CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Language and culture

The relationship between language and culture is a complex one due largely in part to the
great diffi culty in understanding people’s cognitive processes when they communicate. Below,
Wardhaugh and Thanasoulas each define language in a somewhat different way, with the
former explaining it for what it does, and the latter viewing it as it relates to culture.
Wardhaugh (2002, p. 2) defi nes language to be: a knowledge of rules and principles and of the
ways of saying and doing things with sounds, words, and sentences rather than just knowledge
of specifi c sounds, words, and sentences.

While Wardhaugh does not mention culture per se, the speech acts we perform are
inevitably connected with the environment they are performed in, and therefore he appears to
define language with consideration for context, something Thanasoulas (2001) more directly
compiled in the following.
…(l)anguage does not exist apart from culture, that is, from the socially inherited assemblage of
practices and beliefs that determines the texture of our lives (Sapir, 1970, p. 207). In a sense, it
is ‘a key to the cultural past of a society’ (Salzmann, 1998, p. 41), a guide to ‘social reality’
(Sapir, 1929, p. 209, cited in Salzmann, 1998, p. 41).
And if we are to discuss a relationship between language and culture, we must also have
some understanding of what culture refers to. Good enough (1957, p. 167, taken from
Wardhaugh, 2002, p. 219) explains culture in terms of the participatory responsibilities of its
members. He states that a society’s culture is made up of whatever it is one has to know or
believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in any role that
they accept for any one of themselves.
Malinowski (Stern, 2009) views culture through a somewhat more interactive design, stating
that it is a response to need, and believes that what constitutes a culture is its response to
three sets of needs: the basic needs of the individual, the instrumental needs of the society,
and the symbolic and integrative needs of both the individual and the society.
For both Goodenough and Malinowski, culture is defi ned by benevolence and expectation.
While each person holds their own individual roles and subsequent needs as part of a culture,
the various needs of the culture must also be kept in balance. Consequently, in composing a
definition for culture, we can see that the concept is often better understood in the context of
how the members of a culture operate, both individually and as a group. It is therefore clear
how important it is for members of any society to understand the actual power of their words
and actions when they interact. Above, Salzmann is quoted by Thanasoulas as saying that
language is ‘a key to the cultural past’, but it is also a key to the cultural present in its ability to
express what is (and has been) thought, believed, and understood by its members.
2.2 The Relationship Between Language and Culture
Edward Sapir, in his studies with Benjamin Lee Whorf, recognized the close relationship
between language and culture, concluding that it was not possible to understand or appreciate
one without knowledge of the other” (taken from Wardhaugh, 2002, p. 220). However,
Wardhaugh (2002, pp. 219-220) reported that there appear to be three claims to the
relationship between language and culture: The structure of a language determines the way in
which speakers of that language view the world or, as a weaker view, the structure does not
determine the world-view but is still extremely infl uential in predisposing speakers of a
language toward adopting their world-view. The culture of a people finds reflection in the
language they employ: because they value certain things and do them in a certain way, they
come to use their language in ways that refl ect what they value and what they do. A ‘neutral
claim’ which claims that there is little or no relationship between the two
The first of these claims, though in its defi nitive phrasing is disputed by many sociolinguists,
is commonly associated with Sapir and Whorf. This claim is the basis for much research on the
relationship between language and culture and therefore will be covered in the most detail
following an acknowledgement of the other two, beginning with a brief consideration of the
‘neutral claim’.
The neutral claim that a relationship does not exist between language and culture, when
considering language for its communicative powers and its role in the culture that uses it,
would appear to be one for a philosophical debate. While it can be argued that it is possible to
analyze a language and/or culture without regard for the other, the reasons for such an analysis
seem highly suspect. The fact that language is used to convey and to understand information
would imply a relationship in which both the language giver and receiver assume one or more
roles. In considering such communication in its most minimal of forms – i.e. the immediate
setting – it would be difficult to conclude that culture would in no way have an impact on the
interaction even on the smallest of scale.
The second proposed relationship suggests that people in a culture use language that
reflects their particular culture’s values. This is the opposing view of Sapir and Whorf in that
here it is the ‘thoughts’ of a culture which are refl ected in the language and not the language
which determines the thought. This claim implies that cultures employ languages that are as
different as the cultures that speak them and therefore linguistic functions differ in terms of, for
example, a culture’s level of technological development.
However, Wardhaugh (2002, pp. 225-226) argues that we must assume that all languages
possess the resources to allow any speaker to say anything…provided that speaker is willing to
use some degree of circumlocution. When needs for lexical items arise, Wardhaugh (2002, p.
225) explains, we can assume that cultures possess the ability and are free to create or to
borrow them as needed, and that cultures that have not done so have not yet experienced the
need. Wardhaugh also notes that people who speak languages with different structures (e.g.
Germans and Hungarians) can share similar cultural characteristics, and people who have
different cultures can also possess similar structures in language (e.g. Hungarians and Finns).
Examples like these indicate that the second relationship between language and culture is quite
viable.

2.3 English Speaking Cultures & Cultural Differences

English has become the leading language of international communication. It is the third
most widely spoken language in the world and the official language of 53 countries. The United
States is an English speaking culture and so is Great Britain. This paper will explore American
and British culture as they relate to the English language.

The United States is a multicultural and multilingual nation. The population is ethnically and
racially diverse. Americans have many different traditions and values and the culture has been
influenced heavily by European immigrants and the descendants of slaves from the African
continent. English is not the official language, but people who do not speak it usually deal with
limited employment opportunities. Learning English opens doors and allows people to become
part of main stream society. The government provides services in many languages to
accommodate newcomers. Details about certain aspects of English-speaking American Culture
are below.

American (US) Culture

Most Americans are friendly and informal. It is common for people address others who they
know well by a first name only. It is important to be polite in most social situations. People
commonly please and thank you when they interact with each other. Most Americans dress
casually outside of work. Jeans and sweatshirts are very popular. Business casual attire is
acceptable in most offices. The formality of meals at private homes varies, so it is a good idea to
follow the lead of the host Americans use a lot of slang and idiomatic expressions. Sometimes it
is difficult for non-native speakers to learn the expressions, but after hearing them frequently
they will learn what they mean.

United Kingdom (UK) Culture

Four countries make up the United Kingdom. They are England, Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland. The English language is not governed by a formal code. People from around
the world go to England to learn English, live and work. English people speak Modern English
that evolved from Old English. Details about the culture and traditions are below.
 British people are reserved, but friendly and helpful to foreigners. It is okay to address
people there by their first name after you get to know them and they invite you to do so. The
British observe formalities and protocols in business and punctuality is of paramount
importance. Many English people enjoy entertaining in their homes. They expect guests to
arrive 10-20 minutes after the start time. Generally dinner conversation is not about work. The
residents of larger cities like London dress more formally than the residents of the countryside.
Men and women love to wear, jeans, wools and tweeds to casual gatherings. English usage
varies between cultures. The people of England have spoken it for over 1,000 years. American
English, however, has only a 300 year history. It evolved from Old English and has been
influenced by immigration, slavery and even wars. Most ESL/EFL programs teach American and
British English. The three main differences are pronunciation, vocabulary and spelling. British
Commonwealth countries where the residents are not native English speakers frequently
closely follow British English. The countries which have been historically influenced by the
United States follow American English usage.

2.4 Integrating Culture in English Language

The target culture should be taught along with the target language (Byram, 1989; Kramsch,
1993; Hinkel, 1999; Cortazzi& Jin, 1999). However, as English nowadays is considered as an
international language or a lingua franca, the language should also enable non-native speakers
to describe their own norms and culture by using this international language (Hardy, 2004;
McKay, 2003). English speakers nowadays do not only confront the culture of American or
British people, but they also confront the culture of non-native speakers and introduce their
own culture (Xiao, 2010; Kachru and Smith, 2008). This tendency makes the target language
culture only is not sufficient to accommodate communicative competence of English as an
international language. The source culture should also be taught compatible with English.
Cortazzi& Jin (1999) suggested that both inter- and intra-cultural variations should be
represented in culture is not monolithic.
Adaskou, Britten &Fahsi (1990) found the target language culture in Morocco less
motivation in learning. Some learners were also triggered to compare the target language
culture and their own culture and they felt their culture is inferior compared to the target
language culture.
Gass&Selinker (2008) explained that the success of the target culture acquisition is
determined by social distance and psychological distance. Social distance refers to the equality
of the social status of each culture, while psychological distance refers to the attitude of
individuals toward the target language learned. Positive attitudes toward the target language
understanding of the target language and promote intercultural understanding.

On the other hand, if learners feel alienated from the target language and culture, the
language learning process will be certainly hindered. Byram and Morgan (1994) explained that
no matter how good and proficient learners are in learning the target language, the cultural
values of their native language will remain and affect the learning of the target language.
Denying their native language culture means denying their own identity.
Peterson and Coltrane (2003) suggested the culture should be carried out in the non-
judgmental fashion where the distinction between the source culture and the target culture do
not clash to each other. It is in line with Kramsch (1991) suggesting that the target language
culture is not to shift the mindset of language learners, but to aid the learning process of the
target language and to create inter-cultural understanding, where learners can behave
accordingly in various socio-cultural situations.

2.5 Englishes in Australia

English spoken in Australia is usually referred to as ‘Australian English’, a broad term which
encompasses the various types of English spoken by people across the country. Australian English is a
unique dialect which evolved from a mixture of sources from the late 18th century onwards, and today
the language has characteristic linguistic features which set it apart from English dialects elsewhere. As
with any language, lots of variation is possible among speakers of Australian English – differences can
show up in things like pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and interaction styles, and these differences
can occur for all sorts of reasons, including social, cultural, and regional factors. Three major subgroups
of Australian English are recognised, all with their own variation: Standard Australian English, Aboriginal
English, and Ethnocultural Australian English. People can also move between speaking different types of
Australian English, depending on contextual and individual factors.

Despite what some people think, English is not the official language of Australia – there is no official
language specified in the constitution. But, it is the most widely used language in the country. According
to the 2011 census, 76.8% of people in Australia speak English at home. Many other people also use
English, but in addition to one or more languages that they use at home. There are hundreds of other
languages spoken by people in Australia – around 50,000 people speak an Indigenous language at home,
and many people whose families migrated to Australia speak languages from places including Europe,
Asia and Africa. Some of these languages have made their mark on Australian English, for example in
place names, borrowed words, and expressions. From the particular mix of dialects which Australian
English was born from, followed by natural patterns of language change and diverse linguistic and
cultural influences, Australian English has become a distinctive variety among the Englishes of the world,
and continues to grow and change.

Any survey of the status and nature of English in Australia will reveal howclosely the national
language, in its strength and in its variability, reflects theessential cohesiveness and diversity of its home
culture. From its beginningsat the end of the 18th century, English in Australia had to provide a medium
of communication that could cope with a new physical environment and a newsocial order. As the
language has developed over 200 years, its lexicon hascontinued to expand to serve the needs of a
developed southern hemispherenation, and its varieties have continued to reflect the multi-ethnic and
multi-cultural nature of Australian society.The role of language as a badge of social identity means that
English inAustralia serves a double social function. Within Australia, the range of varieties (or Englishes)
provides a set of cultural and social indicators of ethnicity, social class, gender and age. From an external
viewpoint, andprimarily through its prestige dialect (AusE), the language provides a markerof
“Australian-ness” which is increasingly recognisable to speakers of other Englishes around the world.