IM3 - Physical Soil Parameters

Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: GEOTECH 1-2ND SEM-2020-2021
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus
DEGREE PROGRAM BS in Civil COURSE NO. Geotech 1

Engineering
SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil
Mechanics)
YEAR LEVEL 3rd Year TIME FRAME WK NO. 4 IM NO. 3
I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Physical Soil States and Soil Classification
II. LESSON TITLE

Phase Relationships
Physical States and Index Properties of Soils
Soil Classification Schemes
III. LESSON OVERVIEW

One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer is to collect, classify and investigate the physical
properties of soils. This chapter will deal with tests to determine these physical properties and how to
classify soils and improve their properties.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. Calculate the physical parameters that characterize a soil.
2. Determine the index properties of soils.
3. Classify soils according to established systems such as USCS and AASHTO.
V. LESSON CONTENT
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS:
Soil is composed of three phases – solids,

liquids and gases. The solid phase may be mineral or
organic, or both. The spaces between the soil solids
are called voids. The voids may be filled with either
gas or liquid, or both. Water is the predominant liquid
while air is the predominant gas. Thus, the terms
water and air are used instead of liquid and gas. The
soil water is called porewater and plays a very
important role in defining the behavior of the soil under
load. If the voids are completely filled with water, then
the soil is saturated. If there is no water in the voids,
then the soil is dry. If both water and air are present in
the voids, the soil is usually termed as wet or moist.
The physical properties of soils are influenced by the relative

proportions of each of these three phases. The total volume of the soil is
the sum of the volume of solids (Vs ), volume of water (Vw ), and volume
of air (Va). That is
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑊 + 𝑉𝐴
Where the volume of voids, VV is
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑊 + 𝑉𝐴
The total mass (or weight) of the soil is equal to the mass (or weight) of
the soil solids (M S or WS) and the mass (or weight) of water (M W or WW ).
The mass of air is assumed to be negligible or zero. Thus
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑆 + 𝑀𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑆 + 𝑊𝑊
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔
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Where g is the acceleration due to gravity which is taken as equal to 9.81 m/sec 2 unless otherwise
specified.
The following physical parameters for the properties of the soil have been established to describe
the proportion of each constituent in soil. Note that the parameters are defined in terms of the weight (W).
However, the mass (M) can also be used.
1. Water or moisture content, w or MC, is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage, of the
weight of water to the weight of solids.
𝑊𝑊
𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑥 100%
𝑊𝑠
The water content can be determined by weighing a sample of the soil and then placing it in
the oven at 110o ± 5oC until the weight of the sample remains constant. Usually, it takes about
24 hours to completely dry the soil in the oven. The weight of the dried sample is then taken.
The difference between the original weight and the dry weight of the soil is the weight of the
water in the soil originally. A common mistake is that the total weight of the soil is used in the
calculation of the water content. Note that it is the weight of the soil solids which is equal to
the dry weight of the soil.
2. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of the voids to the volume of solids. Void ratio is usually
expressed in decimal.
𝑉𝑉
𝑒=
𝑉𝑆
3. Specific volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids. This is used in relating
volumes and in the calculation of the volumetric strain.
𝑉 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑉
𝑉′ = = = 1 +𝑒
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
4. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil. Porosity is usually
expressed as a percentage.
𝑉𝑉
𝑛= 𝑥 100%
𝑉
The porosity and void ratio are related as follows:
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 ⁄𝑉
𝑆
𝑛= =
𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑉 1 + 𝑉𝑉⁄
𝑉𝑆
𝑒 𝑛
𝑛= 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 =
1 +𝑒 1 −𝑛
5. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (G S) is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to the weight of
water of equal volume.
𝑊𝑆
𝐺𝑆 =
𝑉𝑆 𝛾𝑊
The specific gravity of soil solids ranges from 2.6 to 2.8. For most problems the value can be
assumed to be equal to 2.7 without appreciable error.
It must be noted that the specific gravity of the soil solids is different from the apparent specific
gravity of the soil itself which is the ratio of the apparent mass density (or unit weight) of the
soil to the mass density (or unit weight) of water.
𝜌𝑚 𝛾𝑚
𝐺= =
𝜌𝑊 𝛾𝑊
To determine the specific gravity of soil, two types of container are used – pycnometer and
density bottle.
Pycnometer Density Bottle
The procedure is as outlined in the figure below. The use of de-aired water which is free of air
bubbles is recommended.
The specific gravity of the soil solids is
calculated as
𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝐺𝑆 =
𝑊4 − 𝑊3 + (𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
𝑊𝑆
𝐺𝑆 =
𝑊4 − 𝑊3 + 𝑊𝑆
6. Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids usually
expressed as a percentage.
𝑉𝑊
𝑆= 𝑥100%
𝑉𝑉
If S = 1 or 100%, the soil is saturated. If the soil is dry then S = 0.
A very useful relationship between S, e, w and G s can be derived as follows:
𝑉𝑊
𝑊𝑊 𝛾𝑊𝑉𝑊 𝑉𝑊 ⁄𝑉 𝑆
𝑉
𝑤= = = = = 1
𝑊𝑆 𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝑠 𝛾𝑊 𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐺 𝑆⁄ 𝑉
𝑆 𝑉𝑉 𝐺𝑆 (𝑒 )
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑆
7. Unit weight is the weight per unit volume of the soil. The term bulk or apparent unit weight,
m , to denote the actual or moist unit weight of the soil.
𝑊
𝛾𝑚 =
𝑉
𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑒
𝑊𝑆 (1 + )
𝑊𝑆 + 𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑆 + 𝑤𝑊𝑆 𝑊𝑆 + 𝐺𝑆 𝑊𝑆 𝐺𝑆
𝛾𝑚 = = = =
𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑆 (1 + 𝑒)
𝐺𝑆 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾𝑚 = ( ) 𝛾𝑊
1+ 𝑒
𝐺𝑆 + 𝑤𝐺𝑆 𝐺
𝛾𝑚 = ( ) 𝛾𝑊 = 𝑆 (1 + 𝑤)𝛾𝑊
1+ 𝑒 1 +𝑒
Special Cases:
a) Saturated unit weight (S = 1):
𝐺𝑆 + 𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ( )𝛾
1 +𝑒 𝑊
b) Dry unit weight (S = 0):

𝐺𝑆 𝛾
𝛾𝑑 = ( ) 𝛾𝑊 = 𝑚
1+ 𝑒 1+𝑤
c) Effective of buoyant unit weight is the weight of a saturated soil surrounded by water, per
unit volume of soil.
𝐺𝑆 − 1
𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑊 = ( ) 𝛾𝑊
1+𝑒
8. Relative density (DR ) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest
and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as determined by experiments.
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒
𝐷𝑅 =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where emax is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), emin is the minimum void ratio
(densest condition), and e is the current void ratio.
The relative density can also be written as
𝛾𝑑 − (𝛾𝑑 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝛾 )
𝐷𝑅 = { 𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 }
(𝛾𝑑 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝛾𝑑 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑
The maximum void ratio can be found by pouring dry sand into a mold of known volume. The
sand that fills the mold is weighed and the minimum dry unit weight is calculated from which
the emax is then computed. The minimum void ratio is determined by filling the mold with sand
and subject it to vibration for about 8 minutes at a frequency of 3600 Hz and amplitude 0.064
mm under a vertical stress of 13.8 kPa on top of the sand.
A description of the condition of the sand based on the value of the relative density can be
given as follows:
DR (%) Description DR (%) Description
0 – 20 Very loose 70 – 85 Dense
20 – 40 Loose 85 – 100 Very dense
40 – 70 Medium dense or firm
PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS:
The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained soils is linked to four distinct states: solid,
semi-solid, plastic and liquid state in order of increasing water content.
If the diagram of volume versus water content is plotted, the original liquid state is located at point
A. As the soil dries, its water content reduces and consequently its volume.
At point B, the soil becomes stiff so that it can no longer flow as a liquid. The boundary water
content at point B is called the liquid limit denoted by LL. As the soil continues to dry, there is a range
of water content at which the soil can be molded into any desired shape without rupture. The soil at this
state is said to exhibit plastic behavior – the ability to deform continuously without rupture. But if drying
continues beyond the range of water content for plastic behavior, the soil becomes semi-solid. The soil
cannot be molded now without visible cracks appearing. The water content at which the soil changes
from a plastic to a semi-solid is known as plastic limit denoted by PL. The range of water contents which
the soil deforms plastically is known as the plasticity index, PI:
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid state. At this state, no further
volume change occurs since nearly all the water in the soil has been removed. The water content at
which the soil changes from a semi-solid to solid is called the shrinkage limit, SL. The shrinkage limit is
useful for the determination of the swelling and shrinking capacity of soils. The liquid and plastic limits
are called the Atterberg limits named after their originator, Swedish soil scientist, A. Atterberg (1911).
A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits is known as the liquidity index. LI:
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼
The liquidity index is the ratio of the difference between the natural or in-situ water content and
the plastic limit to its plasticity index. The description of soil strength based on the liquidity index is
shown below:
LI < 0 Semi-solid state – high strength, brittle (sudden) fracture expected
0 < LI < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil deforms like a plastic material
LI > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms like a viscous fluid
Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular minerology, the plasticity index is
linearly related to the amount of clay fraction. He coined the term called activity (A) to describe the
importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index as follows:
𝑃𝐼
𝐴=
Clay fraction (%)
Laboratory Determination of the Liquid, Plastic and Shrinkage Limits:
Liquid Limit:
The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus developed by A.
Casagrande (1932) and the procedure for the test is called the Casagrande
Cup Method. The test is based on ASTM D 4318.
The LL is defined as the moisture content (%) required to close a 2-
mm wide groove in a soil pat a distance of 12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove in 25 blows.
Procedure:
1. Obtain about 150 g of air dry clay soil passing #40 sieve and mixed with distilled water into a
paste.
2. Place a sample in the cup of the LL device and smoothen and flatten the surface. The deepest
part should be about 8 – 10 mm.
3. Cut a groove at the middle of the soil using the grooving tool provided with the device.
4. Run the device, or turn the crank operating the cam at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and
the number of blows required to close the groove over a length of 12.5 mm is counted and
recorded.
5. Take a specimen of the soil with the closed portion for water content determination.
6. As it is difficult to achieve in a single test the required 25 blows to close the groove by 12.5
mm, several trials (at least 3) with varying moisture content is performed. The number of blows
should range about 10-20, 20-30, and 30-45.
7. Plot the number of blows (abscissa, logarithm scale) vs. moisture content (ordinate, arithmetic
scale). The best-fit straight line to the data points, called the flow line, is drawn and the water
content corresponding to 25 blows or the liquid limit is read from the line.
The slope of the flow curve is also known as the flow index, FI.
𝑤1 − 𝑤2
𝐹𝐼 = 𝑁
𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 2⁄𝑁 )
1
Plastic Limit:
The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay sample into threads and finding the water
content at which threads approximately 3 mm in diameter will just start to crumble. Two or more
determinations are made and the average water content is reported as the plastic limit.
Fall Cone Method of Determining the Liquid and Plastic Limits:

The cup method of determining the liquid limit has several shortcomings. Two of which are:
1. The tendency of soils of low plasticity to slide and to liquefy with shock in the cup
rather than to flow plastically.
2. Sensitivity to operator and to small differences in apparatus.
The fall cone test appears to offer a more accurate method of
determining both the liquid limit and the plastic limit. In this test, a cone with
an apex angle of 30o and a total mass of 80 grams is suspended above, but
just in contact with, the soil sample. The cone is permitted to fall freely for a
period of 5 seconds. The water content corresponding to a cone penetration
of 20 mm in 5 seconds defines the liquid limit.
The same preparation is similar to the cup method except for the
shape and size. As in the cup method, several trials with varying moisture
contents are performed because of the difficulty of achieving the required
liquid limit from a single test. The results are plotted as water content
(ordinate, logarithm scale) versus penetration (abscissa, logarithm scale)
and the best-fit straight line is drawn. The liquid limit is read from the line corresponding to a penetration
of 20 mm.
The plastic limit is calculated as follows: Project the best fit line backward to intersect the water
content axis at a depth of penetration of 1 mm. The water content at this depth of penetration (1 mm) is
c. The plastic limit is given as (Feng, 2000):
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑐(2) 𝑚
where m is the slope (taken as positive) of the best-fit straight line.
Shrinkage Limit:
Shrinkage limit test (ASTM D-427) is performed in the laboratory using a porcelain dish about 44
mm in diameter and about 12.7 mm high.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Fill and level the porcelain dish with a mass m 1 of wet soil and then oven-dry. The
volume V1 of the soil is equal to the volume of the porcelain dish.
2. Determine the mass m 2 of the dried soil.
3. The volume of the dry soil is determined by displacement method using mercury or by
coating the soil with wax and submerging in water.
4. The shrinkage limit is calculated as follows:
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝛾𝑤
𝑆𝐿 = ( − ∙ ) 𝑥100
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑔
The range of water content from plastic to shrinkage limit is called the shrinkage index
(SI):
𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES:
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

The Unified Soil Classification system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande in 1942
for the purpose of airfield construction during world War II. Afterwards, it was expended and revised in
cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers so that it applies
not only to airfields but also to embankments, dams, foundations, and other engineering features. In 1969
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) adopted the USCS as a standard method for
classification for engineering purposes (ASTM Test Designation D-2487).
The USCS uses the following symbols for a particular size groups: G for gravel, S for sand, M for
silt, and C for clay. These are combined with other symbols representing gradation characteristics – W
for well-graded and P for poorly graded – and plasticity characteristics – H for high plasticity and L for
low plasticity, and a symbol O which indicates the presence of organic materials. A typical classification
CH means a clay soil with high plasticity or SW for well-graded sand.
The flow charts shown provides a systematic means of classifying a soil according to the USCS.
The ASTM flow charts linking the group symbols with their group names are also shown.
Experimental results from soils tested from different parts of the world were plotted on a graph
shown below of plasticity index (ordinate) versus liquid limit (abscissa). It was found that clays, silts, and
organic soils lie in distinct regions of the graph. The “A-line” delineates the boundaries between clays
(above the line) and silts and organics soils (below the line) as shown. A second line, the “U-line”, defines
the upper limit of the correlation between plasticity index and liquid limit. If the results of a tests fall above
the U-line, the tests must be repeated.
AASHTO Soil Classification System:

AASHTO system of soil classification was developed by Hogentogler and Terzaghi in 1929 as the
Public Road Administration classification system. It has undergone several revisions, with the present
version proposed by the Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular Type
Roads of the Highway Research Board in 1945 (ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145).
The system is based on the following three soil properties:
1. Particle-size distribution (AASHTO T-11 and AASHTO T-27 test)
2. Liquid Limit (AASHTO T-89 test).
3. Plasticity Index (AASHTO T-90 test).
The key elements of the AASHTO soil classification system are as follows:
i. Grain Size:
• Gravel: Fraction passing 75mm sieve and retained on #10 (2mm) US sieve
• Sand: Fraction passing #10 sieve and retained #200 sieve
• Silt and Clay: Fraction passing #200 sieve
4. Plasticity:
• Term silty is applied when fine fractions have a PI < 10
• Term clayey is applied when fine fractions have PI > 11
There are seven major groups: A – 1 to A – 7. The major groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 represent
the coarse-grained soils. While A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 represent fine grained soils. The eight
group, A-8, represent organic soils and are identified by visual inspection.
Group Index (GI): •

To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must incorporate a
number called the Group Index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil. This index is written
in parentheses after the group or subgroup designation. The group index is given by the equation:
𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005 (𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
Where F is the % passing #200 sieves expressed as whole number
LL is the liquid limit of soil
PI is the plasticity index of soil
It may be noted that:
1. The higher the value of GI the weaker will be the soil and vice versa. Thus, quality
of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely proportional to GI.
2. A soil having GI of zero is considered as the best.
3. If the equation gives negative value for GI, consider it zero.
4. Always round off the GI to nearest whole number.
5. GI = 0 for soils of groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3.
6. For groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 use partial GI for PI only.
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01 (𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
Description of Groups & Subgroups:

• Group A-1: The typical material of this group is a well-graded mixture of stone
fragments or gravels, coarse sand, fine sand, and a non-plastic or slightly plastic soil
binder. This group also includes stone fragments, gravels, coarse sand, volcanic
cinders etc, without a well-graded binder of fine material.
o • Subgroup A-1-a: includes those materials consisting predominantly of stone
fragments or gravel, either with or without a well-graded binder of fine material.
o • Subgroup A-1-b: includes those materials consisting predominantly of coarse
sand with or without a well-graded soil binder.
• Group A-3: The typical material of this group is fine beach sand or fine desert blown
sand without silty or clayey fines or with a small amount of non-plastic silt. This group
includes also stream-deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand and limited
amounts of coarse sand and gravel.
• Group A-2: This group includes a wide variety of “granular” materials, which are at the
borderline between the materials falling in groups A-1 and A-3 and the silty-clay
materials of group A-4 through A-7. It includes any materials not more than 35% of
which passes a #200 sieve and which cannot be classified as A-1 or A-3 because of
having fines content or plasticity, or both, in excess of the limitations for those groups.
• Group A-4: The typical material of this group is a non-plastic or moderately plastic
silty soil 75% or more of which usually passes the #200 sieve. The group also includes
mixture of fine silty soil and up to 64% of sand and gravel retained on the #200 sieve.
• Group A-5: The typical material of this group is similar to that described under Group
A-4, but it may be highly elastic, as indicated by high liquid limit.
• Group A-6: The typical material of this group is a plastic clay soil 75% or more of which
usually passes the #200 sieve. The group also includes mixtures of fine clayey soil
and up to 64% of sand and gravel retained on the #200 sieve. Materials of this group
usually have high volume change between wet and dry states.
• Group A-7: The typical material of this group is similar to that described under Group
A-6, but it has the high liquid limits characteristics of the A-5 group and may be elastic
as well as subject to high volume change.
o Subgroup A-7-5: includes those materials which have moderate plasticity
indexes in relation to liquid limit and which may be highly elastic as well as
subject to considerable volume change.
o Subgroup A-7-6: includes those materials which have high plasticity indexes in
relation to liquid limit and which are subject to extremely high volume change.
• Group A-8: The typical material of this group is peat and muck soil ordinarily found in
obviously unstable, swampy areas. Characterized by: - low density - high
compressibility - high water content and - high organic matter content.
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The weight was 6 N. The clay in
its container was placed in an oven for 24 hours at 105o C. The weight reduced to a constant value
of 5 N. The weight of the container is 1 N. If G S = 2.7, determine the (a) water content, (b) void ratio,
(c) bulk unit weight, (d) dry unit weight, and (e) effective unit weight.
Given: Wm = moist weight of the soil + container = 6 N

Wd = dry weight of the soil + container = 5 N
WC = weight of the container = 1 N
Gs = 2.7
S = 1 since the soil is saturated
a) Water content
𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑚 − 𝑊𝑑 6 − 5
𝑤= = = 𝑥 100% = 25%
𝑊𝑆 𝑊𝑑 − 𝑊𝑐 5 − 1
b) Void ratio
𝑤𝐺𝑠 0.25(2.7)
𝑒= = = 0.675
𝑆 1
c) Bulk unit weight
𝐺𝑆 + 𝑆𝑒 2.70 + 1(0.675)
𝛾𝑚 = ( ) 𝛾𝑊 = (9.81) = 19.77 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 3
1 +𝑒 1 + 0.675
NOTE: Since the soil is saturated, the bulk unit weight is equal to the saturated unit weight.
d) Dry unit weight
𝐺𝑆 2.7
𝛾𝑑 = ( ) 𝛾𝑊 = (9.81) = 15.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
1 +𝑒 1 + 0.675
e) Effective unit weight

𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑊 = 19.77 − 9.81 = 9.96 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 3
2. The unit weight of a dry sandy soil is 15.5 kN/m 3. The specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.64. If the
soil becomes saturated, at the same void ratio, what would be the water content and unit weight?
SOLUTION:
Calculate the void ratio
𝐺𝑆 2.64
𝛾𝑑 = (
) 𝛾𝑊 → 15.5 = (9.81) → 𝑒 = 0.67086
1+𝑒 1 +𝑒
If the soil gets saturated, S = 1
𝑆𝑒 (1)(0.67086)
𝑤= 𝑥100% = 𝑥 100 = 25.41%
𝐺𝑠 2.64
𝐺𝑆 + 𝑒 2.64 + 0.67086
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ( ) 𝛾𝑊 = (9.81) = 19.44 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
1 +𝑒 1 + 0.67086
3. A 38 mm diameter and 76 mm long cylindrical clay sample has a mass of 174.2 g. After drying in
the oven at 105°C for 24 hours, the mass is reduced to 148.4 g. Find the dry density, bulk density,
and water content of the clay. Assuming the specific gravity of the soil grains as 2.71, find the
degree of saturation of the clay.
SOLUTION:
Dry density:
𝑀𝑑 148.4 𝑔
𝜌𝑑 = =𝜋 = 1.72 𝑔/𝑐𝑐
𝑉 (3.8) 3 (7.6) 𝑐𝑚 3
4
Bulk density:
𝑀𝑚 174.2 𝑔
𝜌𝑚 = =𝜋 = 2.02 𝑔/𝑐𝑐
𝑉 (3.8) 3 (7.6) 𝑐𝑚 3
4
Water content:
𝑀𝑊 174.2 − 148.4
𝑤=
𝑥 100% = 𝑥 100% = 17.39%
𝑀𝑠 148.4
Degree of Saturation: G s = 2.71
𝑤𝐺𝑠
𝑆=
𝑒
Where the void ratio is calculated from the dry density formula
𝐺𝑆 2.71
𝜌𝑑 = ( ) 𝜌𝑊 → 1.72 = (1) → 𝑒 = 0.574
1 +𝑒 1+𝑒
Thus
0.1739(2.71)
𝑆= 𝑥 100% = 82.08%
0.574
4. An embankment for a highway is to be constructed from a soil compacted to a dry unit weight of 18
kN/m 3. The clay has to be trucked to the site from a borrow pit. The bulk unit weight of the soil in the
borrow pit is 17 kN/m 3 and its natural water content is 5%. Calculate the volume of clay from the
borrow pit required for 1 cubic meter of embankment. Assume G s = 2.7.
SOLUTION:
Calculate the dry unit weight of the clay from the borrow pit.
𝛾𝑚 17
𝛾𝑑 = = = 16.19 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 3
1 + 𝑤 1 + 0.05
The volume of borrow pit soil required per cubic meter of embankment is
(𝛾𝑑 )𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 18
𝑉𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑖𝑡 = = = 1.11 𝑚3
(𝛾𝑑 )𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 16.19
The relationship between the volume of soil needed in the embankment and the volume of soil
required from the borrow pit can also be determined as follows:
Let V1 = volume required in the embankment
e1 = void ratio of soil in the embankment
V2 = volume of soil to be taken from the borrow pit
e2 = void ratio of soil in the borrow pit
In the embankment
𝑉𝑣1 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑠1
𝑒1 = =
𝑉𝑠1 𝑉𝑠1
𝑉1
𝑉𝑠1 =
1 + 𝑒1
Also, in the borrow pit
𝑉𝑣2 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑠2
𝑒2 = =
𝑉𝑠2 𝑉𝑠2
𝑉2
𝑉𝑠2 =
1 + 𝑒2
But the volume of soil solids required at the embankment is equal to the volume of soil
solids taken from the borrow pit, thus
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
1 + 𝑒1 1 + 𝑒2
5. An earth dam requires 1 million cubic meters of soil compacted to a void ratio of 0.8. In the vicinity of
the proposed dam, three borrow pits were identified as having suitable materials. The cost of
purchasing the soil and the cost of excavation are the same for each borrow pit. The only cost
difference is the transportation cost. The table below provides the void ratio and the transportation
cost for each borrow pit. Which is the most economical?
Transportation Cost
Borrow pit Void ratio
Php/m 3
1 1.80 35
2 0.90 50
3 1.50 37.50
SOLUTION:
For the earth dam, Vo = 1,000,000 cu.m with an eo = 0.80
Borrow pit 1:
1 + 𝑒1 1 + 1.80
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑜 = (1000000) = 1,555,555.56 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚
1 + 𝑒𝑜 1 + 0.80
𝐶1 = 𝑉1 (35) = 𝑃ℎ𝑝 54.44 𝑀
Borrow pit 2:
1 + 𝑒2 1 + 0.90
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜 = (1000000) = 1,055,555.56 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚
1 + 𝑒𝑜 1 + 0.80
𝐶2 = 𝑉2 (50) = 𝑃ℎ𝑝 52.78 𝑀
Borrow pit 3:
1 + 𝑒3 1 + 1.50
𝑉3 =
𝑉𝑜 = (1000000) = 1,388,888.89 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚
1 + 𝑒𝑜 1 + 0.80
𝐶3 = 𝑉3 (37.50) = 𝑃ℎ𝑝 52.08 𝑀
Therefore, borrow pit 3 is the most economical.
6. A liquid limit test conducted on a soil sample in the cup device gave the following results.
Number of blows, N 10 19 23 27 40
Water content, % 60.0 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2
Two determinations of the plastic limit gave water contents of 20.3% and 20.8%. Determine (a)
the liquid limit and plastic limit, (b) the plasticity index, (c) the liquidity index if the natural water
content is 27.4%, and (d) the void ratio at the liquid limit, if G s = 2.7. If the load were to be loaded
to failure, what type of failure is expected?
SOLUTION:
Plotting the number of blows (abscissa, logarithm scale) versus water content (ordinate,
arithmetic scale) and drawing the best-fit straight line:
70
60
Water content, %
50 y = -24.92l n(x) + 117.92 or

y = -57.37l og(x) + 117.92
40
30
20
10
0
10 100
Number of Blows, N
When N = 25 blows
𝐿𝐿 = −24.92 ln (25) + 117.92 = 37.7%
𝐿𝐿 = −57.37log (25) + 117.92 = 37.7%
The plastic limit is
20.3 + 20.8
𝑃𝐿 = = 20.55%
2
The plasticity index is
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 37.7 − 20.55 = 17.15%
The liquidity index is
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 27.4 − 20.55
𝐿𝐼 = = = 0.40
𝑃𝐼 17.15
Assume the soil is saturated at LL
𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 = 𝐿𝐿𝐺𝑠 = (0.377)(2.7) = 1.02
Since the 0 < LI < 1, then the soil will deform like a plastic material.
7. The results of a fall cone test are shown below:

Penetration, mm 5.5 7.8 14.8 22 32
Water content, % 39.0 44.8 52.5 60.3 67
Determine (a) the liquid limit, (b) the plastic limit, (c) the plasticity index, and (d) the liquidity index
if the natural water content is 46%.
SOLUTION:
Plotting the penetration (abscissa, logarithm scale) versus the water content (ordinate, arithmetic
scale) as shown.
100
y = 23.633x0.3011
Water content, %
10
1 10 100
Penetration, mm
The liquid limit is

𝐿𝐿 = 23.633(20) 0.3011 = 58.25%
The plastic limit is
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑐(2) 𝑚 where 𝑚 = 0.3011, 𝑐 = 23.633
𝑃𝐿 = 23.633(2) 0.3011 = 29.12%
The plasticity index is
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 58.25 − 29.12 = 29.13%
The liquidity index is
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 46 − 29.12
𝐿𝐼 = = = 0.58
𝑃𝐼 29.13
8. Classify the following soils using the given grain size distribution and Atterberg limits data.
a. 68% retained on 4.75 mm(#4) sieve; 11% passed 0.075 mm (#200) sieve; fines showed quick
dilatancy; Cu = 34 and Cc = 0.83
b. 77% passed 4.75 mm sieve; 20% passed 0.075 mm sieve; fines have high dry strength
c. 42% passed 4.75 mm sieve; 4% passed 0.075 mm sieve; Cu = 18, Cc = 2.1
d. 14% retained on 4.75 mm sieve; 60% passed 0.075 mm sieve; LL = 65%, PL = 35%
Solution:
a. % gravel = 68 (retained on #4 sieve)
% fines = 11 (passing #200 sieve)
% sands = 100 – 68 – 11 = 21%
Since % fine < 50, the soil is coarse-grained. Follow the flow chart for coarse-grained soils.
% gravel > percent sand, thus it is gravel (G).
The fines fraction is between 5% to 12% and C u > 4 but Cc does not satisfy the given condition.
Thus, the soil is GP – GM (Poorly graded gravel with silt and sand).
b. % gravel = 100 – 77 = 23;
% fines = 20
% sands = 100 – 23 – 20 = 57;
Since % fines < 50, the soil coarse-grained. Follow the flow chart for coarse grained soils.
% gravel < % sand, thus it is sand (S).
% fines > 12% and fines have high dry strength
Thus, the soil is SC (Clayey gravelly sands or clayey sand with gravel).
c. % gravel = 100 – 42 = 58;
% fines = 4
% sands = 100 – 58 – 4 = 38;
Since % fine < 50, the soil coarse-grained. Follow the flow chart for coarse grained soils.
% gravel > % sand, thus it is gravel (G).
The % fines < 5% and Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3. The soil is well-graded.
Thus, the soil is GW (well-graded gravel w/ sand).
d. % gravel = 14
% fines = 60
% sands = 100 – 14 – 60 = 26
Since % fines > 50%, the soil is fine-grained. Follow the flow chart for fine-grained soils.
LL > 50, the soil has high plasticity (H).
Since the plot of PI vs. LL lies below the A-line, the soil is MH (sandy elastic silt).
9. Classify Soils A and B according to the AASHTO system. Which soil is better for a subgrade?
SOLUTION:
SOIL A:
% passing #200 > 35, therefore the soil is fine-grained. Use the table for fine-grained soil. By
process of elimination, go from the left column towards the right and check the conditions against the
properties of the given soil. The first column where all the conditions are satisfied will the classification
of the soil.
Soil A is A – 4 and computing the GI
𝐺𝐼 = (88 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(26 − 40)] + 0.01 (88 − 15)(8 − 10) = 5.4~5
The soil classification is A – 4 (5).
SOIL B:
% passing #200 < 35, therefore, the soil is coarse-grained. Use the table for coarse-grained soils
using the same process as described above. Soil B is A – 1 – b (0).
Soil B is a better quality subgrade since the GI is lower.
VII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)
VIII. ASSIGNMENT
PS 3 - Physical Soil States and Soil Classification

A. Answer the following questions.
1. What are the physical parameters that characterize a soil?
2. What are some of the basic tests required to characterize soils?
3. What are the Atterberg limits?
4. What are the effects of water on the unit weight of the soil?
B. Solve the following problems.

1. A 40 mm diameter and 75 mm long cylindrical clay sample has a mass of 180.2 g. After drying in
the oven at 105°C for 24 hours, the mass is reduced to 148.4 g. Find the dry density, bulk density,
and water content of the clay.
2. Soil excavated from a borrow area is being used to construct an embankment. The void ratio of
the in situ soil at the borrow area is 1.4, and it is required that the soil in the embankment be
compacted to a void ratio of 0.80. With 500,000 m 3 of soil removed from the borrow area, how
many cubic meters of embankment can be made?
3. A 500 m long section of a 15 m wide canal is being deepened 1.5 m by means of a dredge. The
effluent from the dredge has a unit weight of 13.6 kN/m 3. The soil at the bottom of the canal has
an in situ unit weight of 18.7 kN/m 3. The specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.72. If the effluent is
being pumped at a rate of 500 L per minute, how many operational hours will be required to
complete the dredge work?
4. The undisturbed soil at a borrow pit has a bulk unit weight of 19.1 kN/m3 and water content of
8.5%. The soil from this borrow will be used to construct a compacted fill with a finished volume
of 45,000 m 3. The soil is excavated by machinery and placed in trucks, each with a capacity of
5.0 m 3. When loaded to the full capacity, each load of soil weighs 70 kN. In the construction
process, the trucks dump the soil at the site, then the soil is spread and broken up. Water is then
sprinkled to bring the water content to 15%. Finally, the soil is compacted to a dry unit weight of
17.1 kN/m 3.
a. Assuming each load is to the full capacity, how many truckloads are required to construct the
fill?
b. What would be the volume of the pit in the borrow area?
c. How many liters of water should be added to a truckload?
5. An irregularly shaped, undisturbed soil lump has a mass of 4100 g. To measure the volume, it
was required to thinly coat the sample with wax (the mass and volume of which can be neglected)
and weigh it submerged in water when suspended by a string. The submerged mass of the sample
is 1995 g. Later, the water content of the sample and the specific gravity of the soil grains were
determined to be 12.4% and 2.75 respectively. Determine the void ratio and the degree of
saturation of the sample.
6. The results of a particle size analysis of a soil are given in the following table. No Atterberg limit
tests were conducted.
Sieve 9.53 mm 4 10 20 40 100 200
no. (3/8”)
% finer 100 89.8 70.2 62.5 49.8 28.6 4.1
(a) Would you have conducted Atterberg limit tests on this soil? Justify your answer.
(b) Classify the soil according to USCS, and AASHTO.
(c) Is this soil a good foundation material? Justify your answer.
7. The results of a particle size analysis of a soil are given in the following table. Atterberg limit tests
gave LL = 62% and PL = 38%. The clay content is 37%.
Sieve 9.53 mm 4 10 20 40 100 200
no. (3/8”)
% finer 100 90.8 84.4 77.5 71.8 65.6 62.8
(a) Classify the soil according to USCS and AASHTO.
(b) Rate this soil as a subgrade for a highway.
IX. REFERENCES
Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Braja M. Das
Soil Mechanics and Foundations by Muni Budhu

IM3 - Physical Soil Parameters

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Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEGREE PROGRAM BS in Civil COURSE NO. Geotech 1

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

II. LESSON TITLE

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

Soil is composed of three phases – solids,

The physical properties of soils are influenced by the relative

Pycnometer Density Bottle

b) Dry unit weight (S = 0):

PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS:

Laboratory Determination of the Liquid, Plastic and Shrinkage Limits:

Fall Cone Method of Determining the Liquid and Plastic Limits:

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES:

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

AASHTO Soil Classification System:

Group Index (GI): •

Description of Groups & Subgroups:

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Given: Wm = moist weight of the soil + container = 6 N

e) Effective unit weight

50 y = -24.92l n(x) + 117.92 or

7. The results of a fall cone test are shown below:

The liquid limit is

Soil B is a better quality subgrade since the GI is lower.

PS 3 - Physical Soil States and Soil Classification

B. Solve the following problems.

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