Women are Always the Scapegoats of Patriarchal Society of all

the times

Contents
Women are Always the Scapegoats of Patriarchal Society of all the times .............................. 1

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3

Chapter-1.................................................................................................................................... 4

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4

Objectives of the Study .......................................................................................................... 5

Methods of the study .............................................................................................................. 6

Limitation of the Study .......................................................................................................... 8

Chapter-2.................................................................................................................................. 10

Women are Always the Scapegoats of Patriarchal Society of all the times ............................ 10

The Concept of Scapegoating in History and Sociology ..................................................... 10

The Historical background of Scapegoats in our society ..................................................... 12

Witch Hunts Today: Abuse of Women, Superstition and Murder Collide .......................... 13

LAND GRABS, HEALTH AND WITCHES ...................................................................... 14

WOMEN SUPPORTING WOMEN .................................................................................... 16

Chapter-3.................................................................................................................................. 17

Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................ 17

Theories of Gender and Power ............................................................................................. 17

Scapegoating Theories and Frameworks.............................................................................. 19

Intersectionality in Women's Scapegoating ......................................................................... 20

Chapter 4: ................................................................................................................................. 23

Historical Analysis: Women as Scapegoats in Ancient Civilizations ..................................... 23

Scapegoating in Ancient Mesopotamia ................................................................................ 23

Women's Scapegoating in Ancient Greece .......................................................................... 24

The Role of Women as Scapegoats in Roman Society ........................................................ 26

 Modern Manifestations of Women's Scapegoating.............................................................. 27

Media Representation and Stereotyping of Women ............................................................ 29

Chapter-5.................................................................................................................................. 31

Calculation ............................................................................................................................... 31

Reference ................................................................................................................................. 32

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 Abstract
This abstract examines the pervasive phenomenon of women consistently being cast as
scapegoats within patriarchal societies throughout history. The research delves into the
systematic marginalization and blame imposed on women, exploring its roots in patriarchal
ideologies and its enduring impact on gender dynamics. Through a comprehensive analysis of
historical evidence and feminist literature, this study uncovers the various mechanisms that
perpetuate women's scapegoating. Additionally, the abstract highlights the psychological and
societal consequences endured by women as a result of this role. By advocating for a
profound reevaluation of patriarchal systems and the promotion of gender equality, the
abstract emphasizes the urgency of dismantling harmful stereotypes and biases to foster a
more inclusive and just society.

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 Chapter-1

Introduction
Throughout history, women have been consistently subjected to the role of scapegoats within
patriarchal societies. The concept of patriarchal dominance, deeply ingrained in many
cultures, has perpetuated a systemic marginalization of women, forcing them to bear the
burden of blame and responsibility for various societal ills and misfortunes. This
phenomenon of scapegoating women has persisted across different historical periods,
spanning religious, legal, political, and cultural realms. The enduring nature of this injustice
calls for a critical examination of its underlying causes, implications, and consequences on
women's lives and society as a whole.

The dynamics of patriarchal societies often relegate women to subordinate roles, restricting
their autonomy and relegating them to predetermined roles dictated by traditional gender
norms. Rooted in historical power imbalances, this patriarchal system creates an environment
where women's voices, agency, and contributions are undervalued, making them easy targets
for blame when societal issues arise. Moreover, this perpetuated scapegoating engenders
harmful stereotypes and biases against women, deepening the gender divide and hindering
progress towards genuine gender equality.

By addressing the phenomenon of women as scapegoats in patriarchal societies, this study

seeks to shed light on the historical context that has allowed this injustice to persist. Utilizing
a combination of comprehensive literature reviews, historical analysis, and insights from
feminist scholarship, the research aims to unravel the mechanisms that sustain the
scapegoating of women. Furthermore, it will examine the ways in which this role impacts
women's psychological well-being, self-esteem, and overall social standing.

The urgency of this investigation is underscored by the need for societal transformation.
Understanding the roots and consequences of women's scapegoating within patriarchal
systems is essential to challenging and dismantling these structures effectively. Only by
unveiling and addressing the deeply ingrained biases and stereotypes can we pave the way
towards a more equitable society that recognizes and values the contributions and agency of
all individuals, irrespective of their gender.

In this pursuit, this research seeks to contribute to the ongoing discourse on gender equality,
bringing attention to the experiences of women as perpetual scapegoats. Through an
4
increased awareness of the issue, it aims to advocate for policies and social changes that can
lead to a more inclusive and just society for women and, by extension, for all members of the
community. Ultimately, this study serves as a call to action, urging society to break free from
the constraints of patriarchal systems and strive towards a future where women are not
burdened with the unjust role of scapegoats.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are as follows:

Investigate the Historical Roots: The primary objective of this research is to delve into
historical records, literature, and cultural artifacts to trace the origins of women being
designated as scapegoats in patriarchal societies. By understanding the historical context, the
study aims to identify patterns and recurring themes that have contributed to this persistent
phenomenon.

1. Examine Mechanisms of Scapegoating: The research seeks to analyze the

mechanisms and processes through which women are scapegoated in patriarchal
societies. This includes exploring how patriarchal ideologies, power structures, and
societal norms perpetuate the marginalization and blame imposed on women for
various issues and challenges faced by the society.

2. Understand the Psychological Impact: Another key objective is to assess the

psychological consequences of women being scapegoats in patriarchal societies. The
study aims to explore the emotional, mental, and social effects on women, including
their self-esteem, identity formation, and overall well-being.

3. Identify Social and Cultural Implications: This research endeavors to uncover the
broader social and cultural implications of women's scapegoating. By examining the
ways in which scapegoating reinforces harmful stereotypes and affects gender
relations, the study aims to shed light on the wider impact on societal attitudes and
behavior.

4. Explore Women's Perspectives: Through qualitative methods, such as interviews

and surveys, the study aims to capture the lived experiences and perspectives of
women who have been subjected to scapegoating in patriarchal societies. This
objective seeks to give voice to these women, allowing their stories to enrich the
analysis and inform potential strategies for change.
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 5. Advocate for Gender Equality: A crucial objective of this research is to advocate
for gender equality and challenge the perpetuation of women as scapegoats. By
highlighting the negative consequences of such practices, the study aims to contribute
to the discourse on dismantling patriarchal systems and promoting inclusivity and
fairness.

6. Propose Strategies for Change: Based on the findings and analysis, the study
endeavors to propose actionable strategies and recommendations to combat women's
scapegoating in patriarchal societies. These proposals may encompass policy changes,
educational initiatives, and awareness campaigns to foster a more equitable and
respectful environment for women.

7. Contribute to Academic Discourse: This research aims to make a significant

contribution to the academic discourse on gender studies, feminism, and patriarchy.
By presenting a comprehensive analysis of women's scapegoating, the study seeks to
advance the understanding of this enduring issue and provide a valuable resource for
future research in related fields.

By addressing these objectives, the study endeavors to bring attention to the enduring
injustice faced by women in patriarchal societies, advocate for their empowerment, and
contribute to the larger goal of creating a more equitable and inclusive world for all
individuals.

Methods of the study

The study will employ a mixed-methods approach to comprehensively investigate the
phenomenon of women as scapegoats in patriarchal societies. The combination of
quantitative and qualitative methods will provide a well-rounded understanding of the issue,
drawing on both empirical data and personal experiences.

1. Literature Review: A comprehensive review of existing academic literature,

historical records, and relevant publications will be conducted. This will allow for a
thorough understanding of the historical context and the evolution of women's
scapegoating in patriarchal societies. The literature review will also help identify key
themes, theories, and past research relevant to the study.

2. Qualitative Interviews: In-depth interviews will be conducted with women who have
experienced scapegoating in patriarchal settings. These interviews will provide
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 valuable insights into their personal experiences, emotions, and perspectives
regarding the challenges they have faced and the impact of being cast as scapegoats.
The qualitative approach will allow for a nuanced understanding of the lived
experiences of women in different cultural, social, and economic contexts.

3. Surveys: Quantitative surveys will be administered to a diverse sample of individuals

within patriarchal societies. The surveys will aim to gauge attitudes, beliefs, and
perceptions related to gender roles, scapegoating of women, and the consequences of
such practices. This method will enable the collection of statistical data, which can
help identify trends and patterns in societal attitudes and behaviors.

4. Case Studies: In-depth case studies will be conducted on specific historical periods or
cultural contexts where women have been particularly targeted as scapegoats. These
case studies will offer a detailed examination of the mechanisms and justifications
behind scapegoating practices, shedding light on the broader social and cultural
implications.

5. Comparative Analysis: The study will include a comparative analysis of different

patriarchal societies to identify variations and commonalities in women's
scapegoating experiences. This analysis will help contextualize the findings and draw
broader conclusions about the impact of patriarchy on women across diverse settings.

6. Ethical Considerations: Throughout the research, ethical considerations will be

prioritized. Informed consent will be obtained from all participants, and their
anonymity and privacy will be ensured. Ethical guidelines will be followed while
conducting interviews and surveys to protect the well-being of participants.

7. Data Analysis: The data collected from interviews, surveys, and case studies will be
analyzed using appropriate qualitative and quantitative analysis techniques. Themes
and patterns will be identified in the qualitative data, while statistical analysis will be
used to interpret the survey results. The findings will be triangulated to present a
comprehensive picture of women's scapegoating in patriarchal societies.

By employing these methods, the study aims to offer a holistic and rigorous examination of
women's scapegoating in patriarchal societies, contributing to a deeper understanding of the
issue and informing potential strategies for promoting gender equality and social change.

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Limitation of the Study
Despite the comprehensive approach employed in this study, several limitations need to be
acknowledged:

1. Sample Bias: The study's findings may be influenced by the characteristics of the
selected sample, both for interviews and surveys. It may be challenging to ensure
complete representation of all diverse groups and experiences within patriarchal
societies, potentially leading to an incomplete understanding of women's scapegoating
across different cultural, social, and economic contexts.

2. Subjectivity of Qualitative Data: The qualitative data collected through interviews is

subjective and dependent on participants' perceptions and willingness to share their
experiences. As a result, there may be variations in the depth and accuracy of the
information provided, affecting the overall validity and generalizability of the
findings.

3. Recall Bias: Some participants may recall past experiences of scapegoating

differently due to memory biases, leading to potential inaccuracies in the data. The
reliance on retrospective accounts in qualitative interviews may introduce recall bias,
affecting the reliability of the results.

4. Social Desirability Bias: Participants in surveys may be inclined to respond in ways

that they believe align with societal expectations or norms, rather than expressing
their true attitudes and beliefs. This social desirability bias could lead to inaccurate or
skewed data, particularly when addressing sensitive topics like gender roles and
scapegoating.

5. Historical Data Limitations: The study's reliance on historical records and literature
may be constrained by the availability and reliability of such sources. Historical
accounts may be biased or incomplete, making it challenging to obtain a
comprehensive understanding of past events and practices.

6. Cross-Cultural Interpretations: Analyzing data from diverse patriarchal societies

may present challenges in interpreting cultural nuances and avoiding ethnocentrism.
The study's cross-cultural comparisons may require cautious interpretation to avoid
generalizations or misinterpretations.

8
 7. Causality Inference: Due to the nature of observational research, the study might
face challenges in establishing causal relationships between certain variables. While
the study can identify associations, determining direct cause-and-effect relationships
may be difficult.

8. Time Constraints: Conducting a thorough investigation into the complexities of

women's scapegoating in patriarchal societies can be time-consuming. As such, the
study might not be able to cover all relevant aspects comprehensively within the
designated time frame.

Despite these limitations, the study aims to make a valuable contribution to the understanding
of women's scapegoating in patriarchal societies. By addressing these limitations and
employing appropriate research methodologies, the study seeks to provide meaningful
insights and promote further research and dialogue on this critical issue.

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 Chapter-2

Women are Always the Scapegoats of Patriarchal Society of all

the times
The statement "Women are always the scapegoats of patriarchal society of all times" reflects
the long-standing and widespread issue of gender-based discrimination and unequal power
dynamics prevalent in patriarchal societies throughout history. In such societies, men
traditionally hold dominant roles, and women have often been relegated to subservient
positions. As a consequence, women have frequently been blamed and held accountable for
various problems or challenges faced by the community, even when they are not responsible.

The scapegoating of women in patriarchal societies can be attributed to a combination of

factors, including cultural norms, religious beliefs, and systemic gender inequalities. Such
practices perpetuate harmful stereotypes, limiting women's autonomy, voice, and
opportunities, while reinforcing male privilege and control.

While it is important to acknowledge historical evidence and ongoing examples of women's

scapegoating in patriarchal societies, it is equally crucial to recognize that societal attitudes
are evolving, and progress is being made toward gender equality in many parts of the world.
Efforts by individuals, organizations, and governments are continuously working towards
challenging patriarchal norms and promoting equal rights and opportunities for all genders.

Addressing this complex issue requires collective efforts to challenge harmful beliefs,
promote education and awareness, and advocate for policies that promote gender equality and
women's empowerment. By working towards more inclusive and equitable societies, we can
move towards dismantling patriarchal systems and ensuring that women are no longer
unfairly burdened with the role of scapegoats.

The Concept of Scapegoating in History and Sociology

The concept of scapegoating is a psychological and sociological phenomenon that has played
a significant role in history and society. It refers to the practice of blaming a person, group, or
entity for problems, mistakes, or social issues that are often beyond their control.
Scapegoating serves as a mechanism to alleviate anxiety, maintain social cohesion, and divert
attention away from deeper-rooted issues.

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1. Historical origins of scapegoating: The term "scapegoat" has its roots in ancient
religious practices. In the biblical context, a scapegoat was a symbolically laden
animal on which the sins of a community were metaphorically placed. This sacrificial
animal was then driven away or killed, supposedly carrying away the burden of the
community's sins.

2. Psychological motivations: Scapegoating is closely related to the psychological

phenomenon of projection. People or societies often project their fears, insecurities,
and negative attributes onto a vulnerable group, deflecting their own responsibility for
problems onto others. This process provides a sense of relief and cohesion within the
dominant group.

3. Societal impact: Throughout history, various groups have been scapegoated for
different reasons. Ethnic, religious, and cultural minorities have often been targeted as
scapegoats during times of social unrest, economic downturns, or political turmoil.
Jews, for instance, have been historically scapegoated in various societies, including
during the European Middle Ages and the rise of Nazi Germany.

4. Scapegoating in politics: Scapegoating can be a potent tool for politicians and

leaders seeking to divert attention from their failures or consolidate power. By
creating an external enemy or blaming a marginalized group, leaders can rally public
support and deflect scrutiny away from their policies or actions.

5. Modern examples: In contemporary societies, scapegoating still occurs in various

forms. Immigrants, refugees, and minority communities are often blamed for
economic woes, unemployment, and cultural shifts. Additionally, political opponents,
media, and foreign nations are sometimes used as scapegoats for internal issues.

6. Impact on individuals and communities: Scapegoating can have severe

consequences for those targeted. It can lead to discrimination, persecution, and even
violence against the scapegoated group. The psychological toll on individuals who are
unfairly blamed and marginalized can be long-lasting and damaging.

7. Countering scapegoating: Recognizing the dynamics of scapegoating is essential to

combat this harmful practice. Encouraging empathy, critical thinking, and fostering a
sense of community and inclusivity can help reduce the tendency to scapegoat others.

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In conclusion, scapegoating is a recurring social and psychological phenomenon with a deep-
rooted history. By understanding its mechanisms and implications, societies can strive to
create more inclusive and compassionate communities that are less prone to blaming and
targeting vulnerable groups.

The Historical background of Scapegoats in our society

The concept of scapegoating has a long historical background, dating back to ancient
civilizations. The term "scapegoat" originates from the biblical practice described in the Book
of Leviticus in the Old Testament, where a goat was symbolically burdened with the sins of
the community and then sent away into the wilderness, thereby expiating the sins of the
people.

Throughout history, various societies have used the notion of scapegoats to assign blame and
responsibility for their problems onto specific individuals or groups. In the context of gender,
women have frequently been subjected to this role, especially in patriarchal societies. Several
historical factors have contributed to the scapegoating of women:

1. Patriarchal Traditions: Many ancient and medieval societies were structured

around patriarchal norms, where men held dominant positions in social, political,
and religious spheres. Women, in contrast, were often confined to roles as wives,
mothers, and caregivers, which led to their subjugation and limited agency.

2. Witch Hunts and Trials: During the early modern period, particularly in Europe
between the 16th and 18th centuries, witch hunts and trials became widespread.
Thousands of women were accused of witchcraft and scapegoated for various
societal ills, such as crop failures, disease outbreaks, and other misfortunes. These
accusations were often based on superstition, religious beliefs, and gender
stereotypes, leading to the persecution and execution of countless women.

3. Societal Control: Scapegoating women has been a way for patriarchal societies to
maintain control and uphold existing power structures. By attributing problems to
women, those in authority could divert attention from underlying systemic issues
and justify the subordination of women.

4. Cultural Myths and Narratives: In many cultures, myths and narratives have
perpetuated the idea of women as temptresses or sources of evil. These beliefs

12
 have reinforced the notion of women as scapegoats for society's moral failings and
shortcomings.

5. Social and Economic Injustices: Women's scapegoating has also been associated
with social and economic inequalities. When faced with economic hardships or
political unrest, women have been accused of disrupting the status quo, resulting
in their persecution as scapegoats.

While societal progress and advancements have challenged some of these historical beliefs
and practices, the scapegoating of women persists in various forms in modern times. It
manifests in workplace discrimination, victim-blaming in cases of sexual assault, and gender-
based violence, among other manifestations.

Addressing the historical roots of women's scapegoating requires continuous efforts to

challenge patriarchal norms, promote gender equality, and dismantle discriminatory practices.
By acknowledging and understanding this historical background, society can work towards
creating a more just and equitable future for all genders.

Witch Hunts Today: Abuse of Women, Superstition and Murder Collide

More than 2,500 people have died because failed development in villages heightens gender
inequality and tensions, experts say,

Men circled the three women, their fists wrapped around thick iron pipes and wooden sticks.
The women huddled on the ground at the center of their village in the western Indian state of
Gujarat and whimpered as the crowd gathered. Two young men had died in the village, and
the women were being called dakan, the Gujarati word for witch. They were accused of
feasting on the young men’s souls.

Madhuben clutched her right upper arm. She had taken three blows from one of the pipes and
was sure her bones were broken. Her sisters-in-law, Susilaben and Kamlaben, covered their
heads as wood and metal pounded their backs. (The names of women targeted by witch hunts
have been changed in this story, to minimize the risk of further assault or of jeopardizing
pending legal cases.)

The attack on the trio, in Gujarat in 2014, was one of thousands of witch hunts that take place
in India. More than 2,500 Indians have been chased, tortured and killed in such hunts
between 2000 and 2016, according to India’s National Crime Records Bureau. Activists and

13
journalists say the number is much higher, because most states don’t list witchcraft as a
motive of murder. Witch hunts primarily target women and exploit India’s caste system and
culture of patriarchy. Men who brand women as dakan capitalize on deeply rooted
superstitions and systems built on misogyny and patriarchy to lay blame on females. The
accusations of sorcery are used to oust women from valuable land that men covet, in a region
where flawed development plans have produced agricultural failures, say sociologists who
study violence in India. Witches are also convenient explanations for rising infant mortality
rates and deaths from malaria, typhoid and cholera.

A few states have adopted anti–witch hunting laws, but Gujarat is not one of them. Women
there are using their own resources to fighti back. At ANANDI, a Gujarati nonprofit that
supports vulnerable communities, women sit in a circle on the floor and share samosas and
stories. “We protect each other. It’s how we find strength,” one of them says. The women are
learning the law, demanding a desk in the local police station so they can advocate for
women who walk in to report violence, and they are pushing for witch hunting to be
outlawed.

(Why are women accused of witchcraft? Read about research in rural China, where the
charge seems used by a household to get land, money, or other resources from rivals.)

LAND GRABS, HEALTH AND WITCHES

In December 2017 Susilaben and her sister-in-law, Madhuben, who were beaten during the
witch hunt four years ago, sat on the dirt floor inside a friend’s house, talking to me. It has
been three years since the attack and the sisters-in-law say it is not safe to discuss the witch
hunt in their own home because they still live with the men who called them dakan and beat
them. Madhuben’s cheeks are hollow, the whites of her eyes visible. “I am scared in my own
home,” she says. “Too scared to eat. I faint with fear. What kind of way is this to live?”

The violence and accusations against Madhuben, Susilaben and their sister-in-law began in
2012. That year the three women found their male relatives routinely defecating in the plot of
land where the sisters grew corn, lentils and peas. Almost half of India’s households lack a
toilet, according to the 2011 census, and many of those people defecate in the open. Of the
1.7 million people around the world who die each year because of a lack of sanitation and
access to clean toilets, 600,000 live in India.

14
The sisters-in-law were upset with their male relatives’ using their crops as a toilet. “I said to
them, ‘This is where we grow food. How are we supposed to deal with [human excrement]
here?’” Susilaben says. This challenge to men in a culture where women are expected to be
silent subordinates infuriated her family, she recalls. The men did not stop defecating on the
land. Instead they turned on the women, beat them and ran them out of their home for 10
days.

The situation worsened a year or so later, when two young men in their home became ill. One
developed renal failure, the other cancer. Poor access to health care in the region meant the
family was forced to take out loans and travel to neighboring towns for medical help. Money
was scarce and stress was high. When the young men died, the sisters-in-law were accused of
eating their souls and causing their premature deaths. And then the remaining men began a
campaign to take their land.

The plot where the women grew vegetables was fertile and in a prime location, at a four-way
road junction in the village. That was the spot where they were beaten. Male relatives forced
the sisters-in-law to sign a document saying they would hand over land ownership to the men.
“We had no choice but to sign,” Susilaben says. “They said they would kill us if we didn’t
give them our land.” The farming land is now a series of roadside stores selling slippers,
stationery, car parts and clothes.

Battles over land and property are common starts to witch hunts, says Soma Chaudhuri, a
sociologist at Michigan State University who studies gender violence in India. Chaudhuri
says witch hunts and beatings provide an outlet for men living in poverty to vent frustrations
over their own lack of power. “These rural communities are so marginalized and so
oppressed, and they have no political resources and no avenues of protest. So what do people
do when they’re very frustrated? You look to your surroundings for an easy scapegoat.
Women are that scapegoat.” Long-standing cultural traditions of patriarchy, where men are
supposed to control family resources, make women who may have inherited their own land
easy targets, Chaudhuri says. With those patriarchal values comes misogyny and denigration
of women, she adds.

Even in the cities, Desai points out, the economic changes have “had an impact on household
gender dynamics.” For instance, when the state’s urban textile mills began closing in the
1980s, men were left unemployed and women, who made a living selling vegetables or
sewing clothes, became the breadwinners. Chaudhuri has interviewed many of the former

15
mill workers and found the unemployed men retained control of their wives’ finances, and
that alcoholism and violence against women increased in the wake of the mill closures.

WOMEN SUPPORTING WOMEN

After Susilaben and her sisters-in-law were attacked as witches, they looked for help at
ANANDI, and discovered they were not the only women in Dahod suffering accusations of
sorcery. Another woman, Ranjuben, was there, and said she had been accused of being
a dakan when a one-year-old girl in her village died. “She was sick for a long time, a year I
think. But they said, ‘You ate her,’ and a mob came to beat me,” she recalls. Still another
woman, Ushaben, said she was named as a witch when she asked a man to repay a loan.

The women meet regularly at ANANDI’s regional office in Dahod District. One morning last
month 15 women sat in a circle on chadors they had draped over the floor. They shared
samosas and sang songs about the violence they suffer from men. “Who can I tell about my
pain?” sang one woman. Those in the circle responded, singing that they would listen and
help.

The group of women work as on-call responders to gender violence. On a visit to a nearby
village where a recently widowed woman had been accused of being a dakan, one of the
group told her: “Remember our number. Teach the number to your children. If anyone hurts
you, call us. We will come and we will even bring the police.”

At the morning meeting in ANANDI’s Dahod office, after samosas and masala chai tea are
passed around the circle, one woman asks: “Does this kind of thing happen to women
elsewhere?” Somebody mentions witch trials in Salem, Mass., in the late 1600s as well as
continuing domestic violence in the West. “Yes, it does,” an ANANDI staffer responds. “One
way or another, women are under attack everywhere.”

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 Chapter-3

Theoretical Framework

Theories of Gender and Power

Theories of gender and power explore the complex and multifaceted relationship between
gender identity and the distribution of power in societies. These theories aim to understand
how gender roles, norms, and expectations shape power dynamics and how power, in turn,
reinforces and perpetuates gender inequalities. Below are some prominent theories in this
area:

Patriarchy Theory:

Patriarchy theory posits that many societies are organized around a system of male
dominance and control. It suggests that power is predominantly concentrated in the hands of
men, and they exercise control over women and other marginalized genders. Patriarchy is
manifested in various social institutions, norms, and practices that reinforce male privilege
and subordinate women. Feminist theorists have extensively explored the concept of
patriarchy and its impact on gender relations and power structures.

Intersectionality:

Intersectionality is a theory that recognizes that individuals hold multiple social identities
(such as gender, race, class, sexuality, etc.) that intersect and interact with one another,
shaping their experiences and access to power. Intersectional feminism emphasizes the
interconnectedness of different forms of oppression and privilege, highlighting how gender
intersects with other social factors to create unique and complex power dynamics.

Standpoint Theory:

Standpoint theory suggests that an individual's social position and lived experiences influence
their perspectives and understanding of the world. Women and marginalized genders, due to
their historical subordination, may have distinct standpoints that offer critical insights into
power structures and inequalities. This theory argues that centering these marginalized
perspectives can lead to a deeper understanding of the operation of power and its effects on
different groups.

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Gender performativity:

Coined by Judith Butler, gender performativity theory challenges the notion that gender is a
fixed, inherent identity. Instead, it proposes that gender is constructed and performed through
social interactions and cultural norms. Power operates in the regulation and enforcement of
these gender performances, reinforcing traditional gender roles and maintaining the gender
binary.

Social Constructivism:

Social constructivist theories argue that gender is not an inherent biological trait but a socially
constructed concept. These theories contend that societies create and reinforce gender roles
and norms, determining what is considered "masculine" and "feminine." Power structures
within societies maintain and perpetuate these constructed gender categories, shaping
individuals' behaviors and expectations.

Queer Theory:

Queer theory challenges normative assumptions about gender and sexuality. It critiques the
binary understanding of gender (male/female) and the heterosexual norm. By disrupting
traditional notions of gender and power, queer theory opens up new perspectives on the
diversity of gender identities and relationships and the power dynamics at play in different
social contexts.

Masculinity Studies:

Masculinity studies examine the social construction of masculinity and how masculine norms
and ideals affect power dynamics. These theories explore how traditional notions of
masculinity can be restrictive and harmful, perpetuating gender inequalities and influencing
men's behaviors and roles in society.

These theories collectively contribute to a comprehensive understanding of how gender and

power intersect, shaping social structures, and influencing individuals' lives. They offer
critical insights into the complexities of gender dynamics, paving the way for challenging and
dismantling oppressive power structures and promoting gender equality.

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Scapegoating Theories and Frameworks
Scapegoating theories and frameworks seek to explain the psychological and sociological
processes behind the phenomenon of scapegoating, where individuals or groups are unjustly
blamed and persecuted for societal issues or problems. These theories delve into the motives,
consequences, and patterns of scapegoating behavior. Here are some important scapegoating
theories and frameworks:

Psychodynamic Theory:

Psychodynamic theories, particularly those developed by Sigmund Freud and Melanie Klein,
explore the role of the unconscious mind in scapegoating behavior. According to these
theories, individuals project their negative emotions, fears, and insecurities onto a vulnerable
target (the scapegoat) as a defense mechanism. The scapegoat becomes a repository for the
group's unresolved conflicts and tensions, allowing the rest of the group to maintain cohesion
and avoid facing their own internal issues.

Social Identity Theory:

Social identity theory, developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, posits that individuals
derive a part of their self-concept from group memberships, such as ethnicity, religion, or
nationality. When faced with threats to their group's identity or status, individuals may
engage in scapegoating as a way to bolster their own group's sense of superiority and
distinctiveness. By blaming an out-group, they strengthen their in-group cohesion.

Realistic Group Conflict Theory:

The realistic group conflict theory, proposed by Muzafer Sherif, suggests that scapegoating
often arises from real or perceived competition for resources between groups. When groups
vie for limited resources, intergroup tensions can escalate, leading to scapegoating as a means
to explain the group's difficulties or to justify hostile actions against the perceived threat.

Societal Anomie Theory:

The concept of societal anomie, popularized by Émile Durkheim, highlights how rapid social
change, disruption of norms, and loss of social cohesion can lead to scapegoating behavior. In
times of uncertainty and chaos, individuals and societies may seek to restore stability by
scapegoating certain groups, as this provides a sense of order and control.

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Power and Control Framework:

The power and control framework emphasizes how dominant groups in society, often those in
positions of authority, use scapegoating as a tool to maintain their power and divert attention
from their own actions or shortcomings. By blaming a marginalized group, those in power
can reinforce existing hierarchies and avoid accountability for systemic issues.

Symbolic Interactionism:

Symbolic interactionism examines how scapegoating is influenced by the meanings and

symbols attached to certain groups. Negative stereotypes, prejudices, and stigmas associated
with a particular group can lead to their scapegoating. These negative labels shape how the
scapegoated group is perceived, treated, and blamed.

Social Learning Theory:

Social learning theory suggests that individuals learn behaviors through observation and
modeling. In the context of scapegoating, people may learn to blame and target certain groups
by witnessing similar behaviors from influential figures, such as leaders or authority figures,
or through media portrayals that perpetuate stereotypes.

Moral Panic Theory:

Moral panic theory explores how media and public discourse can contribute to scapegoating
during times of heightened fear and anxiety. In moral panics, specific groups are
sensationalized as threats to societal values and norms, leading to scapegoating and
heightened social control efforts against these groups.

These theories and frameworks provide valuable insights into the complexities of
scapegoating behavior and its impact on individuals and societies. Understanding these
processes can help address and mitigate the harmful consequences of scapegoating,
promoting greater empathy, inclusivity, and social cohesion.

Intersectionality in Women's Scapegoating

Intersectionality in women's scapegoating refers to the recognition that women from
marginalized and intersecting social identities may experience compounded forms of
scapegoating and oppression. Intersectionality, a concept developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw,
acknowledges that individuals hold multiple identities and that these identities intersect to

20
shape their experiences and social positioning. When it comes to women, their experiences of
scapegoating can be influenced not only by their gender but also by factors such as race,
ethnicity, class, sexuality, ability, and more. Here's how intersectionality plays a role in
women's scapegoating:

Race and Ethnicity:

Women from racial and ethnic minority backgrounds may face unique forms of scapegoating
that intersect with gender-based discrimination. They might be subject to racial stereotypes,
cultural biases, and xenophobia, making them more vulnerable to being blamed and
scapegoated for societal issues or problems.

Class:

Socioeconomic status can affect how women are perceived and treated in society. Women
from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may be scapegoated for economic problems or
perceived as undeserving of support, while women from higher socioeconomic classes may
face different forms of scapegoating due to notions of entitlement or privilege.

Sexuality:

Women who identify as LGBTQ+ may experience additional scapegoating due to their sexual
orientation or gender identity. They can face discrimination and blame for issues related to
sexuality or gender nonconformity, on top of gender-based scapegoating.

Ability and Disability:

Women with disabilities may experience intersectional scapegoating, where their gender and
disability intersect to compound discrimination. They can be targeted for both their gender
and their disability, leading to a heightened sense of marginalization and vulnerability.

Immigration and Citizenship Status:

Women who are immigrants or have precarious citizenship status may be scapegoated as
outsiders, particularly in contexts of anti-immigrant sentiments. Their gender and immigrant
status can intersect to make them more susceptible to blaming for various societal problems.

Cultural and Religious Identity:

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Women from specific cultural or religious backgrounds may face scapegoating based on
stereotypes and prejudices associated with their identities. Cultural and religious practices
and beliefs can be misinterpreted or misrepresented, leading to blame and discrimination.

Indigenous Women:

Indigenous women may be subjected to intersectional scapegoating as they face historical and
ongoing colonial oppression. They can be blamed and scapegoated for issues rooted in
colonization and systemic marginalization.

Recognizing intersectionality in women's scapegoating is crucial for understanding the

multifaceted nature of their experiences and the various forms of discrimination they may
encounter. Addressing women's scapegoating requires an intersectional approach that
considers how different aspects of their identities intersect and interact to shape their lived
realities. By acknowledging and challenging these intersecting forms of oppression, societies
can work towards more inclusive and equitable solutions that promote the well-being and
empowerment of all women.

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 Chapter 4:

Historical Analysis: Women as Scapegoats in Ancient Civilizations

Scapegoating in Ancient Mesopotamia

Scapegoating is a phenomenon that can be traced back to ancient times, including in the
region of Mesopotamia, known as the cradle of civilization. Mesopotamia was an ancient
region located in present-day Iraq and parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran. Various historical
records and texts from this civilization provide insights into how scapegoating was used as a
societal practice. Here are some examples of scapegoating in ancient Mesopotamia:

Religious Sacrifice and Rituals:

In Mesopotamian religious beliefs, certain rituals involved the selection of a person or animal
to symbolically bear the sins or transgressions of the community. This individual or creature
would then be "scapegoated" by being sacrificed or exiled to purify the community from
perceived wrongdoings and to appease the gods. The practice of selecting a scapegoat for
purification purposes was common in various ancient cultures, including those in
Mesopotamia.

Blaming Supernatural Entities:

During times of adversity, such as natural disasters, famines, or plagues, ancient

Mesopotamian societies might have sought to find a scapegoat to explain the misfortune.
They often attributed these calamities to the displeasure of the gods or supernatural entities.
As a result, individuals or specific groups might have been blamed or punished to appease the
divine powers and restore harmony in society.

Political and Social Unrest:

In ancient Mesopotamian city-states and empires, political and social instability could lead to
scapegoating. Rulers or authorities might have scapegoated certain individuals or groups for
challenges to their leadership or for problems faced by the society. These scapegoats could be
used as a means to shift blame away from the ruling elite or to suppress dissent and maintain
control.

Foreigners and Enemies:

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Mesopotamian societies often encountered neighboring civilizations and tribes, some of
whom might have been perceived as threats or enemies. During times of conflict or tension,
outsiders or foreign groups could be scapegoated as responsible for various issues or
conflicts, thus fostering a sense of unity among the local population against a common
"other."

Personal Conflicts:

Scapegoating could also occur at the interpersonal level in ancient Mesopotamia. In disputes
or conflicts between individuals or families, one party might have been scapegoated as the
troublemaker or instigator, leading to their ostracization or punishment as a way to resolve
the conflict or maintain social harmony.

It's important to note that our understanding of ancient Mesopotamian practices and beliefs is
based on archaeological evidence, cuneiform writings, and other historical records. While
scapegoating was indeed a feature of ancient Mesopotamian societies, its specific
manifestations and contexts might have varied across different city-states and time periods
within the region.

Women's Scapegoating in Ancient Greece

In ancient Greece, women were often subjected to scapegoating and were assigned blame and
responsibility for various societal issues and problems. The patriarchal nature of ancient
Greek society led to the marginalization and subordination of women, making them
vulnerable to being targeted as scapegoats for both personal and communal challenges. Here
are some aspects of women's scapegoating in ancient Greece:

Mythological and Cultural Depictions:

In ancient Greek mythology and literature, women were often portrayed as seductive
temptresses or as sources of chaos and destruction. Figures like Pandora and Helen of Troy
were blamed for bringing misfortune and calamity to humanity and society. These myths
perpetuated negative stereotypes about women and reinforced the idea that women were
responsible for men's downfall.

Women as Political Scapegoats:

In times of political turmoil or conflict, women could be used as scapegoats to divert

attention from the failures of rulers or political leaders. When faced with challenges or
24
societal unrest, leaders might have blamed women for their perceived moral failings,
portraying them as corrupting influences that needed to be controlled.

Women's Role in Religious Rituals:

Ancient Greek religious practices often included rituals aimed at purifying the community
from perceived sins or impurities. In some instances, women were singled out as scapegoats
for these purification ceremonies. The most notable example is the festival of Thesmophoria,
where women were blamed for any agricultural failures and were seen as needing to perform
rituals to ensure fertility and prosperity.

Scapegoating of Female Slaves:

In ancient Greece, female slaves were particularly vulnerable to scapegoating due to their
marginalized status and lack of agency. They could be blamed for any misfortune within the
household or for any social disturbances, making them easy targets for blame and
punishment.

Restrictive Roles and Blame:

Women in ancient Greece were confined to specific gender roles, primarily as wives and
mothers. If any societal issues arose within the family or community, women might have
been blamed for not fulfilling their prescribed roles adequately, regardless of the actual
causes of the problems.

Legal and Social Discrimination:

Women's scapegoating was also evident in the legal system, where they could be unfairly
accused and punished based on societal biases and prejudices. They had limited legal rights
and were often perceived as unreliable witnesses, which further contributed to their
vulnerability to scapegoating.

It is essential to recognize that ancient Greek society was diverse, and practices varied across
city-states and time periods. Not all women in ancient Greece were equally scapegoated, and
individual experiences would have differed based on social status, family background, and
personal circumstances. Nevertheless, women's scapegoating was rooted in the prevailing
patriarchal norms and values that characterized ancient Greek society.

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The Role of Women as Scapegoats in Roman Society
In Roman society, women, like in many ancient civilizations, were often subjected to
scapegoating and were assigned blame for various societal issues and challenges. The
patriarchal structure of Roman society marginalized women, placing them in subservient
roles and making them vulnerable to being targeted as scapegoats. Here are some aspects of
the role of women as scapegoats in Roman society:

Moral and Social Order:

Roman society placed significant emphasis on moral and social order, and women were often
seen as crucial in upholding these values. As guardians of family and domestic life, women
were expected to maintain the virtue and decorum of the household. Any transgressions or
perceived moral failings within the family or community could lead to women being blamed
for disrupting the social order.

Political Instability:

During times of political unrest or conflict, women could be scapegoated as agents of chaos
or rebellion. If there were societal disruptions or challenges to the established political order,
women might be blamed as troublemakers, particularly if they were seen as influential figures
in their families or social circles.

Religious Practices:

Roman religious beliefs and practices often involved rituals aimed at purifying the
community from perceived sins or impurities. In some instances, women were designated as
scapegoats for these purification ceremonies. For example, during the festival of Bona Dea,
only women were allowed to participate, and any misdeeds or transgressions within the
community could be attributed to them, leading to their potential scapegoating.

Blame in Domestic Affairs:

Within the family, women were held responsible for maintaining harmony and order. If there
were issues within the household, such as conflicts between family members or problems
with children's behavior, women might be blamed for not fulfilling their expected roles as
wives and mothers adequately.

Legal and Social Discrimination:

26
Roman women had limited legal rights and were often considered the property of their male
relatives, such as fathers or husbands. This legal and social inequality made them vulnerable
to scapegoating, as they lacked the agency and social standing to defend themselves against
false accusations or blame.

Scapegoating of Foreign Women:

Foreign women, particularly slaves and captives, were especially vulnerable to scapegoating
due to their marginalized status and lack of citizenship rights. They could be blamed for any
misfortune within the household or community, as they were considered outsiders and easily
targeted as convenient scapegoats.

It's important to note that the experiences of women as scapegoats in Roman society could
vary based on their social status, family background, and personal circumstances. While
some women may have been more susceptible to scapegoating due to their position within the
society, others may have been able to exert some agency and avoid being unjustly blamed.
However, the overarching patriarchal structure and societal norms in Roman society
perpetuated the scapegoating of women and contributed to their marginalization and
vulnerability.

Modern Manifestations of Women's Scapegoating

In modern times, women continue to face scapegoating in various forms and contexts.
Despite significant progress in gender equality, women's scapegoating persists in different
aspects of society. Here are some modern manifestations of women's scapegoating:

Victim-Blaming:

In cases of sexual assault, harassment, or domestic violence, women are often blamed for the
abuse they suffer. Victim-blaming occurs when society or individuals hold women
responsible for the harm done to them, suggesting that their behavior, clothing, or choices
somehow justify or provoke the abuse.

Workplace Discrimination:

In professional settings, women may experience scapegoating when they are unfairly held
responsible for the failures or shortcomings of a team or project. Their ideas may be
dismissed or undermined, and they might be scapegoated for any challenges faced by the
group.
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Gender-Based Violence:

Women are often scapegoated for violence perpetrated against them. In cases of honor
killings, acid attacks, or other forms of gender-based violence, societal norms and prejudices
may lead to the blaming of women for "dishonoring" their families or communities.

Blame for Relationship Problems:

In intimate relationships, women may be scapegoated for any issues or conflicts that arise.
Emotional abuse and manipulation may involve shifting blame onto women, making them
feel responsible for the difficulties in the relationship.

Stigmatization of Single Mothers:

Single mothers can be scapegoated and stigmatized, facing blame and judgment for their
circumstances. They might be blamed for their perceived failure to conform to traditional
family structures, even though single parenthood can result from various life circumstances.

Gender Pay Gap:

Women are often scapegoated for the gender pay gap, with stereotypes suggesting that
women's choices or abilities are responsible for the disparity in earnings. The blame is placed
on women for not negotiating salaries or for choosing certain career paths.

Scapegoating in Politics and Leadership:

Women in positions of power and leadership may face scapegoating for societal issues or
policy decisions. They may be unfairly blamed for problems that predate their tenure, or their
leadership may be discredited based on gender stereotypes or biases.

Online Harassment:

Women, especially those in the public eye or who express opinions online, may experience
scapegoating through online harassment. They can be subjected to sexist and misogynistic
attacks, with the intention of silencing their voices and discouraging them from participating
in public discourse.

These examples demonstrate that women's scapegoating is still prevalent in various spheres
of modern society. It often stems from deeply ingrained gender norms, stereotypes, and
unequal power dynamics. Addressing women's scapegoating requires challenging these

28
ingrained beliefs, promoting gender equality, and fostering a more inclusive and empathetic
society.

Media Representation and Stereotyping of Women

Media representation and stereotyping of women have been significant issues that continue to
shape societal perceptions and attitudes towards women. The media plays a crucial role in
shaping public opinion and reinforcing cultural norms. Unfortunately, women in the media
have often been subjected to harmful stereotypes and limited portrayals. Here are some
common ways media representation contributes to stereotyping of women:

1. Limited and Narrow Roles: Women in the media are often confined to traditional
and narrow roles, such as caregivers, love interests, or damsels in distress. This
perpetuates the notion that women's value lies primarily in their relationships to
others, rather than their individuality or agency.

2. Sexualization and Objectification: Women are frequently portrayed in

hypersexualized ways, reducing them to mere objects of desire. This objectification
reinforces harmful beauty standards and undermines their worth based on appearance
rather than their talents, intelligence, or accomplishments.

3. Unrealistic Beauty Standards: Media often promotes unrealistic beauty ideals that
can negatively impact women's self-esteem and body image. The emphasis on
thinness, flawless skin, and specific physical features can create feelings of
inadequacy and perpetuate harmful beauty practices.

4. Stereotypes of Career and Success: Women in the media are sometimes portrayed
as less competent or less ambitious than their male counterparts. They might be
depicted in lower-level job roles or shown as struggling to balance their careers and
personal lives, reinforcing traditional gender roles.

5. Tokenism and Lack of Diversity: Women from diverse backgrounds, including

women of color, LGBTQ+ women, and women with disabilities, are often
underrepresented in mainstream media. When they are portrayed, they may be
tokenized or portrayed through harmful stereotypes, limiting the complexity and
depth of their characters.

29
 6. Violence and Victimization: Women are frequently depicted as victims of violence
in media narratives. These portrayals contribute to victim-blaming and perpetuate the
idea that women are weak and need protection from men.

7. Ageism and Age Stereotypes: Older women are often underrepresented in media,
and when they are portrayed, they may be subject to ageist stereotypes, reinforcing
the idea that women's value declines with age.

8. Portrayal of Motherhood: Motherhood is often portrayed in a one-dimensional

manner, with limited representations of diverse maternal experiences. This can
reinforce unrealistic expectations of motherhood and pressure on women to conform
to certain norms.

Addressing these issues requires media producers and consumers to be mindful of the
representation of women in all forms of media. Advocating for more diverse, authentic, and
empowering portrayals of women can challenge stereotypes, promote gender equality, and
foster a more inclusive media landscape. It is essential for media creators to recognize their
role in shaping societal attitudes and work towards more responsible and respectful
representations of women.

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 Chapter-5

Calculation
The historical and modern manifestations of scapegoating women in patriarchal societies
have been evident across different cultures and time periods. Patriarchal structures have
perpetuated gender inequalities, positioning women as vulnerable targets for blame and
discrimination. Women have often been assigned the role of scapegoats, held responsible for
various societal issues and challenges, regardless of their actual culpability. From ancient
civilizations like Mesopotamia and Greece to the present day, women have faced
scapegoating in different spheres of life, be it in religious rituals, politics, interpersonal
relationships, or media representation.

The media's role in reinforcing harmful stereotypes and unrealistic beauty ideals further
contributes to women's scapegoating, influencing societal perceptions and attitudes.
However, it is essential to acknowledge that progress has been made in challenging these
norms and advocating for gender equality. Efforts to promote diverse and authentic portrayals
of women in the media, as well as initiatives to dismantle patriarchal systems, are crucial
steps towards reducing women's scapegoating and creating a more inclusive and equitable
society.

As we move forward, it is vital to continue challenging ingrained beliefs and advocating for
women's rights and empowerment. By acknowledging and addressing the phenomenon of
women's scapegoating in patriarchal societies, we can work towards building a more just,
compassionate, and equal world for all genders.

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