Basic Concepts of Translation Theory

The main task of the general theory of translation is the creation of a theoretical model of
translation that would show general concepts of equivalence and the basis for the appearance
of translation. In translation, for all its history, there have been a large number of attempts to
create certain generalizations and rules of translation. All this was usually presented in the form
of principles and requirements for the translation process. Formed principles based on the
practice of an interpreter and included repetitive aspects of practice and were not based on any
theoretical model of translation. Various scientists and authors of the works, made their
suggestions regarding the translation process. If all these proposals are combined, then we get
an interesting list in which some principles contradict each other:

• Translation – transfer of words of the original.

• Translation – conveying the meaning of the original.

• The translation must be read as the original.

• The translation should be read as a translation.

• The style of the original must be reflected in the translation.

• The translation should reflect the style of the translator.

• Additions and reductions can be in the translation.

• Additions and reductions cannot be used for translation.

• Translation of poems must be done in prose.

• Translation of poems must be performed only in a poetic form.

In the derivation of empirical rules of translation, there was no single theoretical basis, which
led to the emergence of ridiculous situations and funny cases in the translation process. It is
because of this that the most important task for linguists was the development of theoretical
models of translation. Based on different concepts, linguists have developed several translation
models.

The Theory of Translation

Translation according to M. Larson

Larson (-: 1) said that translation is a transfer of meaning from the source language into the
target language. Larson's transition from the source language to the target language is viewed
from its semantic structure. In other words, the meaning to be transferred must be maintained
while the form of the sentence may be changed. Larson divides 3 important steps that need to
be done in translating, namely: Study the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication
situations, and cultural context of the source language text, Analyzes the source language text
to find its meaning, Re-express the same meaning using the appropriate lexicon and
grammatical structure in the target language and its cultural context.

According to Catford (1965: 20) translation is the replacement of textual material in one
language by equivalent textual material in other language (translation is the replacement of
textual material in a language with equivalent textual material in another language).

Translation according to Newmark

Newmark (1981: 7) argues that translation is a craft consists of in the attempt to replace a
written massage and / or statement in one language by the same message and / or statement
in another language.

Translation according to Nida and Taber

Nida and Tber (1969) define translation as an attempt to recreate messages in the source
language (BSu) by using the equivalent as natural as possible into the target language (BSa).
Nida and Taber emphasize more on equivalent meaning and then focus on language style. Nida
and Taber are known as experts in translating scriptures. In the translation carried out in the
English bible, the expression lamb of God, if translated into Indonesian, will literally become the
lamb of God. If translated into Indonesian, this expression will certainly not experience
problems. However, the case would be different if the term was translated into the language of
the Eskimos, who of course never see sheep in their daily lives. If the phrase is translated
literally, then the intended meaning, namely innocence will not be caught. Therefore,
according to Nida and Taber, it is very important to find an equivalent that is as natural and as
close as possible, which has almost the same connotation, for this reason, the expression lamb
of God will be equivalent to the Eskimo reader if it is translated as God's seal.

The concept of Nida and Tber is known as dynamic equivalent. This translation produces more
flexible text and gives the same message as TSu readers. However, this concept is deemed
inappropriate when used to translate scientific texts.

Translation Process
Suryawinata (1989: 12) states that in ancient times translation occurred directly and occurred in
one direction. This translation is often referred to as linear translation.

1st Step: ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT

The translation project is assigned to a Project Manager who analyzes and converts the files to
be translated and prepares all the support documentation for the translator (translation
memory, technical terminology glossary, client-supplied reference material, style guide and
prior projects for reference).

2nd Step: LINGUISTIC STEPS

The job is assigned to native-speaking translators and proofreaders in the target language, all
specialized professionals in various sectors and with extensive experience. We always try to
have the same linguists carry out all of a particular client’s translations to maintain the same
style and consistency with each project.

Translation is the first step in the linguistic side of a project. It is always done by a native-
speaking translator in the target language who specializes in the particular field and/or has the
corresponding experience in said field and involves a first translation of the original document
to the target language.

The translator must do the translation considering the following aspects:

• Compliance with the specific field and the client’s terminology and/or any other reference
material provided and terminology coherence assurance during translation;

• Semantic accuracy of the content in the target language;

• The proper syntax, spelling, punctuation and diacritics as well as other orthographic
conventions in the target language;

• Lexical and sentence cohesion;

• Compliance with any internal and/or client-supplied style guide (including domain, linguistic
register and linguistic variants);

• Local conventions and any applicable standards;

• Formats;

• The target audience and aim of the content in the target language.

Translators must always check their own work which must include a general proofread by the
translator of the content in the target language to detect any semantic, grammar or spelling
problems or any omissions or other errors in addition to ensuring compliance with any relevant
translation project specifications.
Proofreading is the second linguistic step of a project which is done by a second native-speaking
translator in the target language who specializes in the particular field and/or has the
corresponding experience in said field. It involves carefully reading the translated document
and comparing it to the original document to ensure the translation is correct and adequately
reflects the original document. The proofreader must take into account the same aspects as the
translator as outlined above. The proofreader can also apply the necessary terminology
changes or make style changes so the translated document flows better and sounds more
natural; these changes are then validated by the translator. This way, we obtain a document of
the highest quality.

Technique of Translation
A translation method is applied to the entire text to be translated, while a translation technique
may vary within the same text on a case-by-case basis depending on the specific verbal
elements to be translated. The classical taxonomy of translation procedures dates back to 1958
and is the work of J. P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet. It consists of seven categories:

1. BORROWING

Borrowing is a translation technique that involves using the same word or expression in original
text in the target text. The word or expression borrowed is usually written in italics. This is
about reproducing an expression in the original text as is. In this sense, it is a translation
technique that does not actually translate.

Example: The gaucho was wearing a black sombrero and a worn bombacha.

2. CALQUE

When a translator uses a calque, he or she is creating or using a neologism in the target
language by adopting the structure of the source language.

Example: The German word handball is translated into Spanish as balonmano. Or the English
term skyscraper is gratte-ciel in French or rascacielos in Spanish.

3. LITERAL TRANSLATION

Usually this is called a literal translation or metaphrase. This means a word-for-word

translation, achieving a text in the target language which is as correct as it is idiomatic.
According to Vinay and Darbelnet, a literal translation can only be applied with languages which
are extremely close in cultural terms. It is acceptable only if the translated text retains the same
syntax, the same meaning and the same style as the original text.
Example: Quelle heure est-il? ⇒ What time is it?

4. TRANSPOSITION

Transposition involves moving from one grammatical category to another without altering the
meaning of the text. This translation technique introduces a change in grammatical structure.

Example: The President thinks that ⇒ Selon le Président

5. MODULATION

Modulation is about changing the form of the text by introducing a semantic change or
perspective.

Example: Maybe you’re right. ⇒ Tu n’as peut-être pas tort.

6. EQUIVALENCE OR REFORMULATION

This is a translation technique which uses a completely different expression to transmit the
same reality. Through this technique, names of institutions, interjections, idioms or proverbs
can be translated.

Example: Chat échaudé craint l’eau froide. ⇒ Once burned, twice shy.

7. ADAPTATION

Adaptation, also called cultural substitution or cultural equivalent, is a cultural element which
replaces the original text with one that is better suited to the culture of the target language.
This achieves a more familiar and comprehensive text.

Example: baseball ⇒ football

Since the sixties, several authors (Michel Ballard, Hélène Chuquet, Michel Paillard, etc.) have
established other methods of translation, such as explicitation (introducing specific details in
the text of the target language), collocation (using a sequence of words that usually go together
in the target language) and compensation (where an allusion or reference does not appear in
one part of the text as in the source version, but later in the target text).

The Concept of Translation

Roman Jakobson's famous taxonomy of translation attempts to restrict the instability inherent
in the figurative use of the word language. Jakobson divides translation into three classes: "1)
Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs
of the same language. 2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of some other language. 3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is
an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems" (p. 261).
According to the Jakobsonian taxonomy, one who translates "legal language" into common
parlance would be performing an intralingual translation, while one who offers a commentary
on an obscure artwork would be engaged in an intersemiotic translation. Neither can be said to
be a translator strictly speaking. Only someone who translates a text from one language to
another would be doing translation proper.

Jakobson's taxonomy neither elucidates nor responds to the supposition concerning the
countability and organic unity of the source and target languages. It does not empirically
validate the supposition; it merely repeats and confirms it. Nevertheless, it discloses that
"translation proper" depends on a supposed discernibility between the interlingual and the
intralingual, between a translation from one language to another and a rewording within the
same language. It thereby prescribes and demarcates the locus of difference between two
presumably ethnic or national language communities by virtue of the fact that Jakobson
presupposes that translation proper can take place only between two unequivocally
circumscribed languages. It therefore eradicates the various differences within such a linguistic
community and locates the foreign exclusively outside the unity of a language.

Quality of Translation
There are four parameters of translation quality. There are accuracy, acceptability, and
readability, and naturalness.

1. Accuracy

Accuracy is a freedom from mistake or error. Webster’s Dictionary, 1973: 5. Accuracy is the
most important criterion in translation to produce quality translation. It is related to the
correctness of transferring the message. A translation can be considered as an accurate
translation if the message is conveyed to the target language correctly. A translation that losses
some messages or has got more messages than the source language, cannot be called quality
translation. Accuracy has a close relation to the equivalence. To get a quality translation, a
translator should try to transfer all messages of source language to target language
equivalently.

2. Acceptability

A translation should conform with norm and culture because it will be able to be accepted by
the readers. A translation that does not conform with norm and culture will be refused by the
readers. A translation can be acceptable if it is read as an original text in target language and
sound natural for the target readers. Bell 1991: 90 states that the target text must be intended
to be a text and accepted as such in order to be utilized in communicative interaction.

3. Readability

In translating, readability is related to the understanding of source language text and target
language text Nababan, 1999: 61. According to Richards et al in Nababan, 1999: 62, readability
refers to how easy written commit to users materials can be read and understood. Readability
of a text is decided by some factors. Richards et al in Nababan, 1999: 63 states that readability
depends on the average length of sentences, the number of new words and language
grammatical complexity. Sakri in Nababan, 1999: 63-64 states that readability depends on the
vocabularies and the construction of the chosen sentence which is used by the writer. A text
which contains unusual words will be difficult to understand by the readers. A complex
sentence also will be more difficult to understand than the simple sentence. Nababan 1999: 63-
64 explains several factors that influence the readability of a text: the use of new words, local
words, ambigouos words, strange words, the use of incomplete words and complex words and
then the average length of sentences. From the explanation above, it can be concluded that
there are some factors that may influence the readability of a text. The readers can understand
the text easily if the text has a high level of readability. A readability of a text is not only caused
by the text itself but also the translator’s competence.

4. Naturalness

In this view, naturalness is both grammatical and lexical, and is a touchstone at every level of a
text, from paragraph to word, from title to punctuation.