LAB

ASSIGNMENT:02

Fundamentals of Genetics
 Introduction to microscopy
.
 Light microscope:
A light microscope (LM) is an instrument that uses visible light and
magnifying lenses to examine small objects not visible to the naked eye, or
in finer detail than the naked eye allows.

Figure 1 light microscope

 Parts of light microscope:

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Figure 2 parts of light microscope(animated picture)

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 Figure 3 components of light microscope

 Objective lens:
In microscopy, the objective lenses are the optical elements closest to the
specimen. The objective lens gathers light from the specimen, which is
focused to produce the real image that is seen on the ocular lens.

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 Figure 4 objective lens

 Ocular lense:

An eyepiece, or ocular lens, is a type of lens that is attached to a variety of

optical devices such as telescopes and microscopes. It is so named because it
is usually the lens that is closest to the eye when someone looks through the
device

Figure 5 ocular lense

 Magnification:
Magnification is the process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of
something. This enlargement is quantified by a calculated number also called
"magnification"
Formula

Magnification (m) = h / h’

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 Here, h is the height of the object

h’ is the height of the object.

 Resolution:

The resolution of an optical microscope is defined as the shortest distance

between two points on a specimen that can still be distinguished by the
observer or camera system as separate entities.

Stains used to visualize nucleus and DNA:

Hematoxylin - a nuclear stain that, with a mordant, stains nuclei blue-
violet or brown.

Hoechst stains - two types of fluorescent stains used in DNA..

Gram positive and Gram negative:

Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made
of peptidoglycan (50–90% of cell envelope), and as a result are
stained purple by crystal violet, whereas gram-negative bacteria have
a thinner layer (10% of cell envelope), so do not retain the purple
stain and are counter-stained pink by safranin .

Figure 6 gram negative

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 Figure 7 gram positive

LAB 4:

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons

as a source of illumination.It is a special type of microscope having a high
resolution of images, able to magnify objects in nanometres, which are formed by
controlled use of electrons in vacuum captured on a phosphorescent screen.

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 Figure 8 electron microscope

Types of Electron microscope:

1.The transmission electron microscope (TEM)
2. The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

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1.The transmission electron microscope (TEM):
 The transmission electron microscope is used to view thin specimens
through which electrons can pass generating a projection image.
 The TEM is analogous in many ways to the conventional (compound) light
microscope.
 TEM is used, among other things, to image the interior of cells (in thin
sections), the structure of protein molecules (contrasted by metal
shadowing), the organization of molecules in viruses and cytoskeletal
filaments (prepared by the negative staining technique), and the
arrangement of protein molecules in cell membranes (by freeze-fracture).

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 Figure 9 TEM

2.The scanning electron microscope (SEM):

 Conventional scanning electron microscopy depends on the emission of
secondary electrons from the surface of a specimen.
 Because of its great depth of focus, a scanning electron microscope is the
EM analog of a stereo light microscope.
 It provides detailed images of the surfaces of cells and whole organisms
that are not possible by TEM. It can also be used for particle counting and
size determination, and for process control.

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  It is termed a scanning electron microscope because the image is formed by
scanning a focused electron beam onto the surface of the specimen in a
raster pattern.

Figure 10 SEM

Task:01

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 Figure 11 pair of sex chromosomes

Task:02

nucleus

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