SYNAPSES

A synapse is the junction point between two neurons.

However, a nerve impulse can also be transmitted from a sensory receptor cell to a neuron, or from a neuron to a set
of muscles to make them contract, or from a neuron to an endocrine gland to make it secrete a hormone. In these last
two cases, the connection points are called neuromuscular and neuroglandular junctions.

In a typical chemical synapse between two neurons, the neuron from which the nerve impulse arrives is called the
presynaptic neuron. The neuron to which the neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) bind is called the postsynaptic
neuron.

A presynaptic neuron has several

specialized structures that distinguish it
from a postsynaptic neuron.

The terminal button of the presynaptic

neuron’s axon contains mitochondria as
well as microtubules that transport the
neurotransmitters from the cell body (where
they are produced) to the tip of the axon.

(click on 2. Axonal Transport)

This terminal button also contains spherical

vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
These neurotransmitters are secreted into
the synaptic gap by a process called
exocytosis, in which the vesicles’
membranes fuse with that of the
presynaptic button.

The synaptic gap that the neurotransmitters

have to cross is very narrow–on the order
of 0.02 micron.

Across the gap, the neurotransmitters bind

to membrane receptors: large proteins
anchored in the cell membrane of the post-
synaptic neuron. At this location, under an
electron microscope, you can observe an
accumulation of opaque material which
consists of the cluster of receptors and other
signalling proteins that are essential for
chemical neurotransmission.
Any given neurotransmitter has several sub-types of receptors that are specific to it. It is the presence or absence of
certain of these sub-types that causes a cascade of specific chemical reactions in the postsynaptic neuron. These
reactions result in the excitation or inhibition of this neuron.

      
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
This section describes a few of the best known neurotransmitters that are involved in
many functions in both the central and the peripheral nervous systems. Apart from
A neurotransmitter’s acetylcholine, they all belong to the family of amines or amino acids.
agonist is a molecule
that has the same Neurotransmitter Example of Disorder Molecular Structure
effect on the    
Involving It
postsynaptic neuron
as the Acetylcholine is a very Alzheimer’s disease is
neurotransmitter widely distributed associated with a lack of
itself does. excitatory neurotransmitter that acetylcholine in certain
triggers muscle contraction and regions of the brain.
An antagonist is a stimulates the excretion of
molecule that blocks    
certain hormones. In the central
the effect that the nervous system, it is involved in
neurotransmitter wakefulness, attentiveness,
normally has on the anger, aggression, sexuality, and
post-synaptic neuron. thirst, among other things.

Dopamine is an inhibitory The loss of dopamine in

neurotransmitter involved certain parts of the brain
in controlling movement and causes the muscle rigidity
It was long thought posture. It also modulates mood   typical of Parkinson’s disease.  
that a given neuron and plays a central role in
released only one positive reinforcement and
kind of dependency.
neurotransmitter. But
today, many GABA (gamma- Some drugs that increase the
experiments show aminobutyric acid) is an level of GABA in the brain are
that a single neuron inhibitory neurotransmitter that used to treat epilepsy and to
can produce several is very widely distributed in the calm the trembling of people
different neurons of the cortex. GABA   suffering from Huntington’s  
neurotransmitters. contributes to motor control, disease.
vision, and many other cortical
functions. It also regulates
Neurons that use
anxiety.
GABA and glutamate
as neurotransmitters
are used by more
than 80% of the
neurons in the brain Glutamate is a major It is also thought to be
and constitute the excitatory neurotransmitter associated with Alzheimer’s
most important that is associated with learning disease, whose first symptoms
inhibition and and memory.   include memory malfunctions.  
excitation systems,
respectively, of the
substantia nigra pars
compacta (SNc).
Norepinephrine is a Norepinephrine plays a role in
neurotransmitter that is mood disorders such as manic
important for attentiveness, depression.
emotions, sleeping, dreaming,
and learning. Norepinephrine is    
also released as a hormone into
the blood, where it causes blood
vessels to contract and heart rate
to increase.

Serotonin contributes to Depression, suicide, impulsive

various functions, such as behaviour, and agressiveness
regulating body temperature, all appear to involve certain
sleep, mood, appetite, and pain.   imbalances in serotonin.