaluated whether activewear is “worth the price” in terms of its functional value. Overall, participants tended
to believe that price could not increase functional benefits because functions offered by an expensive brand usually exist in
cheaper alternatives. A participant commented on how she makes decisions between two activewear brands: “Sometimes
you would look at two different brands and think, ‘wow, that’s pretty pricey, but the other one does the same thing,’ so I’ll go
for the cheaper one.” Price was connected with functional benefits in female consumers’ memory network and the two
associations were used jointly to evaluate activewear and make purchase decision.

4.2.2. Experiential benefits

The experiential benefits associated with activewear brands primarily connected to participants’ sensory experience and
affective state while wearing activewear. Functional design was an attribute that contributed to sensory and affective
experiences. From the sensory aspect, functional design influenced participants’ touch and smell sensations. This connection
was apparent when a participant said that: “One way [to identify unbreathable fabric] is just kind of how it feels when you
first touch it. You can kind of tell if it’s going to be a bit clingy or whether it’s going to just be soft on you.” Many participants
complained odour and sweat caused by unbreathable fabric made them feel physically uncomfortable. This sensory
experience further connected to participants’ affective state. When functional design, such as fabric, malfunctions,
participants felt embarrassed and anxious. A participant commented “It [sweating] is gross. You get so self-conscious. You’re
like, everyone else can see that I’m sweating.” Anxiety led to negative reaction toward activewear, as another participant
said: “I hate when you wear pants that aren’t a breathable material. If I got a pair that was like that, I wouldn’t buy them
again.”
Another attribute contributing to participants’ affective state was colour. The following statement was illustrative:
I think bright colours quite influence me because it just perks you up. I would never go out on the weekend wearing really
bright outrageous colours, but then if it’s activewear, it perks you up — it almost brings your mood up so then you’re ready
to get out and active.

[58_TD$IF]Bright colours put the participant into a positive affective state so that she experienced the impulse to exercise. The
participant also pointed out that a bright-coloured activewear provides her the opportunity to diverge from her daily
routine. This experience highlights the ability of colour to boost mood and bring experiential benefits to the wearer.

4.2.3. Aesthetic benefits

The aesthetic benefits associated with activewear brands focused on participants’ self-perceived physical attractiveness,
particularly their body images. Colour was an attribute that contributes to the perception of beauty. Participants thought that
bright colours are more attractive than dark colours and convey the message of beauty. The perceived association between
bright colour and beauty was apparent in this quote: “If it’s got bright colours. It always is like, ‘Oh! That’s nice.”'
Size and fit contributed to aesthetic benefits by influencing body image. Participants appreciated a fit body image that
looks healthy, well-shaped, and particularly has a small frame. As one participant said: “The look of it, I guess — how does it
look on you? One of the obvious ones, does it make you look bigger than you are?” To give the wearer a small-framed look is
an important aspect of the aesthetic benefits associated with activewear.
The fit of activewear can directly impact wearers’ body images and participants were very conscious of this influence. In
one focus group, a participant referred to another: “You’re wearing bike shorts, and they look great on you. But I’ll be honest,
I’ve got twice the body size and that’s just not going to work.” By simply observing another female wearing bike shorts, the
participant was able to picture how her body would look in the garment. Another participant stated: “I’d have tops that are a
bit longer, just because I’ve got a big chest and I don’t like the tops of my arms, I feel like I look like a truck driver.” A large body
frame and excess body weight were perceived as aesthetically displeasing and participants expected activewear with the
right size and fit (such as a longer top) to correct imperfections. When this goal was not achieved, participants felt
discouraged from exercise. As one participant complained: “I’d like something that’s just not going to be stuck to my body
where you can see every roll on me, and then I’m going to look in the mirror and be like, ‘Oh, I’m not going out.”'
The third attribute that [63_TD$IF]influenced participants’ perceived body image was model imagery. Participants complained
activewear models are usually taller, thinner, and more tanned than the average female, making it hard to estimate if what a
model wears would still look appropriate on participants themselves. A participant explained: “It [activewear] looks really
nice on a model, but you have no idea if it’s actually going to look good on you, because you’re a completely different shape.”

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When participants found an incongruence between their actual body image and the body image presented by activewear
models, they questioned their physical appearance. One participant recalled:
I remember seeing this picture outside Brand X [store], and it was this gorgeous little crop top and I was like, “Oh, I want to
go try it on.” And I went in and tried it on, I was like, “Oh, this is awful.” I was so pale and I just blended in with it. I went
outside again and looked at the picture and I was like, “She [the model] was so brown” and I was like, “That’s why. I need to
be tanned.”

[64_TD$IF]4.2.4. Expressive benefits

The expressive benefits associated with activewear brands were linked to the concept of healthy and active lifestyle.
Participants expected activewear brands to convey messages about their exercise behaviour and their values and beliefs
associated with being healthy and active. An attribute that influenced this expressive purpose was size and fit. Particularly
when participants confronted activewear with small size and poor fit, they believed the concept of healthy and active living is
suppressed. Commenting on small-size products of a brand, a participant said:
They [Brand X]’ve made insensitive comments about women’s bodies as well. The guy who owns it said: “Maybe it’s
women trying to squeeze into too-small pants. We don’t make yoga pants for a certain size” I’m like: “Well, yoga is for
everyone.[65_TD$IF]”

This perception was shared among other participants. The central argument was that given the purpose of purchasing
activewear is to live a healthy and active life, brands that only carry smaller-size options go against this lifestyle by ignoring
larger consumers who want to exercise. Participants argued that consumers should not be discriminated based on body size.
As a participant noted: [6_TD$IF]“Why does a plus sized person have to not be able to wear the exact same pattern of a small person?
They both wear tights, why have different things[67_TD$IF]?”
Another attribute that connected to the expression of healthy and active lifestyle [68_TD$IF]was model imagery. Participants felt
that activewear models are falling short in delivering expressive benefits because the models’ images are incongruent with a
healthy and active lifestyle. There existed the impression that most activewear models are “stick-thin people who eat celery”
and are unable to promote the lifestyle that participants wanted to symbolize through wearing activewear. Commenting on
the typical image of activewear models, a participant stated, “It is not inspiring. They’ve got the beautiful whatever, but it’s
not inspiring me to want to go in and buy something and work out.” Image incongruence thwarted expressive benefits,
leading participants to dis-identify with activewear brand. As one participant said:
Brand X ambassadors are all just really thin long women, and I have absolutely nothing in common with these women. A
lot of them don’t even actually do yoga and they’re promoting yoga, and I find that I don’t like that at all. So I don’t buy
their stuff. I don’t even bother to.

[69_TD$IF]5. Discussion

We used a series of focus groups to investigate two questions related to female consumers’ activewear brand associations.
With the first research question, we sought to identify product-related and non-product-related attributes female
consumers associate with activewear brands. We observed functional design, colour, and size and fit as the product-related
attributes, and price and model imagery as the non-product-related attributes. With the second research question, we
explored how the attributes led to functional, expressive, experiential, and aesthetic benefits female consumers associate
with activewear brands. Relationships observed are outlined in Fig. 1, which [70_TD$IF]indicates a vertical structure of brand

[(Fig._1)TD$IG]

Fig. 1. A vertical structure of activewear brand association.

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association. The following section provides a discussion for the structure of activewear brand associations and then the
content of activewear brand associations.

5.1. Activewear brand association structure

According to the FEA model, the functional design of apparel responds to the functional needs acquired through use
(Lamb & Kallal, 1992). For female activewear consumers, functional design contributes to functional benefits and
experiential benefits. This finding is consistent with Keller (1993)’s proposition that the experiential benefit of using a
product is usually associated with product-related attributes.
Colour influences female consumers’ aesthetic and experiential benefits. Colour plays an important role in female apparel
consumption because females tend to pay attention to subtle information and integrate a large amount of information into
product evaluation (Meyers-Levy [71_TD$IF]& Zhu, 2010). Female activewear consumers in the current research showed a predominant
preference for bright colours. This finding is consistent with previous findings on the association between bright colours and
female gender (Semin & Palma, 2014).
Size and fit, as a product-related attribute, goes beyond functional benefits to influence expressive and aesthetic benefits.
From the expressive perspective, female consumers relate size and fit to the idea of healthy and active lifestyle. Small size and
poor fit are perceived as being incongruent with the lifestyle that consumers pursue. This finding is inconsistent with
previous research that shows a tendency for a female to blame herself when apparel is not available in her size (LaBat &
DeLong, 1990). This might be a characteristic that distinguishes activewear from consumption of fashion apparel. Female
consumers consider activewear as a pathway to enhance body image, and therefore expect activewear to accommodate
consumers with different body types.
In the non-product-related dimension, female consumers associate pricing information with activewear brands.
Although consumers tend to use price and brand name to make inference about product quality, price and brand name are
not the most important indicators for quality when performance is an important consideration (Rao & Monroe, 1989). We
found female consumers compare functional benefits to price to make decisions between expensive and cheaper activewear
brands. This finding indicates that female activewear consumers do not rely on brand name as a heuristic to infer product
performance, confirming that product quality relates more closely with price than with brand status (Lee, Trail, Kwon, &
Anderson, 2011).
Imagery of activewear models influences aesthetic and expressive benefits. This finding is consistent with the notion that
one’s self-concept, such as self-expression and self-esteem, usually correspond to non-product-related attributes (Keller,
1993). Activewear models are important figures to promote the idea of healthy lifestyle and physical fitness. However, the
findings indicate a considerable discrepancy between activewear model imagery and female consumers’ desired lifestyle. In
sport brands’ marketing communications, a model who is not identified as an athlete is less effective in eliciting positive
brand attitudes than if the model is identified as an athlete (Koernig & Boyd, 2009). Our findings further indicate that
activewear models should be depicted athletically and authentically through a fit body image and authentic sporting
scenario to create positive brand associations.

5.2. Activewear brand association content

Though we focused on the structure of activewear brand association, we also observed interesting findings regarding the
content of activewear brand association. Female activewear consumers consider exercise facilitation as the main functional
benefit, mood enhancement as an experiential benefit, a physically fit body image as an aesthetic benefit, and
communicating a healthy and active lifestyle as an expressive benefit. These findings expand previous research, which
recognizes activewear consumption has functional, experiential, aesthetic, and expressive values but is not clear about the
meaning of these values to female activewear consumers (Chi & Kilduff, 2011; Tong & Hawley, 2008).
Attitudes related to body image and activewear is a key finding in the current research. Body image is an influential factor
in females’ physical exercise, as the concern for body image threatens exercise enjoyment, and activewear is an important
factor that triggers this concern (Frederick & Shaw, 1995). We show body image is a major concern when females evaluate
activewear, and females’ body image is mainly influenced by size and fit of activewear and how images of activewear models
are perceived. These connections indicate that to improve the body image is an important goal of female activewear
consumers, and achievement of this goal is influenced by the garment itself (i.e., size and fit) and brand’s marketing
communication (i.e., model imagery).
Females are conscious of body image and constantly compare their [72_TD$IF]bodies to their perceived ideal body (Fredrickson &
Roberts, 1997). While the ideal body image, as a socio-cultural construct, varies across time and culture, the female body
portrayed in the current era in western societies as ideal tends to be small-framed and society has created this ideal as a
stereotype (Monteath & McCabe, 1997). Society shapes aesthetic needs of female consumers and presses females to strive
toward socially acceptable or desirable standards of appearance (Cusumano & Thompson, 1997). Participants in the current
study hold the societal ideal of being physically fit, which is a trend in contemporary culture (Brownell, 1991). As LaBat and
DeLong (1990) stated, “each society develops an image of the ideal body” (p. 44). The social environment serves as a filter, or
cultural script, that defines consumers’ beauty criteria.

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Activewear brands reinforce the ideal body image through designing small-size activewear and promoting activewear on
models with a slim and unnatural body image. Women’s bodies are constantly viewed, evaluated, and potentially sexualized
(Fredickson & Roberts, 1997). This tendency could be magnified in activewear consumption because the context of sport and
physical exercise draws attention to the human body and tends to be perceived as a muscular field that conflicts with the
female gender (Beaver, 2016). Our findings suggest female consumers are very conscious of how brands portray the female
body. The typical activewear model may align with the stereotyped female beauty but does not necessarily represent the
ideal image in the eye of female consumers.
Female activewear consumers seek a balance between the ideal and the actual body image. Activewear brands often
failed to find a balance as they use model imagery that is incongruent with the actual self and the ideal self of female
consumers. Congruence can form an actual self-congruence, which is based on a female consumer’s perceived reality of
herself, or an ideal self-congruence, which is based on what she aspires to become (Malär, Krohmer, Hoyer, & Nyffenegger,
2011). Through aligning themselves with consumers’ self-concepts, brands can achieve desirable affective, attitudinal, and
behavioural outcomes from consumers (Sirgy, 1982). Self-congruence is especially important for activewear brands because
activewear is closely associated with consumer’s physical selves and is used in social environments where meanings are
generated (Lu & Xu, 2015).

5.3. Theoretical contributions

Findings of the current research introduce three theoretical contributions. The first contribution relates to expanding
knowledge on activewear brand associations. Female consumers consider exercise facilitation as a functional benefit, mood
enhancement as an experiential benefit, the pursuit of a healthy and active lifestyle as an expressive benefit, and a physically
fit body image as a key aesthetic benefit. These findings provide clarity to the meaning of associations identified in previous
studies on activewear consumption (e.g., Chi & Kilduff, 2011; Tong & Hawley, 2008).
The second contribution relates to the brand association literature. Researchers have focused on identifying context-
specific associations and neglected to investigate the structure of brand association by assuming attributes and benefits
represent two types of brand associations that are conceptually horizontal (e.g., Gladden & Funk, 2002). We illustrate a
vertical structure, in which lower-level attribute associations lead to higher-level benefit associations. Bauer et al. (2008)
suggest attributes and benefits could have a cause-and-effect relationship. We support this perspective and detail specific
connections from attributes to benefits. In addition, we expand Keller’s (1993) conceptualization for the correspondence
between attributes and benefits. For example, Keller (1993) proposes that social benefits usually correspond with non-
product-related attributes. However, we observed that expressive benefits could be derived from product-related attributes,
namely, size and fit.
The third contribution applies to the value of integrating the FEA model into brand association literature to examine sport
consumption behaviour. The FEA model proposes aesthetics as a benefit, which explains why a physical fit body image is the
key benefit in female activewear consumption. Past scholars suggest aesthetics constitute an important experience in sport
product consumption such as attending sporting events (Yoshida & James, 2011). Hence, aesthetic needs should be
considered when examining sport and exercise consumption.

5.4. Managerial implication

The study’s findings provide empirical insights brands can use to design and market activewear that delivers benefits to
female consumers. While there are several practical implications indicated by the findings, two are particularly important.
The first implication is to design functional features based on understanding females’ needs. The findings indicate functional
design influences physical exercise, which is a primary benefit of activewear usage. Hence, brands should take into account
women’s fitness goals and exercise behaviour when designing activewear. An emerging trend in fitness is the increasing use
of wearable technology such as the Fitbit and Apple Watch (Baker, Zhou, Pizzo, Du, & Funk, 2017). Industry practitioners
suggest to improve the value of wearable technology for female consumers, brands should incorporate technology into
existing products such as activewear (Fell, 2017). Brands should also consider female consumers’ unique needs when
designing fitness product. For example, we identified activewear should incorporate pockets specifically designed to store
daily items such as phones, credit cards and keys.
The second implication is to adjust size and fit and advertising strategy as these two attributes connect to female
consumers’ aesthetic and expressive benefits. Female activewear consumers want a body image that is physically fit and
expect activewear to help them to achieve the goal. However, brands are falling short in meeting this need because of limited
size options, poor fit, and model imagery that is incongruent with consumers’ actual and ideal self-concepts. Brands should
develop a new approach to labeling activewear beyond traditional sizing to create an inclusive environment for consumers of
all sizes. Brands should also consider hiring authentic models who represent the average female activewear consumer. One
strategy is to market activewear using the real body instead of the perfect body. Brands that use the real body strategy
advertise their products with a multitude of body shapes and avoid retouching the shape, size, proportion, colour, and other
physical features of their models. Underwear brand Aerie was able to increase sales by 9% after using the real body strategy
(Valinsky, 2014). Activewear brands could adapt a similar strategy and illustrate real women performing a range of physical

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activities. Through these endeavors, activewear brands can align themselves with female activewear consumers, thus
achieve positive market outcomes.

5.5. Limitations

We encourage caution when interpreting the findings because we purposefully selected participants who could respond
to the research questions. Replication of this research using participants with different characteristics may not generate the
same findings. For example, male activewear consumers might have a different set of brand associations. The findings are
also culturally specific. Brand associations of female activewear consumers in Asia appear to be different from females in
Australia (Yoshida & Heere, 2015). For example, model imagery may not be a salient brand association for Asian women
because body size is not a contentious issue in Asian cultures (Wardle, Bindra, Fairclough, & Westcombe, 1993). As brand
association scholars and the FEA model suggest, brand associations are context-specific and researchers should gain an in-
depth understanding of the product and consumers they examine (Keller, 1993; Lamb & Kallal, 1992).
Our findings may change if another methodology was used. Focus group participants tend to censor their own comments
and conform to opinions held by the majority (Carey & Smith, 1994). It is possible that our findings could not fully reveal the
breadth of attributes and benefits associated with activewear brands because of group effects. Baker et al. (2017) suggest that
group effects could be attenuated if researchers create an environment conducive to open sharing. In our study, we held
focus group discussions at places that participants were familiar with and each discussion was sufficiently long to give
participants enough time to open up to each other. Through these endeavors, we should have provided a safe environment
for open sharing. Future research can use in-depth individual interviews and structured surveys to further address group
effects and aid data triangulation (Rudd & Johnson, 2010).

5.6. Future research

The current study could be a starting point for numerous future studies. The connections from attributes to benefits were
outlined in the current study, future research could conduct in-depth interviews to develop a more thorough understanding
of the content of brand associations and how they are causally related to further reveal the structure of brand association. On
the basis of the qualitative findings, future researchers could conduct quantitative investigations to expand the emerging
patterns and themes. For example, future researchers could collect quantitative data of activewear brand associations and
use statistical modeling techniques to examine brand association structure. Future researchers should also expand the
attributes-to-benefits causality to predict managerial outcomes such as consumer loyalty and purchase behaviour.
The concepts of healthy and active lifestyle and physical fitness are worth attention for future research. We discovered
female activewear consumers are conscious of their body image and pursue an ideal lifestyle that is healthy and active.
However, there exists an incongruence between consumers’ self-concept and the image and lifestyle brands signal through
thin models and small-size clothing. Previous researchers have made the distinction between actual self-congruence and
ideal self-congruence (Ekinci & Riley, 2003). Future researchers could compare the influence of actual self-congruence and
ideal self-congruence in activewear consumption. A potential study could use experimental designs to manipulate
activewear models’ physical appearance and examine consumer response to the manipulation. Results of this study would
advise brands on advertising strategies.
Finally, the relationship between activewear consumption and physical exercise should be explored. Current research
reveals an important goal of purchasing activewear is to participate in physical exercise and become physically fit. With a
focus on activewear consumption, these relationships are not fully uncovered in the current research. Future researchers
should investigate how activewear consumption influences actual physical exercise behaviour to understand the whole
journey consumers take to become physically fit.

[73_TD$IF]4Acknowledgement

This research was supported by the Australian Sporting Goods Association.

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