Beam (structure)

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_(structure)

A beam is a structural element that

primarily resists loads applied laterally
to the beam's axis (an element designed
to carry primarily axial load would be a
strut or column). Its mode of deflection
is primarily by bending. The loads
applied to the beam result in reaction
forces at the beam's support points. The
total effect of all the forces acting on the
beam is to produce shear forces and
A statically determinate beam, bending (sagging)
bending moments within the beams, that under a uniformly distributed load
in turn induce internal stresses, strains
and deflections of the beam. Beams are
characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium
conditions, length, and their material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements,

where the beams are horizontal and carry vertical loads. However, any structure may
contain beams, for instance automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames,
and other mechanical or structural systems. In these structures, any structural element, in
any orientation, that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the element's axis would
be a beam element.

Overview
Historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations of
wood and metal[1] such as a flitch beam. Beams primarily carry vertical gravitational
forces. They are also used to carry horizontal loads (e.g., loads due to an earthquake or
wind or in tension to resist rafter thrust as a tie beam or (usually) compression as a collar
beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which
then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members and eventually to the
ground. In light frame construction, joists may rest on beams.

Classification based on supports

In engineering, beams are of several types:[2]

1. Simply supported – a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have
no moment resistance.
2. Fixed or encastré (encastrated) – a beam supported on both ends and restrained
from rotation.

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 3. Overhanging – a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
4. Double overhanging – a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports
on both ends.
5. Continuous – a beam extending over more than two supports.
6. Cantilever – a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
7. Trussed – a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.[3]
8. Beam on spring supports
9. Beam on elastic foundation

Second moment of Area (Area moment of inertia)

Main article: Second moment of area
In the beam equation I is used to represent the second moment of area. It is commonly
known as the moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the neutral axis, of dA*r^2, where
r is the distance from the neutral axis, and dA is a small patch of area. Therefore, it
encompasses not just how much area the beam section has overall, but how far each bit of
area is from the axis, squared. The greater I is, the stiffer the beam in bending, for a given
material.

Diagram of stiffness of a simple square beam (A) and

universal beam (B). The universal beam flange sections
are three times further apart than the solid beam's upper
and lower halves. The second moment of inertia of the
universal beam is nine times that of the square beam of
equal cross section (universal beam web ignored for
simplification)

Stress
Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading experience
compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Typically,
under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller
radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam

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length at the bottom of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so
is under tension. Modes of deformation where the top face of the beam is in compression,
as under a vertical load, are known as sagging modes and where the top is in tension, for
example over a support, is known as hogging. The same original length of the middle of
the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as the radial arc of
bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis
(dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress.
There are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in
compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as
prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more than the
expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched
while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are
slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric
loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity
of the beam. They are commonly used on highway bridges.

The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the

Euler–Bernoulli beam equation. This equation
accurately describes the elastic behaviour of slender
beams where the cross sectional dimensions are small
compared to the length of the beam. For beams that are
not slender a different theory needs to be adopted to
account for the deformation due to shear forces and, in
dynamic cases, the rotary inertia. The beam
formulation adopted here is that of Timoshenko and
A beam of PSL lumber installed to
comparative examples can be found in NAFEMS replace a load-bearing wall
Benchmark Challenge Number 7.[4] Other
mathematical methods for determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual
work" and the "slope deflection method". Engineers are interested in determining
deflections because the beam may be in direct contact with a brittle material such as glass.
Beam deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging beam, even if
structurally safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of elasticity
and/or one of higher second moment of area) creates less deflection.

Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam and
the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment distribution
method", the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.

General shapes
Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but a more
efficient cross section for a beam is an I or H section which is typically seen in steel
construction. Because of the parallel axis theorem and the fact that most of the material is
away from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of the beam increases, which in
turn increases the stiffness.

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An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one
direction of bending: up and down looking at the
profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side, it
functions as an H where it is less efficient. The most
efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a
square shell); the most efficient shape for bending in
any direction, however, is a cylindrical shell or tube.
For unidirectional bending, the I or wide flange beam
is superior. An I shaped beam of metal under a
bridge
Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area
(volume of beam per length) subjected to the same
loading conditions, the beam deflects less.

Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels), T-beam and double-T or tubes, are also used
in construction when there are special requirements.

Thin walled
Main article: Thin walled beams
A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam (structure). The cross section of thin
walled beams is made up from thin panels connected among themselves to create closed
or open cross sections of a beam (structure). Typical closed sections include round,
square, and rectangular tubes. Open sections include I-beams, T-beams, L-beams, and so
on. Thin walled beams exist because their bending stiffness per unit cross sectional area is
much higher than that for solid cross sections such a rod or bar. In this way, stiff beams
can be achieved with minimum weight. Thin walled beams are particularly useful when
the material is a composite laminate. Pioneer work on composite laminate thin walled
beams was done by Librescu.

The torsional stiffness of a beam is greatly influenced by its cross sectional shape. For
open sections, such as I sections, warping deflections occur which, if restrained, greatly
increase the torsional stiffness.[5]

See also
Airy points
Beam engine
Building code
Cantilever
Classical mechanics
Deflection (engineering)
Elasticity (physics) and Plasticity (physics)
Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
Finite element method in structural mechanics
Flexural modulus

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 Free body diagram
Influence line
Materials science and Strength of materials
Moment (physics)
Poisson's ratio
Post and lintel
Shear strength
Statics and Statically indeterminate
Stress (mechanics) and Strain (materials science)
Thin-shell structure
Timber framing
Truss
Ultimate tensile strength and Hooke's law
Yield (engineering)

References
1. ^ "Beam" def. 1. Whitney, William Dwight, and Benjamin E. Smith. The Century
dictionary and cyclopedia. vol, 1. New York: Century Co., 1901. 487. Print.
2. ^ Ching, Frank. A visual dictionary of architecture. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1995. 8–9. Print.
3. ^ The American Architect and Building News, Vol XXIII. Boston: James R. Osgood
& Co. 1888. p. 159.
4. ^ Ramsay, Angus. "NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge Number 7" (PDF). ramsay-
maunder.co.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
5. ^ Ramsay, Angus. "The Influence and Modelling of Warping Restraint on Beams".
ramsay-maunder.co.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2017.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beams.

Structural engineering

Dynamic analysis Duhamel's integral

Modal analysis

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 Static analysis Betti's theorem
Castigliano's method
Conjugate beam method
FEM
Flexibility method
Macaulay's method
Moment-area theorem
Stiffness method
Shear and moment diagram
Theorem of three moments

Structural elements
1-dimensional Beam
I-beam
Lintel
Post and lintel
Span
Compression member
Strut
Tie

2-dimensional Arch
Thin-shell structure

Structural support Bracket

Theories Euler–Bernoulli beam theory

Mohr–Coulomb theory
Plate theory
Timoshenko–Ehrenfest beam theory

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