Beam (structure) - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Beam_(structure)

Beam (structure)
A beam is a structural element that primarily
resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its
mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The
loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces
at the beam's support points. The total effect of all
the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear
forces and bending moments within the beams,
that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and
deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by
their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-
section), equilibrium conditions, length, and their
material. A statically determinate beam, bending (sagging)
under a uniformly distributed load
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or
civil engineering structural elements, but any
structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other
mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are
analyzed in a similar fashion.

Contents
Overview
Classification based on supports
Second moment of Area (Area moment of inertia)
Stress
General shapes
Thin walled
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Overview
Historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations of wood and
metal[1] such as a flitch beam. Beams primarily carry vertical gravitational forces. They are also used
to carry horizontal loads (e.g., loads due to an earthquake or wind or in tension to resist rafter thrust
as a tie beam or (usually) compression as a collar beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred

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to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression
members and eventually to the ground. In light frame construction, joists may rest on beams.

Classification based on supports

In engineering, beams are of several types:[2]

1. Simply supported – a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no moment
resistance.
2. Fixed or Encastre – a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
3. Over hanging – a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
4. Double overhanging – a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both ends.
5. Continuous – a beam extending over more than two supports.
6. Cantilever – a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
7. Trussed – a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.[3]
8. Beam on spring supports
9. Beam on elastic foundation

Second moment of Area (Area moment of inertia)

In the beam equation I is used to represent the second moment of area. It is commonly known as the
moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the neutral axis, of dA*r^2, where r is the distance from the
neutral axis, and dA is a small patch of area. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much area the
beam section has overall, but how far each bit of area is from the axis, squared. The greater I is, the
stiffer the beam in bending, for a given material.

Stress
Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading experience
compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Typically, under
gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at the
top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom of the
beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. Modes of
deformation where the top face of the beam is in compression, as under a vertical load, are known as
sagging modes and where the top is in tension, for example over a support, is known as hogging. The
same original length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the
same as the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the
neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress.
There are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with
tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are
fabricated to produce a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High
strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has
cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This
eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of
the beam. They are commonly used on highway bridges.

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The primary tool for structural analysis of

beams is the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation.
This equation accurately describes the elastic
behaviour of slender beams where the cross
sectional dimensions are small compared to
the length of the beam. For beams that are
not slender a different theory needs to be
adopted to account for the deformation due to
shear forces and, in dynamic cases, the rotary
inertia. The beam formulation adopted here is
that of Timoshenko and comparative
examples can be found in NAFEMS
Benchmark Challenge Number 7.[4] Other
mathematical methods for determining the
deflection of beams include "method of
virtual work" and the "slope deflection Diagram of stiffness of a simple square beam (A) and
method". Engineers are interested in universal beam (B). The universal beam flange sections are
determining deflections because the beam three times further apart than the solid beam's upper and
may be in direct contact with a brittle lower halves. The second moment of inertia of the universal
material such as glass. Beam deflections are beam is nine times that of the square beam of equal cross
also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly section (universal beam web ignored for simplification)
sagging beam, even if structurally safe, is
unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam
(high modulus of elasticity and/or one of higher second moment
of area) creates less deflection.

Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal

forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on the beam
support) include the "moment distribution method", the force or
flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.

General shapes A beam of PSL lumber installed to

replace a load-bearing wall
Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular
cross sections, but a more efficient cross section for a beam is an
I or H section which is typically seen in steel construction. Because of the parallel axis theorem and
the fact that most of the material is away from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of the
beam increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.

An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down looking at the
profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side, it functions as an H where it is less efficient. The most
efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a square shell) however the most efficient shape for
bending in any direction is a cylindrical shell or tube. But, for unidirectional bending, the I or wide
flange beam is superior.

Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area (volume of beam per length) subjected to the
same loading conditions, the beam deflects less.

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Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels), T-beam and

double-T or tubes, are also used in construction when there are
special requirements.

Thin walled
A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam (structure).
The cross section of thin walled beams is made up from thin
panels connected among themselves to create closed or open
An I shaped beam of metal under a
cross sections of a beam (structure). Typical closed sections
include round, square, and rectangular tubes. Open sections bridge
include I-beams, T-beams, L-beams, and so on. Thin walled
beams exist because their bending stiffness per unit cross
sectional area is much higher than that for solid cross sections such a rod or bar. In this way, stiff
beams can be achieved with minimum weight. Thin walled beams are particularly useful when the
material is a composite laminate. Pioneer work on composite laminate thin walled beams was done by
Librescu.

The torsional stiffness of a beam is greatly influenced by its cross sectional shape. For open sections,
such as I sections, warping deflections occur which, if restrained, greatly increase the torsional
stiffness.[5]

See also
Airy points
Beam engine
Building code
Cantilever
Classical mechanics
Deflection (engineering)
Elasticity (physics) and Plasticity (physics)
Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
Finite element method in structural mechanics
Flexural modulus
Free body diagram
Influence line
Materials science and Strength of materials
Moment (physics)
Poisson's ratio
Post and lintel
Shear strength
Statics and Statically indeterminate
Stress (mechanics) and Strain (materials science)
Thin-shell structure

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Timber framing
Truss
Ultimate tensile strength and Hooke's law
Yield (engineering)

References
1. "Beam" def. 1. Whitney, William Dwight, and Benjamin E. Smith. The Century dictionary and
cyclopedia. vol, 1. New York: Century Co., 1901. 487. Print.
2. Ching, Frank. A visual dictionary of architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995. 8–9.
Print.
3. The American Architect and Building News, Vol XXIII (https://books.google.com/books?id=tKYwA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA159). Boston: James R. Osgood & Co. 1888. p. 159.
4. Ramsay, Angus. "NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge Number 7" (http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/
downloads/nbr07.pdf) (PDF). ramsay-maunder.co.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
5. Ramsay, Angus. "The Influence and Modelling of Warping Restraint on Beams" (http://www.ramsa
y-maunder.co.uk/knowledge-base/publications/the-influence-and-modelling-of-warping-restraint-o
n-beams/). ramsay-maunder.co.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2017.

Further reading
Popov, Egor P. (1968). Introduction to mechanics of solids. Prentice-Hall.
ISBN 978-0-13-726159-8.

External links
American Wood Council (http://www.awc.org/): Free Download Library (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20070210155548/http://www.awc.org/Publications/download.html) Wood Construction Data
Introduction to Structural Design (http://www.arch.virginia.edu/~km6e/arch324/), U. Virginia Dept.
Architecture
Glossary (http://www.arch.virginia.edu/%7Ekm6e/references/glossary/struc-glossary.html)
Course Sampler (http://www.arch.virginia.edu/~km6e/arch324/highlights/home.html) Lectures,
Projects, Tests
Beams and Bending (https://web.archive.org/web/20070322183324/http://urban.arch.virginia.e
du/~km6e/arch324/content/lectures/lec-10/review-of-09.html) review points (follow using next
buttons)
Structural Behavior and Design Approaches (https://web.archive.org/web/20070504030331/htt
p://urban.arch.virginia.edu/~km6e/arch324/content/lectures/lec-08/pres.html) lectures (follow
using next buttons)
U. Wisconsin–Stout, Strength of Materials (https://web.archive.org/web/20070212205812/http://ph
ysics.uwstout.edu/statstr/Strength/indexfbt.htm) online lectures, problems, tests/solutions, links,
software
Beams I – Shear Forces and Bending Moments (https://web.archive.org/web/20070302091811/htt
p://physics.uwstout.edu/StatStr/Strength/Beams/beam41.htm)

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