Within the third category, some morally good acts are
strictly commanded or required as our moral duties.
St. Thomas defines moral acts as the human acts of which
man is the master, i.e. the deliberate human acts of the
will or endowed with willfulness.
The objective foundation of morality is the ordination to
God as the last end. Every human act has an ordination
to God, whereby it is morally right if it agrees with the
will of God, or morally wrong if it disagrees. But what is
the subjective foundation of morality? What makes the
act moral subjectively speaking, i.e. from the point of
view of the subject who performs it? This subject is the
person: what does the person need in order to be
responsible for his act, and so make the act moral? He
must be free or master of his act: the act must be
deliberate or willful.
Freedom, then, is the subjective foundation of morality.
Without freedom, the human act is not moral, even
though, objectively speaking, it may be related to the
moral law: whatever diminishes the freedom or
willfulness of human acts, diminishes also their moral
value.
The intelligence specifies what should be done, but it is
the will that moves to action. In this sense, man should
want the good always: he should be ordained to the good
through the will. If he freely withdraws from the good,
he sins. Therefore, the decisive factor is the will. That is
why the will is regarded as the faculty of man closest to
his own self. Each man must be ordain himself, by
himself, to the end. This consists essentially in a
conversion to God, to be sustained, or remade if it has
been lost.
What are the characteristics of the voluntary act? First of
all, it has to be conscious, i.e. with full advertence. Can
physical violence destroy the willfulness of an act? To
answer this, we have to distinguish two types of acts of
the will.
The three kinds of human acts:
Morally indifferent act
Morally evil act
Morally good act
Other moral acts are not commanded but commended,
as going beyond the call of duty, such as martyrdom,
heroic sacrifice, and turning the other cheek. These are
the evangelical counsels, summarized in Christ’s
Beatitudes (Mt. 5). They go beyond the Ten
Commandments. One does not sin against thee
Commandments if one is less that heroically saintly in
following these higher counsels, or ideals. We should not
feel guilty about not being heroes all the time. But if we
never aim higher than the minimum, it is very unlikely
that we will attain even the minimum. And, above all, we
will miss the joy and drama and beauty of morality- the
Beatitude.
Elicited acts: flowing directly from the will; also called
decisions.
Commanded acts: performed by other faculties of man
but at the command of the will.
Physical violence can only interfere with the second type
of acts. No force whatever can overcome the will itself in
its decision, unless the will consents.
Can ignorance diminish the willfulness of an act? Yes, as
long as the ignorance is not willed in itself: one may
choose not to find out about something so as to avoid
responsibility, in which case the ignorance is willful.
Can passions or emotions affect the morality of our
actions? They undoubtedly have an influence, but to
what extend can they act on the will? It depends on the
will itself, since man sis free. Since passions are rooted in
the bodily organs, man, with his will, can act of his senses
so as to thereby restrain his passions, for example by
restraining his imagination or his memory.
On the other hand, passions can increase both the
goodness and the malice of actions if the will channels
them in that direction, whether preceding or
accompanying the act of the will itself. For example, to
love God with passion or passionately increases the
consequent merit, and so does to hate sin passionately.
The Three Moral Determinants
The morality of human acts depends on;
The object chosen
The end in view or the intention
The circumstances (CCC 1750)

That is, (a) the act itself, (b) the motive, and (c) the
situation
The object chosen is a good toward which the will
deliberately directs itself. It is the matter of a human act.
(CCC 1751)
Matter here does not mean merely physical matter, like
giving a man money or fighting a war, but the moral raw
material or content of the act, what the act objectively is
in itself. For instance: is this money bribery or repayment
of a debt? Is this war aggression or defense?
In contrast to the object, the intention resides in the
acting subject/person. (CCC 1752
But although personal intentions are subjective, they can
be good or evil just as objective acts can be good or evil.
An objectively good act can have a good or a bad
intention. For instance, giving alms is a good act;
relieving another’s suffering is a good intention for it, but
showing off is not. An objectively evil act can also have a
good or bad intention. For instance, a robbing a rich man
is an evil act; the intention of harming the rich man a bad
intention, and the motive of helping the poor with the
money is a good intention.
Any one of three elements alone is enough to
make an act evil, but one alone is not enough to
make it good, because for any human work to be good,
each of its essential elements must be good. For
instance, a good building can be spoiled by a bad
foundation, bad walls, or bad electrical wiring. In a
story, a good feature (for example, a good plot) is not
enough to make a good story if the story lacks good
characterization or a good theme. So with a human
act. The act itself and the motive and the circumstances
must all be right. You must (a) do the right thing (b)
for the right reason (c) in the right way.
Each of the three common oversimplified
moralities focuses on only one of the three factors and
ignores the other two. Legalism focuses only on the
objective act itself, as specified by the moral law.
Subjectivism focuses only on the subjective intention.
And Situation ethics or moral relativism is more
complete, realistic, and balanced.

But a good intention does not excuse an evil act, any

more than a good act excuses an evil intention. This is
why mercy killing is wrong: though its intention is mercy
(to relieve pain), it is an act of killing. A good intention
does not make behavior that is intrinsically disordered,
such as lying or calumny, good or just. The end does not
justify the means (CCC 1753). If Hitler had instigated the
holocaust to improve the human race and not to vent his
hate and prove his power, it would still have been a
terribly evil deed.

The third element is the situation, or the circumstances.

The circumstances, including the consequences, are
secondary elements of a moral act. They contribute to
increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evil of
human acts (for example, the amount of a theft). They
can also diminish or increase the agent’s responsibility
(such as acting out of a fear of death). Circumstances of
themselves… can make neither good nor right an action
that is in itself evil (CCC 1754). They can, however, do the
reverse: they can make an act that is good in itself evil:
for example, making love to your spouse when it is
medically dangerous, or giving sugar candy to a diabetic.

Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the Kingdom
of Heaven.
Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be
comforted.
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for
righteousness, for they shall be satisfied.
Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.
Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.
Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called
sons of God.
Blessed are those who are persecuted for
righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven
Blessed are you when men revile you and persecute you
and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my
account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in
Heaven, for so men persecuted the prophets who were
before you. (Mt. 5:3-12).
On this road to life, the Ten Commandments summarizes
a kind of minimum, or what is necessary, and the
Beatitudes summarizes a kind of maximum, or what is
sufficient. The beatitudes describe the perfection of
charity and supreme happiness. Beatitude is
supernatural in three ways: It is beyond human nature,
beyond human reason, and beyond human power.
Beatitude makes us partakers of the divine nature and of
eternal life. With beatitude, man enters into the glory of
Christ (Rom. 8:18) and the joy of the Trinitarian life (CCC
1721). Such beatitude surpasses the understanding and
powers of man. It comes from an entirely free gift of God:
whence it is called supernatural (CCC 1722).
This supernatural end gives Catholic morality a greater
hope and a greater joy than any other. True morality is a
prescription for joy-in Heaven and also on the way to
Heaven. The Church will not canonize a saint without
evidence of heroic, supernatural joy in his life as well as
heroic virtue. It is secular, godless morality that is joyless
and dull. Catholic morality is something more full of joy
than the joy of sex. It could rightly be called the joy of
love.
Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom
of heaven."
"Poor in spirit" means to be humble. Humility is the
realization that all your gifts and blessings come from the
grace of God. To have poverty of spirit means to be
completely empty and open to the Word of God. When
we are an empty cup and devoid of pride, we are humble.
Humility brings an openness and an inner peace, allowing
one to do the will of God. He who humbles himself is able
to accept our frail nature, to repent, and to allow the
grace of God to lead us to Conversion.
It is pride, the opposite of humility, that brings misery.
For pride brings anger and the seeking of revenge,
especially when one is offended. If every man were
humble and poor in spirit, there would be no war!
"Blessed are they who mourn, for they shall be
comforted."
If we are humble and appreciate that all of our gifts and
blessings come from God, we grow in love and gratitude
for Jesus Christ our Savior. But this can only produce
mourning and regret over our own sins and the sins of
this world, for we have hurt the one who has been so
good to us. One also mourns for the suffering of others.
St. Gregory describes another reason to mourn: the more
one ascends in meditation of Divine Truth, Beauty, and
Goodness, and then realize the poverty of human nature,
man can only be left in sorrow. When one contemplates
that we were made in the image and likeness of God and
lived in Paradise, the Garden of Eden, and compare that
to our present state after the Fall, one can only mourn
our present condition. But the sentence continues
that they shall be comforted, by the Comforter, the Holy
Spirit, and hopefully one day in the Kingdom of Heaven.
Mourning in this context is called a blessing, because
mourning our fallen nature creates in us a desire to
improve ourselves and to do what is right!
"Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth."
St. Gregory of Nyssa taught that the Beatitudes build one
upon another. A humble person becomes meek, or
becomes gentle and kind, and exhibits a docility of spirit,
even in the face of adversity and hardship. A person that
is meek is one that exhibits self-control. St. Augustine
advises us to be meek in the face of the Lord, and not
resist but be obedient to him. Obedience and submission
to the will of God are certainly not in vogue these days,
but they will bring one peace in this world and in the
next.
"Blessed are they who hunger and thirst for
righteousness, for they shall be satisfied."
A continuous desire for justice and moral perfection will
lead one to a fulfillment of that desire - a transition and
conversion to holiness. This is true for all the virtues - if
you hunger and thirst for temperance, you will head
towards the goal you have in mind. St. Augustine called
the Beatitudes the ideal for every Christian life! In his
discourse on the Lord's Sermon on the Mount, he noted
the correspondence of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit
and their necessity in fulfilling the Beatitudes. For
example, one must have the gift of fortitude so one may
be courageous in seeking justice.
"Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy."
Mercy is the loving disposition towards those who suffer
distress. Love, compassion, and forgiveness towards
one's neighbor will bring peace in your relationships. We
say in the Lord's Prayer: Forgive us our trespasses, as we
forgive those who trespass against us. As we are merciful
to others, so our Heavenly Father will be merciful with
us! Jesus reminds us that whatever "you did to the least
of my brethren, you did it to me (Matthew 25:31-46)."
St. Paul calls for the obedience of faith in the beginning
and end of his Letter to the Romans (1:5, 16:25-27). The
following are ways to be merciful to your neighbor as
well as to be obedient in faith to Christ our Savior.
The Corporal Works of Mercy
1 Feed the Hungry
2 Give drink to the thirsty
3 Clothe the naked
4 Shelter the homeless
5 Comfort the imprisoned
6 Visit the sick
7 Bury the dead
The Spiritual Works of Mercy
1 Admonish sinners
2 Instruct the uninformed
3 Counsel the doubtful
4 Comfort the sorrowful
5 Be patient with those in error
6 Forgive offenses
7 Pray for the living and the dead
"Blessed are the pure of heart, for they shall see God."
Moses (Exodus 33:20), John (1:18), and Paul (1Timothy
6:16) all say that no one can see God here on earth! But
Jesus says the pure of heart shall see God! To be pure of
heart means to be free of all selfish intentions and self-
seeking desires. What a beautiful goal! How many times
have any of us performed an act perfectly free of any
personal gain? Such an act is pure love. An act of pure
and selfless giving brings happiness to all.
"Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called
children of God."
Peacemakers not only live peaceful lives but also try to
bring peace and friendship to others, and to preserve
peace between God and man. St. Gregory of Nyssa calls
a peacemaker a man who brings peace to another; but
one cannot give another what one does not possess
oneself. Hence the Lord wants you first to be yourself
filled with the blessings of peace and then to
communicate it to those who have need of it. By
imitating God's love of man, the peacemakers become
children of God.
"Blessed are they who are persecuted for the sake of
righteousness, for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven."
Jesus said many times that those who follow Him will be
persecuted. "If they persecute me, they will persecute
you" (John 15:20-21). Stephen, Peter and Paul, nearly all
of the Apostles, and many Christians in the Roman era
suffered martyrdom. Oppressive governments and
endless conflicts in the last one hundred years, such as
World Wars I and II, and the Middle East Wars in Iraq,
Egypt, and Syria have seen their share of martyrs, such as
Maximilian Kolbe, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Latin American
martyrs, and Middle East Christians. The Central
American Martyrs include the 38 recognized martyrs of
La Cristiada, the Cristero War from 1926 to 1929, when
the Mexican government persecuted priests of the
Catholic Church, such as St. Christopher Magallanes, St.
ToribioRomo Gonzalez, and the 14 year old martyr
Blessed Jose Luis Sanchez del Rio. St. Maximilian Kolbe
offered his life in place of a stranger at the Auschwitz
death camps on August 14, 1941. Dietrich Bonhoeffer
was a Lutheran pastor who was hung on April 9, 1945 for
condemning the leadership of Hitler in Nazi Germany.
Another Central American martyr was Oscar Romero,
Archbishop of San Salvador, who was assassinated while
saying Mass at Divine Providence Hospital on March 24,
1980 for speaking out against government human rights
violations. Middle Eastern Christians have suffered
severe persecution since the Iraq War. At least 58
Christians were slaughtered at Sunday Mass at Our Lady
of Salvation SyriacEastern Catholic Church in Baghdad on
October 31, 2010. The present turmoil in Syria has left
500,000 Christian refugees displaced from their homes,
having fled to Jordan, Lebanon, and other Middle Eastern
countries. But the Lord promised those that suffer for his
sake will be rewarded with the Kingdom of Heaven!
The importance of the beatitudes.
Those who yearn for the Kingdom of God look to Jesus’
list of priorities: the Beatitudes.
From Abraham on, God made promises to his people.
Jesus takes them up, extends their application to
Heaven, and makes them the program for his own life:
the Son of God becomes poor so as to share our poverty;
he rejoices with those who rejoice and weeps with those
who weep (Rom. 12:15); he employs no violence but
rather turns the other cheek (Mt. 5:39); he has mercy,
makes peace, and thereby shows us the sure way to
Heaven.
Happiness

God has placed in our hearts such an infinite desire for

happiness that nothing can satisfy it but God himself. All
earthly fulfillment gives us only a foretaste of eternal
happiness. Above and beyond that, we should be drawn
to God.

“God wants us to be happy. But where the source of this

hope lies? It lies in a communion with God, who lives in
the depths of the soul of every man” (Brother Roger
Schultz).

“Happiness is not in us, nor happiness outside of us.

Happiness is in God alone. And if we have found him,
then it is everywhere” (Blaise Paschal).

CONSCIENCE
What is conscience?
Conscience is our morality-detector.
“Deep within his cosncience man discovers a law which
he has not laid upon himself but which he must obey...
calling him to love and to do what is good and to avoid
evil” (GS 16).
Conscience is the inner voice in a man that moves him to
do good under any circumstances and to avoid evil by all
means. At the same time, it is the ability to distinguish
the one from the other. In the conscience God speaks to
man. (CCC, 1776-1779)
Conscience is compared with an inner voice in which God
manifest himself in a man. God is the one who becomes
apparent in the conscience. When we say, i cannot
reconcile that with my conscience, this means for
Christian, I cannot do that in the sight of my Creator.
Many people have gone to jail or been executed because
they were true to their conscience.
“Anything that done against conscience is a sin”. St.
Thomas Aquinas
“To do violence to people’s conscience means to harm
them seriously, to deal extremely painful blow to their
dignity. In a certain sense it is worse than killing them”.
John XXIII, the one who convoke the 2nd Vatican Council.
Three functions of conscience.
Conscience gives us three things:
1. An awareness of good and evil
2. A desire of good and evil
3. A feeling of joy and peace and rightness at having
done good and of unease and guilt at having
done evil.
These three functions of conscience correspond to the
three parts of the soul, (a) the mind, or intellect, or
reason, (b) the will, and (c) the emotions or feelings.
Conscience is a judgment of reason “whereby the human
person recognizes the moral quality of a concrete act
that he is going to perform, is in the process of
performing, or has already completed (CCC, 1778).
Moral conscience... enjoins him at the appropriate
moment to do good and to avoid evil. (CCC, 1777).
Conscience is also an intuitive feeling approving those
that are good and denouncing those that are evil. (CCC,
1777).
Can someone be compelled to do something that is
against his conscience?
No one may be compelled to act against his conscience,
provided he acts within the limits of the common good
(CCC, 1780-1782).
Anyone who overlooks the conscience of a person
ignores it and uses coercion, violates that person’s
dignity. Practically nothing else makes man more human
than the gift of being able personally to distinguish good
from evil and to choose between them. This is so even if
the decision, seen in an objective light, is wrong. Unless
man’s conscience has been incorrrectly formed, the
inner voice speaks in agreement with what is generally
reasonable, just, and good in God’s sight.
Types of conscience.
1. Certain
2. Doubtful
3. Righteous
4. Erroneous
Is someone who in good conscience acts wrongly guilty
in God’s sight?
No. If a person has thoroughly examined himself and
arrived at a certain judgment, he must in any case follow
his inner voice, even at the risk of doing something
wrong.(CCC, 1790-1794, 1801-1802)
God does not blame us for the objective harm that
results from a wrong judgment of conscience, provided
that we ourselves are not responsible for having a badly
formed conscience. While it is quite true that ultimately
one must follow ones conscience, it must likewise be
kept in mind that people have swindled, murdered,
tortured, and betrayed others on the basis of what they
wrongly suppose to be their conscience.
Certain errors about conscience.
1. Conscience is not just a feeling.
 2. Conscience is not infallible.

3. Conscience is not passive.

Moral Principles guiding conscience

• Only the true and certain conscience is the right

proximate rule of morality.

• Man has the obligation, therefore, to make sure

his conscience is “true”, i.e. sufficiently formed
and informed.

• Man has the obligation to follow not only his true

conscience, but also his erroneous conscience if
it is invincibly erroneous.

• It is not right to follow a culpably erroneous

conscience or a doubtful conscience.

• Doubts can be resolved by means of sincerity,

upright intention, the desire to seek the will of
God in everything, and a sense of responsibility
in consulting the right person.

Can a person form his conscience?

Yes, in fact he must do that. The conscience, which is

innate to every person endowed with reason, can be
misled and deadened. That is why it must be formed into
an increasingly fine-tuned instrument for acting rightly.
(CCC, 1783-1788, 1799-1800)

The first school of conscience is self-criticism. We have

the tendency to judge things to our own advantage. The
second school of conscience is orientation to the good
actions of others. The correct formation of conscience
leads man into the freedom to do what has been
correctly identified as good. With the help of the Holy
Spirit and Scripture, the Church over her long history has
accumulated a vast knowledge about right action; it is
part of her mission to instruct people and also to give
them directions.

Conscience must be informed and moral judgment

enlightened. A well-formed conscience is upright and
truthful. It formulates its judgment according to reason,
in conformity to the true good willed by the wisdom of
the Creator.

The formation of the conscience is life-long task.

In the formation of conscience, the word of God is the

light of our path.
Cardinal virtues
What is meant by a “Virtue”?
Virtue (from Latin vis- strength) empowers the will to act
effectively. A virtue is an interior disposition, a positive
habit, a passion that has been placed at the service of the
good (1803-1833). . It is a particular type of quality which
inclines the will to good acts (its opposite is called “vice”).
“You, therefore, must be perfect, as your heavenly
Father is perfect” (Mt. 5:48). That means we must
change on our way to God. By our human abilities we can
do that only in fits and starts. With his grace God
supports the human virtues and gives us, above and
beyond that, the so-called supernatural virtues, which
help us to come closer to God and live more securely in
his light.
Why do we have to work to form our character?
We must work at forming our character so that we can
freely, joyfully, and easily accomplish what is good. A
firm faith in God, in the first place, helps us to do this, but
also the practice of the virtues, which means developing
within ourselves, with God’s help, firm dispositions, not
giving ourselves over to disorderly passions, and
directing our faculties of intellect and will more and more
consistently toward the good. (CCC, 1804-1805, 1810-
1811, 1834, 1839)
The most important virtues are: prudence, justice,
fortitude, temperance. These are called the “cardinal
virtues” (from Latin cardo=hinge, or from
cardinalis=principal).
“To live well is nothing other than to love God with all
one’s heart, with all one’s soul, and with all one’s efforts;
from this it comes about that love is kept whole and
uncorrupted (through temperance). No misfortune can
disturb it (and this is fortitude). It obeys only God (and
this is justice) and is careful in discerning things, so as not
to be surprised by deceit or trickery (and this prudence).”
(St. Augustine)
The four cardinal virtues are natural. That is, (a) they are
known by natural human reason; (b) their origin is
human nature; (c) their goal is the perfecting of human
character and life
What is prudence?
It is defined as the intellectual virtue which rightly directs
particular human acts, through rectitude of the appetite,
toward a good end. Emotional well-being, we will argue,
comes about through a certain structuring of the entire
network of human emotions, one that results from a
proper disposing of the emotions by the virtues. If we are
correct, then prudence is the mother of emotional
health. And if virtue is the secret to looking beautiful,
then prudence is, in many ways, the mother of beautiful
character. For it is prudence that determines the mean
of reason in all human actions and situations.
Prudence, however, is not merely an intellectual virtue;
it is also a moral virtue. A moral virtue is a habit that
makes its possessor good. One may be brilliant and
learned without being morally good, but it is not possible
to be prudent and not morally good. The prudent man is
one who does the good, as opposed to one who
merely knows the good. There are many moral
philosophers and theologians around, but prudent
persons are probably not as common. It is much easier
to talk about virtue — including prudence — than it is to
actually be virtuous. And one who does not behave well
cannot be said to be prudent, even though he happens
to be very learned.
Prudence is the application of universal principles to
particular situations, and so an understanding of
universal moral principles is absolutely necessary. But
since prudence deals in particulars, in the here and now
of real situations, a number of other intellectual qualities
are also necessary if one is to choose rightly, qualities
that one does not necessarily acquire in a classroom
setting. St. Thomas refers to these as integral parts of
prudence, without which there is no prudence, just as
there is no house without a roof, walls, and a foundation
Integral Parts of Prudence
1. Understanding of First Principles (Human Goods)
Prudence begins with an understanding of the first
principles of practical reason, which St. Thomas
calls synderesis. Synderesis is a natural habit by which
we are inclined to a number of ends. Now the good is
the object of desire. Hence, the objects of these
inclinations are goods. And since these goods are not
outside the human person, but are aspects of the human
person, they are called human goods.
These intelligible human goods include human life, the
knowledge of truth, the intellectual apprehension and
enjoyment of beauty, leisure (play and art), sociability,
religion, integrity, and marriage.
These are the primary principles of practical
reason. They are the starting points of human action, the
motivating principles behind every genuinely human
action that we choose to perform. Now the very first
principle of morality is self-evident and is presupposed in
every human action. That principle is: good is to be done,
evil is to be avoided.
The secondary precepts derived from the first principle
of morality:
• One ought not to willingly destroy an instance of
an intelligible human good for the sake of some
other intelligible or sensible good.
• One ought not to treat another human person as
a means to an end.
• One ought not to treat certain others with a
preference based purely on feeling, as well as to
treat others in a way that fails to respect their
status as equal in dignity to oneself.
• One ought not to willingly act alone and
individualistically for human goods.
• One ought not to act purely on the basis of
emotion, either on the basis of fear, aversion,
hostility, or desire.
If prudence is the proper application of universal
principles to particular situations, then prudence
demands that one continue to ponder the implications of
the first principle of morality and the secondary precepts
of natural law.
2. Memory
Prudence requires a sensitivity and attunement to the
here and now of the real world of real people. It requires
a great deal of experience. Memory is more an ability to
learn from experience. And so it involves an openness to
reality, a willingness to allow oneself to be measured
by what is real.
3. Docility
Those who lack memory will more than likely
lack docility, another integral part of
prudence. St. Thomas writes:
…prudence is concerned with particular matters of
action, and since such matters are of infinite variety, no
one man can consider them all sufficiently; nor can this
be done quickly, for it requires length of time. Hence in
matters of prudence man stands in very great need of
being taught by others, especially by old folk who have
acquired a sane understanding of the ends in practical
matters. (ST. II-II. 49, 3)
Docility is open-mindedness, and so it requires a
recognition of one’s own limitations and ready
acceptance of those limits.
4. Shrewdness (solertia)
Shrewdness is the ability to quickly size up a situation on
one’s own, and so it involves the ability to pick up small
clues and run with them. The shrewd are highly intuitive,
subtle and discreet. A shrewd teacher, for example, will
pick up subtle clues that reveal just who it is he is dealing
with in his classroom and what the needs of his students
really are, which allow him to determine quickly the
approach best suited to their particular way of
learning. The shrewd are also able to detect evil behind
a mask of goodness, so as to be able to plan accordingly.
But just as memory and docility presuppose a good will
(right appetite), so too does shrewdness. It can be the
case that the inability to see is rooted in a will not to see;
for sometimes people would rather not think about what
the clues could mean for fear of what they might
discover about someone, which in turn will affect their
security in some way. As the old saying goes: “There are
none so blind as those who will not see”. On the other
hand, it is possible that a person wants to see evil where
there really is none. This is not shrewdness, but
suspicion, and it is often rooted in a spirit of pride.
5. Reasoning
Once a person sizes up a particular situation, he needs to
be able to investigate and compare alternative
possibilities and to reason well from premises to
conclusions. He will need to be able to reason about
what needs to be done, that is, what the best alternative
or option is that will realize the right end. Prudence thus
presupposes a knowledge of the basics of logical
reasoning. If a person cannot see through the most
common logical fallacies, he will unlikely be able to
consistently make prudent decisions.
6. Foresight
Foresight is the principal part of prudence, for the name
itself (prudence) is derived from the Latin providential,
which means “foresight”. Foresight
involves rightly ordering human acts to the right
end. This of course presupposes that the person is
ordered to the right end, which is the possession of God
through knowledge and love. The greater his love for
God, that is, the greater his charity, the greater will be his
foresight: “Blessed are the pure in heart; for they shall
see God” (Mt. 5, 8). The more a person is familiar with
the city towards which he directs his steps, the more able
he is to see which roads lead to that end and which roads
lead away. The more a person is familiar with God, the
more readily able he is to discern behaviour inconsistent
with that friendship.
7. Circumspection
It is possible that acts good in themselves and suitable to
the end may become unsuitable in virtue of new
circumstances. Circumspection is the ability to take into
account all relevant circumstances. Showing affection to
your spouse through a kiss is good in itself, but it might
be unsuitable in certain circumstances, such as a funeral
or in a public place. Telling certain jokes might be
appropriate in one setting, but inappropriate in
another. Circumspection is the ability to discern which is
which. This too, however, presupposes right appetite. A
person lacking proper restraint (temperance) will lack
thoughtfulness and the ability to consider how the
people around him might be made to feel should he take
a certain course of action. The lustful, for example, lack
counsel and tend to act recklessly. An egoist is also less
focused on others and more on himself, and so he too
tends to lack proper circumspection.
8. Caution
Good choices can often generate bad effects. To
choose not to act simply because bad
consequences will likely ensue is contrary to
prudence. But caution takes care to avoid those
evils that are likely to result from a good act that
we contemplate doing. For example, a priest
who is about to speak out publicly against a piece
of unjust legislation might anticipate offending
members of his congregation. Out of cowardice
or an inordinate love of comfort, he might
choose not to say anything at all and thus risk
harming others through his silence. A prudent
priest, on the other hand, will speak out when
not doing so will harm others, yet caution will
move him to prepare his congregation with a
thorough preamble so as to minimize the
chances of misunderstanding. One must never
do evil that good may come of it, but one may at
times permit evil on condition that the action
one is performing is good or indifferent, that one
does not will or intend the evil effect, and that
the good effects of one’s action are sufficiently
desirable to compensate for the allowing of the
evil effect.
The Potential Parts of Prudence
(a) Good Counsel (euboulia)
Counsel is research into the various means to the end
and the circumstances. A person not entirely pure of
heart, that is, whose charity is very defective, will have
more options before him, poorer options that
nevertheless have some appeal. The better the
character, the less will these poorer options present
themselves; for they will drop out of the picture very
quickly. This can be compared to a person who is
physically healthy and has good eating habits and one
who is unhealthy with poor habits. A typical menu will
be more appealing to the one with poor eating habits,
while the former deliberates over a few options, the
healthier options on the menu. We’ve all heard the
expression, “Where there is a will, there is a way”. Good
counsel, resulting from a greater hope in and love for
God, generates the energy and imagination needed to
discover the best alternative to achieve the best end.
(b) Good Judgment (synesis and gnome)
Judgment is an assent to good and suitable
means. Synesis is good common sense in making
judgments about what to do and what not to do in
ordinary matters. It is possible to take good counsel
without having good sense so as to judge well, but to
judge well on what to do or not to do in the here and now
requires a right mind, that is, an understanding of first
principles and precepts and indirectly a just will and well
disposed appetites (both concupiscible and irascible
appetites). Without these, one’s ideas will likely be
distorted, and one’s judgment regarding the best means
will be defective; for as Aristotle points out, as a person
is (character), so does he sees.
Gnome refers to the ability to discern and apply higher
laws to matters that fall outside the scope of the more
common or lower rules that typically guide human
action. It involves good judgment regarding exceptions
to ordinary rules. For example, students ordinarily are
not permitted to play walkmans in a classroom, but a
possible exception to the rule might be the case of a
student with a serious learning disability and who is
highly sensitive to the slightest distractions. One may be
able to think of similar examples on a more judicial level.
(c) Command
Command, which is the direct application of good
counsel and judgment, is the principal act of prudence;
for it cannot be said that one who takes good counsel
and judges well, but fails to act, is a prudent man.
Vices Contrary to Prudence (Impetuosity,
Thoughtlessness, Inconstancy, Negligence)
Impetuosity is the vice contrary to good counsel and
amounts to a failure to adequately consider all available
means to a particular end. Consider the teenager who is
tempted to skip class, or lie for something or other, or
become sexually intimate with someone. Rather than
thinking things through and considering other
alternatives, he skips a major test, or lies to get out of it,
or immediately surrenders to the temptation to be
sexually intimate for fear that further consideration will
ruin the prospects. Impetuosity often results from an
impulsive will or inordinate sense appetite, or from
contempt for a directive (i.e., contempt for one's parents
or the Church). Impetuosity is a defect of memory,
docility, and reasoning.
Thoughtlessness is a defect of practical judgment and
amounts to a defect of circumspection and
caution. Consider the young person who curses in a
public place, totally unaware of how his actions might
affect others, or the young girl who, caught up in the
excitement of having an older student take interest in
her, gets into his car and drives off with
him. Thoughtfulness, on the other hand, is a necessary
condition of gratitude, which in turn is a prerequisite of
the virtue of justice.
Inconstancy is contrary to command, the principal act of
prudence, and is a failure to complete a morally good act
by refusing to command that an act be done, a refusal
rooted in inordinate love of pleasure. Consider the
person who just can't get around to doing what he knows
ought to be done, because of laziness or attachment to
some pleasure.
Negligence is also contrary to command, but it differs in
that it is a defect on the part of the intellect to direct the
will in carrying out some good action. These vices
involve a defect in understanding, foresight, and
shrewdness.
How does a person become prudent?
A person becomes prudent by learning to distinguish
what is essential from what is non-essential, to set right
goals and to choose the best means of attaining them.
(1806, 1835)
The virtue of prudence directs all the other virtues. It is
called by St. Thomas Aquinas as “aurigavirtutum”- the
charioteer of the virtues, for it guides other virtues by
setting rule and measure. For prudence is the ability to
recognize what is right. After all, someone who wants to
lead a good life must know what the “good” is and
recognize its worth. Like the merchant in the Gospel
“who, on finding one pearl of great value, went and sold
all that he had and bought it” (Mt. 13:46). Only a prudent
person can apply the virtues of justice, fortitude, and
moderation so as to do good.
“Prudence has two eyes, one that foresees what has to
do, the other that examines afterward what one has
done”. St. Ignatius Loyola
What is temperance?
Temperance is the first virtue that perfects man’s ability
to act well with one’s self from within one’s self. For it
brings order to the concupiscible appetite, and thus to
the emotions of love, hate, sensible satisfaction, desire,
aversion and sorrow as they bear upon a pleasant good.
The real needs of this life constitute the rule of reason
that makes temperance a virtue. Thomas writes:
"Wherefore temperance takes the need of this life, as the
rule of the pleasurable objects of which it makes use, and
uses them only for as much as the need of this life
requires."
Why is it virtuous to me moderate?
Moderation is a virtue because immoderate behavior
proves to be a destructive force in all areas of life (1809,
1838). It is directed to the good as enjoyable.
Someone who is immoderate abandons himself to the
rule of his impulses, offends others by his inordinate
desires, and harms himself. In the New Testament words
like “sobriety” and “discretion” stand for “moderation”.
Insensibility is one vice opposed to temperance. Pleasure
itself is not evil, but is part and parcel of the natural
operations that are necessary for man's survival. Hence
it is fitting and reasonable that we make use of these
pleasures to the degree that they are necessary for our
well-being (our own, or that of the species). To reject
pleasure to the extent of omitting things that are
necessary for our preservation is unreasonable and
immoderate
Gluttony is, of course, a vice against temperance.
Principally, this vice regards not the quantity, but the
desire for food and drink, a desire that is outside the
order of reason.
Loquaciousness, or inordinate words, is another
offspring of the gluttonous heart. We all know people
who can't seem to "shut up", or who "love to hear
themselves talk."
The virtue of temperance is thus not enough for
emotional well-being, since temperance deals with the
greatest pleasures, not the greatest difficulties. Rather, it
belongs to fortitude to remove the obstacles that
withdraw the will from following reason on account of
difficulties that give rise to fear and sorrow.
What is fortitude?
The virtue which enables the person to withstand the
greatest difficulties that block him from attaining his
goal.
But the one lacking fortitude loves "external
goods" and the goods of the body (temporal
goods) more than his character, more than
the common good, and more than the
sovereign good, namely God. His love is thus
disordered.
Fortitude binds the will firmly to the good of reason in
the face of the greatest evils, and the most fearful of all
bodily evils is death
Strictly speaking, FORTITUDE / COURAGE is the virtue of
bravely facing the danger of death.
FORTITUDE puts down the paralysis of fear that would
keep a person from facing up to danger. It follows that
courage is “Knowledge of the grounds of fear and
hope.” On the other hand, it moderates daring or
courage which without it, might lead a man to WILDLY
IMPULSIVE and INEFFECTIVE ACTION.
It helps one deal with the passions of fear and confidence
brought on my facing evil/evils: DISGRACE, POVERTY,
DISEASE and FRIENDLESSNESS
Four Essential parts of Fortitude:
(a) MAGNIFICENCE: literally means doing great things in
quality, quantity, value and dignity.The planning and
execution of great and expensive projects by putting
forth ample and splendid effort of mind. Opposed to it is
the vice of littleness or meanness (aspires little things
only when greater should be attempted).
(b) MAGNANIMITY (CONFIDENCE): means strong hope
that good will be attained despite difficulties. Defends
what is noble and honorable. Magnanimity refers to
honor and glory is an effect of honor BUT
GLORY CAN BE VAIN IN 3 WAYS:
• WHEN IT IS PRAISE FOR SOMETHING
UNWORTHY.
• WHEN IT IS PRAISE GIVEN BY UNWORTHY
PERSONS.
• WHEN IS PRAISE UNRELATED TO GOD DIRECTLY
OR INDIRECTLY.
(St. Gregory): VAINGLORY gives directive to-
DISOBEDIENCE, BOASTFULNESS, HYPOCRISY, etc.
As St. Thomas Aquinas writes: "Humility makes us honor
others and esteem them better than ourselves", for we
see some of God's gifts in them, gifts that we don't have.
(c) PATIENCE: is the virtue by which a man bears up
against the evils that tend to make him sad and to break
his spirit. It comes from love or charity; that is, from the
grace and friendship of God. It is possible only when the
soul loves something good with love strong enough to
make it bear up under oppressing evils. PATIENCE cannot
be a perfect virtue unless the love of God above all is its
core and essence.
The guiding principle of justice is: “To each his due”. A
child with a disability and a highly gifted child must be
encouraged in different ways so that each may fulfill his
potential. Justice is concerned with equity and longs to
see people get that to which they are entitled. We must
allow justice to govern our relations with God also and
give him what is his: our love and worship. Justice toward
God is called the “virtue of religion”
“You shall not be partial to the poor or defer to the great,
but in righteousness shall you judge your neighbor” (Lev.
19:15).

(d) PERSEVERANCE: is the virtue which disposes a person
to hold steadily to a good purpose, keeping the end
steadily in view, despite delays, fatigue, and temptations
to indifference.
What does it mean to have fortitude?
“Masters, treat your slaves justly and fairly, knowing that
you have a Master in heaven”. (Col.4:1)
“Justice without mercy in unloving; mercy without justice
is degrading”. (Friedrich Von BodelSchwingh-Lutheran
theologian and founder of the Bethel Hospitals)

Someone who practices fortitude perseveres in his

commitment to the good, once he has recognized it,
even if in the extreme case he must sacrifice even his
own life for it. (1809, 1837). It is directed to a good that
is difficult to attain.

“For the valiant man, fortune and misfortune are like his
right and left hands; he uses both.” St. Catherine of
Siena.

What is Justice?

Justice is the virtue that perfects the will. It is defined as

the constant and perpetual will to render each person his
due. The word “justice” comes from the Latin word jus,
which means “right”. Right mean that which is equal. If
you lend someone a certain amount of money, it is your
right to receive back what you lent (commutative
Justice).

Distributive justice exists principally and primarily in

those having charge of the common good.This type of
justice orders the relation between the social whole and
the individual person. Those who hold political office
should apportion to citizens what is their due by
proportional equality. Ex. Those who earn big, pay higher
taxes.

How does one act justly?

One acts justly by always making sure to give God and to

one’s neighbor what is due to them. (1807, 1836)
Theological Virtues LOVE

Operative principles by which men are ordained directly

& immediately to God as supernatural end.

What are the three supernatural virtues?

HOPE
The supernatural virtues are faith, hope, and charity.
They are called “supernatural” because they have their
foundation in God, are directly related to God, and are
for us men the way by which we reach God directly.
(1812-1813, 1840)
FAITH
The three theological virtues are supernatural, for they
are (a) revealed by God and known by faith, (b) infused
by God into the souls of the faithful, and (c) their good is
our participation in the divine nature.

“So faith, hope, love abide, these three; but the greatest
of these is love. (1 Cor. 13:13)
What is faith?
Why are faith, hope, and charity virtues?
• ______ “ (to hold something as true)
Faith, hope, and charity, too, are genuine powers-
bestowed by God, of course- that a person can develop • “Fides” (intellectual conviction)
and consolidate with the grace of God so as to obtain
• Thomas = “an act of the intellect when it ascends
“the abundant life” (Jn. 10:10) (1812-1813, 1840-1841)
to Divine truth under the influence of the will
Order among Virtues moved by God through grace”.

in Time = simultaneous (all of them) Faith is the power by which we assent to God,
acknowledge his truth, and commit ourselves personally
in Nature = Faith – Hope – Charity
to him, (1814-1816, 1842)
in Excellence = Charity – Faith – Hope
Faith is the path created by God leading to the truth that
is God himself. Because Jesus is “the way, the truth, and
the life” (Jn.14:6), this faith cannot be merely an attitude
Faith Hope or “confidence” about something or other. On the one
hand, the faith has definite contents, which the Church
FAITH w/o Love is DEAD, LOVE w/o Faith is professes in the Creed- profession of faith, and it is her
SENTIMENTALITY, HOPE w/o Faith is wishful duty to safeguard them. Anyone who wants to accept the
thinking gift of faith, in other words, anyone who wants to
believe, acknowledges this faith, which has been
preserved constantly through the ages and in many
FAITH w/o Hope is BLEAK LOVE w/o Hope is different cultures. On the other hand, part of faith is a
DESPERATION, HOPE w/o Love is SELFISH trusting relationship to God with heart and mind, with all
one’s emotional strength. For faith becomes effective
only through charity, practical love (Gal. 5:6). Whether
someone really believes in the God of love is shown, not
Love in his solemn affirmations, but rather in charitable deeds.

“He who says, ‘I know him’, but disobey his command

is a liar, and the truth is not in him”. (1 Jn. 2:4)
“Every one who acknowledges me before men, I also will
acknowledge before my Father who is in heaven”. (Mt.
10:32)
Sin against Faith
“A habit divinely infused & residing in the will which
enables man with perfect confidence based on God’s
Almighty help to await & obtain eternal happiness & the
means necessary for obtaining it”.
HOPE = it will really come (REAL)

WISH = it may or may not (CONTINGENT)

1. By omission = ignorance of the truth

2. By commission= breaking of the Bond.

Hope is the power by which we firmly and constantly
3. By Excess
long for what we were placed on earth to do: to praise
Rash credulity = believing what actually is not part God and to serve him; and for our true happiness, which
of Faith is finding our fulfillment in God; and for our final home:
in God. (1817-1821,1843)
Superstition = Worship of false gods
Hoping is trusting in what God has promised us in
Improper worship of God creation, in the prophets, but especially in Jesus Christ,
2. By Defect even though we do not yet see it. God’s Holy Spirit is
given to us so that we can patiently hope for the truth.
Negative = lack of Faith to person in authority
“Eternal glory means that the door on which we have
Positive = lack of Faith in a person who refuses to knocked for a lifetime is finally opened to us.” C.S. Lewis.
believe
“Likewise, the Spirit helps us in our weakness, for we do
*Heresy *Skepticism not know how to pray as we ought, but the Spirit himself
*Apostasy *Atheism intercedes for us with sighs too deep for words”. (1 Cor.
13:2)
*Schism *Agnosticism
What is charity?

Charity is the power by which we, who have been loved

first by God, can give ourselves to God so as to be united
with him and can accept our neighbor for God’s sake as
Duties from Faith
unconditionally and sincerely as we accept ourselves.
AssensusFidei = absolute assent to the doctrines of (1822-1829, 1844)
ordinary & Extraordinary
Jesus places loved above all laws, without however
infallible magisterium
abolishing the latter. Therefore St. Augustine rightly says,
Assensusreligiosus = reverential & filial adherence to “Love, and do what you will”. Which is not at all as easy
the Infallible magisterium as it sounds. That is why charity, love, is the greatest
virtue, the energy that inspires all other virtues and fills
RCC = knowledge of the mystery (objective)
them with divine life.
*Faith
“If I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have
Protest = reliance on God’s mercy (affective not love, I am nothing”. (1 Cor. 13:2)
– subjective)
“God is love, and he who abides in love abides in God,
and God abides in him.” (1Jn. 4:16)

What is hope? Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit

“Gavah” (Heb.) = “waiting for” These are the gifts of wisdom, understanding, counsel,
fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord. With
these the Holy Spirit “endows” Christians, in other
words, he grants them particular powers that go beyond
their natural aptitudes and gives them the opportunity
to become God’s special instruments in this world.
(1830-1831,1845)

We read in one of Paul’s letters: “to one is given through

the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, and to another the
utterance of knowledge according to the same Spirit, to
another faith by the same Spirit, to another gifts of
healing by the one Spirit, to another the working of
miracles, to another prophecy, to another the ability to
distinguish between spirits, to another various kinds of
tongues, to another the interpretation of tongues” (1Cor.
12:8-10)

Fruits of the Holy Spirit

Charity, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness,

generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, self-
control, and chastity ( Gal. 5:22-23)

In the “Fruits of the Holy Spirit” the world can see what
becomes of people who let themselves be adopted, led,
and completely formed by God. The fruits of the Holy
Spirit show that God really plays a role in the life of
Christians.
Question 1 Correct answer: True

The agent can have more than one intention from a Question 11
single act.
Which action is elicited?
Correct answer: True
Correct answer: Intending
Question 2
Question 12
Cheating is neither good nor evil.
Moral responsibility is less when the person performing
Correct answer: False the act is in the state of grave fear.

Question 3 Correct answer: True

Refusal to perform one’s duty is considered a human Question 13

act.
It is alright to perform an act when the person is in the
Correct answer: True state of doubt.

Question 4 Correct answer: False

Amoral action can be made evil by reasons of the end Question 14

of the agent and the circumstances.
A good act can never be made morally evil by an evil
Correct answer: True end.

Question 5 Correct answer: False

Which action is evil in itself? Question 15

Correct answer: All of these The perfection of the moral good consists in man’s
being moved to the good not only by his will but also by
Question 6
his “heart.”
Amoral action can be made good by reasons of the end
Correct answer: True
of the agent and the circumstances.

Correct answer: True

Question 1
Question 7
Regarding the beatitudes which of the following is/are
Which action is neither good nor evil?
true.
Correct answer: Arguing to the idea of another person
Correct answer: Both statements are true
Question 8
Question 2
Ignorance of the law excuses no one.
In forming a righteous conscience, the intention must
Correct answer: True be pure.

Question 9 Correct answer: True

It is correct to judge the morality of human acts by Question 3

considering only the intention.
As a moral principle, no one can compel anyone to act
Correct answer: False against his conscience, except when a person acts
against;
Question 10

Good end does not justify evil means.

Correct answer: All of these Correct answer: a. 1,2,3,4,5

Question 4 Question 11

Conscience is the subjective norm of morality. Conscience is primarily guided by;

Correct answer: True Correct answer: Intellect

Question 5 Question 12

The following are functions of conscience, except;
Correct answer: A desire of good and evil
Question 6
The following are corporal works of mercy, except;
Correct answer: Forgive offenses
Question 7
The following statements about conscience is false,
except;
Correct answer: It is the voice of God
Question 8
Which of the beatitudes expressed serenity and self-
control in times of difficulty?
Correct answer: Blessed are the meek
Question 9
The following statements about the moral principles in
conscience are true, except;
Correct answer: Man has no moral the obligation to
follow his conscience,
Question 13
What is the seventh beatitude?
Correct answer: “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they
shall be called children of God”
Question 14
“Blessed are those who mourn” refers to those who;
Correct answer: Are troubled by the injustices of the
world
Question 15
Which of the beatitudes expressed the need to free
oneself from selfish intentions?

Which type of conscience we should form? Correct answer: Blessed are the pure in heart

Correct answer: Righteous Question 16

Question 10 What is the enemy of spiritual poverty?

Regarding Christian beatitude which of the following Correct answer: Pride

are true.
Question 17
1. The reality of sanctifying grace surpasses both our
The following statements expresses the responsibilities
ability to attain it and to
of a matured conscience, except;
understand it.
Correct answer: Follow your conscience even if you
2. True happiness is attained in God alone. know that it is erroneous

3. Wealth and fame easily become false gods. Question 18

4. Perfection is achieved in everyday acts. Regarding the beatitudes which of the following is true.

5. Every human action that pleases God is the work of Correct answer: All of these
grace from the beginning, in
Question 19
the middle and at the end.
In the Beatitudes of St. Matthew’s Gospel, to become
“spiritually poor “means;
Correct answer: to be humble

Question 20

The gift of the Holy Spirit that imparts a correct

perception of created things and their relative value
before God and it is exercise by those who mourn for
justice.

Correct answer: Knowledge

Matching Type. Find the corresponding answers of the

following statements on the given choices.

Correct answer:

The virtue of discernment of the good. => Temperance,

The sense of fairness and equity. => Justice,

Trust in God’s promised. => Hope,

Love of God and Neighbor. => Charity,

God's manifestation of infinite love. => Grace,

Inner voice of God in every human being. =>

Conscience,

The sensitive appetite => Passion,

The virtue of moderation => Temperance,

The virtue of bravely facing the danger of death. =>

Fortitude,

It is derived from Latin vis- which means strength. =>

Virtue