BCP 1 - Properties of Explosives

Blasting Competency Programme
Module 1: Properties of Explosives

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Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 2
Bulk Explosives .................................................................................................................... 3
The Explosive Reaction ....................................................................................................... 3
Detonator Sensitive Explosives............................................................................................ 3
Propagation .......................................................................................................................... 4
Properties ............................................................................................................................... 4
Handling Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 5
Water Resistance ................................................................................................................. 5
Density ................................................................................................................................. 5
Sensitivity ............................................................................................................................. 6
Critical Diameter................................................................................................................... 6
Velocity of Detonation (VOD) ............................................................................................... 7
Effective Energy ................................................................................................................... 7
Post-Detonation Fumes ....................................................................................................... 9
Desensitisation of Explosives............................................................................................... 9
Storage Properties ............................................................................................................. 10
Temperature Effects........................................................................................................... 10
Cost .................................................................................................................................... 10
Optimisation Criteria........................................................................................................... 11
Ammonium Nitrate............................................................................................................... 12
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 12
Nitropril AN ......................................................................................................................... 12
Bulk Explosives ................................................................................................................... 12
ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil) ............................................................................ 13
Bulk Powergel Explosives .................................................................................................. 14
Bulk Energan Explosives ................................................................................................... 15
Packaged Explosives .......................................................................................................... 16
Magnum/Magnum Gel........................................................................................................ 16
Packaged Powergel Emulsion Explosives ......................................................................... 17
Powergel Stubbies and Energex Pillow Packs................................................................... 18
Oxygen Balance ................................................................................................................... 19
Oxygen positive explosive.................................................................................................. 19
Oxygen negative explosive ................................................................................................ 19
The Rock Breaking Process ............................................................................................... 20
© African Explosives Limited, 2009

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Properties of Explosives
Introduction
Explosives have been evolving for more than 600 years.
Roger Bacon (1214 - 1292) is often credited with inventing
the first explosive, black powder, which spurred the
development of firearms in the 14th Century.
It was not until the 17th Century however that black powder
began to replace “fire setting” as the principal method for
loosening rock. Its use became accepted quickly in the
mining industry, although the number of accidents increased
at the same time and a need for safe explosives and
initiation methods emerged.
Since then, explosives have been the primary method of

breaking and loosening rock and have developed into
today’s safe, wide and technologically sophisticated range.
The discovery of nitroglycerine (NG) was the result of pioneer

research by several eminent European chemists.
The final step was taken in 1846 by Ascanio Sobrero (1812-

1888) shown on the left, who called it piroglicerina.
Alfred Nobel made the discovery that nitroglycerine could be

made stable if absorbed in kieselguhr – he called this
breakthrough “Dynamite”.

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Bulk Explosives
All bulk explosives contain the following essential components,
• An oxidiser to provide oxygen for the reaction. Typical oxidisers are Ammonium
Nitrate (solution and prill) and Calcium Nitrate.
• A fuel to react with oxygen to produce heat and gas. Common fuels include fuel
oil (distillate) and aluminium.
• A sensitiser which provides the heat source (often termed hot spot) to drive the
chemical reaction of the oxidiser and fuel. Sensitisers are generally air or gas in
the form of very small bubbles or encapsulated in glass microballoons (GMB).
The Explosive Reaction

An explosive has to contain both an
oxidiser and a fuel. The oxidiser provides
the oxygen which drives the self
sustaining chain reaction to form large
amounts of gas.
1kg of explosive will react to form 700 to

1,000 litres of gas in microseconds and it
is this rapid formation of gas that gives
explosives their power.
All explosives require some initial energy

input to start the reaction. With
nitroglycerine this may be a very small
shock wave (dropping it on a hard floor).
Commercial explsoives are engineered to require a substantial initiation energy which is
provided by an initiator (detonator).
Some explosive mixtures react more rapidly and completely, and hence more powerfully, if
there is a sensitiser present. A sensitiser is a chemical finely distributed throughout the
explosive mixture that speeds up the reaction rate chemically (aluminium acts as a catalyst)
or physically (sodium nitrite provides gas bubbles which create a large reaction surface
area).
Detonator Sensitive Explosives

An explosive is classified as detonator (cap) sensitive if it can be reliably initiated in an
unconfined state, by a No. 6 strength detonator, which has a 0.36 g PETN base charge.
This can be misleading, as most detonators (eg Nonel Benchmasters) contain at least twice
this amount. Detonator sensitive explosives may or may not contain ingredients which are
themselves explosives.
Detonator sensitive explosives supplied by AEL to Southern African mines include:

• packaged Powergel emulsions,
• packaged Energex watergels and
• pentolite boosters.

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Propagation
Explosives can be grouped according to their reaction rate. Those with a rapid reaction rate
are said to detonate. Those with a slower reaction rate are said to deflagrate.
• Detonation
o Propogation reaction is very rapid
o Supersonic - Kilometres per second
o Stable shock waves generated
o Violent impact on surroundings
• Deflagration
o Propogation reaction is slower
o Subsonic - Metres per second
o Very rapid burning
o No shock wave
As both detonation and deflagration are types of explosions, you can then group explosives
into the two categories of low explosives and high explosives. Both low and high explosives
are used in commercial blasting applications.
• Low Explosives
o Fuses and initiators, delay elements
o Propellants
o Sensitive to sparks, friction, flames
• High Explosives
o Require initiation
o ANFO and Emulsions
o Detonating cord, Pentolite boosters
Properties
The main factors which influence the selection of an explosive are:
• Handling characteristics
• Water resistance
• Density
• Sensitivity
• Critical diameter
• Velocity of detonation (VOD)
• Effective energy
• Post detonation fumes
• Resistance to desensitisation
• Storage life
• Temperature effects
• Cost

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Handling Characteristics
The handling characteristics of the various
types of blasting agents and high explosives
differ markedly.
• ANFO type blasting agents for
example are loose, free flowing,
granular compositions,
• emulsion explosives and blasting
agents have a consistency
ranging from syrup to firm putty.
These properties will dictate the handling

system used to load bulk explosive into
blasthole.
Water Resistance
Lack of water resistance is shown by
• reduced detonation velocity,
• failure to fire and
• copious brown fume after the blast.
Emulsions and watergels (slurries) have good

water resistance, while ANFO has no water
resistance at all. Deterioration of explosive
increases with the severity and period of
exposure to water.
With all explosive types, the period of exposure to blasthole water should be kept to a
minimum by firing the blast as soon after charging as possible.
Density
Relative density is the density relative to water. An

explosive will sink in water if its relative density is greater
than 1.0.
Borehole water can contain appreciable quantities of
suspended solids or dissolved salts, so may have a
raised density, causing explosive at density of 1.0 to float.
Loose, poured ANFO has a density of ± 0.78 and will float, emulsion and packaged
explosives have relative densities higher than 1.0 and will sink.
There is a strong relationship between explosive density and: sensitivity, critical diameter,
VOD and bulk energy. In general, the lower the density, the more voidage there is in the

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explosive and this enhances sensitivity. With improved sensitivity, the critical diameter of the
product is reduced and VOD may increase. Also, the extra energy available with higher
density formulations might increase VOD, but the reduced sensitivity from reduced voidage
works against this to reduce VOD.
The in-hole density of explosives has a proportional effect on the energy per metre of
blasthole charge, so provided sensitivity is sustained, higher density delivers more energy.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is a measure of the ease with which an explosive can be detonated by heat,
friction, impact or shock.
Commercial explosives are increasingly insensitive to accidental initiation but able to sustain
detonation once initiated in the blasthole. Some explosives with very high sensitivity, such as
PETN, can be detonated by mechanical impact and/or friction, especially in the presence of
grit. In practice, detonation of industrial explosives is achieved by shock from a primer,
detonating cord or detonator.
Modern blasting explosives can be grouped into two principal categories:
• Detonator Sensitive explosives – e.g. Energex - can be reliably initiated by a
single No. 6 strength detonator. They can also be reliably initiated by a single
strand of 10 g/m detonating cord (e.g. Cordtex), and in some cases by lower
strength detonating cords.
• Blasting Agents (primer sensitive explosives) - e.g. ANFO and BULK
Powergel products are mixtures which are not reliably detonator sensitive and
require a primer, such as pentolite boosters, to detonate them reliably.
Sympathetic Detonation
Sympathetic detonation is the initiation of an explosive charges by the detonation of another
explosive in close proximity. This is undesirable as it over-rides the initiating design for
sequential firing of charges. Sympathetic detonation is affected by:
• the sensitivity of the product,
• the separation distance and
• geological features.
Critical Diameter
The critical diameter of an explosive is the diameter
below which a stable detonation will not occur.
Critical diameters are generally quoted as if the
explosive were unconfined (i.e. in open air).
Explosives with high sensitivity generally have small
critical diameters.
Recommended Minimum Diameter

Suppliers recommend a minimum diameter for their
products which will be larger than the critical
diameter to ensure reliable results under most conditions. Recommended minimum
diameters for AEL explosives are available on product sheet of each product.

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Velocity of Detonation (VOD)

VOD is the speed at which a detonation wave propagates through a column of explosives. It
is affected by:
• the quality of the explosive,
• its confinement and
• composition.
The VODs of explosives manufactured by AEL vary between about 3000 m/s and 7000 m/s.
The VOD of explosives increases with

• charge diameter and
• charge confinement.
As a general rule, the higher the VOD, the greater the proportion of shock energy and the
lower the proportion of heave energy.
Effective Energy
Ideal Detonation
Explosives suppliers calculate and quote ‘theoretical’ explosives strengths or energies based
on the assumption that:
• all ingredients react completely,
• are infinitely confined with an infinite diameter, and
• all the energy contributes to the process of breaking rock.
AEL uses IDeX (Ideal Detonation of eXplosives) as its code for determining these energies.
In fact, some explosion energy is wasted (vented to the atmosphere, lost as heat, etc) during
a blast and some energy is tied up in the chemicals formed after the detonation process.
Where all the energy is not released instantaneously it is more realistic to express explosive
strength in terms of the amount of energy likely to be available to do effective work.
This is termed the Effective Energy - as defined by AEL, is calculated as the total energy
released by the explosive gases as they expand and do useful work from the initial
detonation pressure down to a cut-off pressure of 20 MPa (200 atmospheres).
A cut-off pressure is used because it is recognised that the ability to do useful work
diminishes as the pressure drops. Effective Energy is thus a more appropriate measure in
conventional blasting applications.
For comparing the performance of different explosives, two terms which use the Effective
Energy term are important:
• Relative Effective Energy (REE) is defined as the effective energy of an
explosive compared to the effective energy of an equal mass of standard ANFO.
A REE value of 110 would indicate 10% more useful energy than ANFO on an
equal mass basis.
(Effective Energy of Explosive)
(REE of Explosive) = × 100
(Effective Energy of equal mass of ANFO)

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• Relative Bulk Strength (RBS) is defined as the effective energy of an explosive

compared to the effective energy of an equal volume of standard ANFO.
(REE of Explosive) × (Density of Explosive)
(RBS of Explosive) =
(Density of ANFO)
The RBS tends to be more useful to a blasting engineer for comparing the performance of
bulk explosives, while the REE is more appropriate for comparing costs and efficiencies. In
many applications, use of a more expensive explosive with a higher RBS can lead to an
overall reduction in operating costs because of lower drilling and/or digging costs per ton of
material moved. On the other hand, explosives are purchased on a mass basis, so there is a
need to relate the amount used, and the energy contained, to the cost.
Non-ideal Detonation
All discussions prior to this
section have dealt with ideal
detonation of the explosives. A
feature of ideal detonation is
that the calculated detonation '%
&
velocity of the explosive is ! !
independent of the conditions
of use. The performance of a
" # !
given explosive is in fact
related to the characteristics of ! !
the explosive itself, the
blasthole size and the rock " #! !
strength. $ %& $ %&
ICI developed a computer model called CPeX (Commercial Performance of eXplosives) to

describe the performance of an explosive in various diameters and rock types. Work with
CPeX has helped explore the relationship between :
• explosive type and density
• rock type
• blasthole diameter
• Velocity of Detonation
• Energy Partitioning, i.e. shock, heave and fragmentation energy.
Fragmentation Energy and Heave Energy

On detonation of an explosive, the shock energy contributes by producing a crushed zone
around the blasthole, initiating cracks in the rock, and imparting dynamic stress waves
through the rock mass which generate vibration and can produce movement. The cracks are
extended by the sustained gas pressure, which also moves the rock mass as the gas
expands.
The ability to effect fragmentation is related to the sum of shock and heave energies, while
the ability to heave the rock is more related to the calculated heave energy.

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Post-Detonation Fumes
The principal gases resulting from
the detonation of explosive are
• carbon dioxide – non-toxic
but asphyxiant,
• nitrogen – non-toxic but
asphyxiant,
• water vapour – non-toxic,
• carbon monoxide – toxic but
lighter than air,
• various oxides of nitrogen –
toxic, characteristic orange
colour.
Only a small percentage (perhaps

0.1%) of the total explosives gases
generated are ‘toxic’ gases, but
where hundreds of tons of explosive are fired, this can make up a significant volume. Small
quantities of NO2, for example, can often produce very intense post detonation fume.
Field investigations have indicated that even this very intense fume does not necessarily
indicate significant loss of explosive energy, but it certainly does not mean good explosive
performance and steps must be taken to minimise its occurrence.
Desensitisation of Explosives
Most explosives become less sensitive at higher densities. This relationship is more
pronounced for those compositions which are sensitised with glass microballoons. This is
caused by the destruction of microballoons and, therefore, of the hot spots upon which
initiation depends.
This is termed dead pressing. Explosives sensitised with gas bubbles are often less prone
to dead pressing, as these bubbles are able to contract and recover providing they have
sufficient time to do so.
Dead pressed desensitisation occurs in three major ways:
• by hydrostatic pressures (deep holes)
• by dynamic (i.e. blast-induced) pressures
o Channel effect – compression in the annulus between the explosive and the
hole wall
o Compression from charges fired just before this charge
o Down lines of detonating cord - where detonating cords are used to line
blastholes, or where the initiating system depends on a line of detonating cord
passing through or alongside the explosive column, the explosive can either
side-initiate or be desensitised.
• by a combination of hydrostatic and dynamic pressures
These phenomena are occasionally encountered in softer rocks such as coal, in closely
spaced holes such as in burn cuts in tunnelling, and in opencast mining or quarry geometries
where blasthole deviation is a problem or soft wet seams or joints occur.

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Storage Properties
Explosives deteriorate and shelf life is particularly affected by:
• climate
• magazine (storage) conditions.
• the explosive type.
Explosive manufacturers specify the storage properties or shelf life of their explosive
products, based on normal magazine storage conditions.
Stock rotation of all explosive products is essential for minimising the adverse effects
of long and less than optimal storage conditions.
Temperature Effects
High Temperatures
Explosives or initiators are at risk of burning or exploding at elevated temperatures as
initiation sensitivity increases with temperature. At temperatures higher than the safe values
chemical reactions and decomposition may start, rendering some explosives inert and
useless, while others can react exothermically and proceed to ignition or explosion. Where
they are suitably confined, most explosives can burn to detonation.
The accuracy of pyrotechnic detonators also deteriorates significantly when exposed to

elevated temperatures.
Explosive Max Operating Temp (°C)

Powergel emulsions <90°C
ANFO <100°C
Pentolite Boosters <70°C
Detonators <80°C
Detonating Cord <80°C
If “hot ground” or “reactive ground” conditions exist within your operation seek
IMMEDIATE advice from a Blast Consult or Technical Department representative.
Low Temperatures
Loss in sensitivity sufficient to cause failure to detonate occurs rarely under severe winter
conditions encountered in Southern Africa because the explosive would have to be exposed
to low temperatures for long continuous periods before freezing when in the original
packaging.
Cost
Price per kg, or even price per unit of energy, is only the starting point in determining the
most cost-effective explosive for a mining operation, which needs to consider the full
technical needs, site requirements and cost of producing and processing the rock mass.
Evaluation of the benefits of improved fragmentation, heave, reduced overbreak or improved
floors need to be compared with the costs to produce them.

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Optimisation Criteria
Here we start to look at various cost factors and how their combination results in an
economic operating zone.
( ( ) ( *
,
* !
" !
* '!
-.) &!
!/
) !
! +
Drilling a smaller pattern for a given hole diameter will result in finer fragmentation. Similarly,
using a higher density, higher energy (more expensive) explosive will also likely result in finer
fragmentation. In both cases the cost per ton will increase as the fragmentation gets finer.
The loading and hauling costs will decrease with finer fragmentation. Bucket fill factors, wear
and tear on the equipment will be less and equipment will operate more efficiently.
As fragmentation from blasting gets finer, less power is consumed by the crusher. More
material is screened out before entering the crushing circuit. Thus crushing costs reduce with
finer fragmentation.
Clearly, as fragmentation gets finer, so less time and money is spent on secondary blasting.
Adding the four give the total cost – the minimum is clearly seen.
Note that in this case, the effectiveness of blasting (ie. total costs) does not necessarily
increase with a decrease in blasting costs, and changes can often be counter-productive.
However, undoubtedly the best time to break rock is during the primary blast with the aim
being to achieve desired and predictable fragmentation, muckpile looseness and a suitable
muckpile profile for ease of loading.
The curves are divided into three zones, A, B, and C. Zone B is where the total costs are
minimised within a controllable and acceptable range. In zones A and C the unit costs of one
or more activities make the overall production cost excessive.

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Ammonium Nitrate
Introduction
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) is the principle ingredient of most commercial blasting agents. It is
an oxidiser which contains 60% oxygen and thus strongly supports combustion. Transport
and storage requirements are less stringent for AN Prills than for other explosives types.
When AN is mixed with a fuel such as diesel Fuel Oil (FO), coal dust or fine sawdust, it
becomes a bulk explosive.
Nitropril AN
Explosive grade ammonium nitrate
requires uniformly small (0.75 - 1.5
mm), hard, porous prills with an anti-
caking additive. The microvoids within
each prill must absorb and retain the
optimum amount of fuel oil while
retaining external dryness. Hardness
and anti-caking agent are needed to
withstand the rigors of transportation
without breaking down, and to promote
good pouring properties.
Nitropril AN characteristics include:

• Minimum of dust and fine
particles,
• Prills hard enough to cope with transport and rehandling,
• Prills that do not tend to “cake” together and are free flowing,
• Prills that resist degradation during temperature cycling,
• No solid coating agents are used, so segregation problems are avoided
• Prill microporosity ensures optimal absorption of fuel oil,
• The coating agent is compatible with most emulsifiers, rendering the prills highly
suitable for use in doped emulsions.
Bulk Explosives
AEL manufacture and use three types of bulk explosives:
• ANFO,
• Bulk Powergel, and
• Bulk Energan.

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ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil)

Mixing of AN and fuel oil constitutes the
manufacture of an explosive.
In large operations, quantities of correctly

proportioned and mixed ANFO are charged
quickly and efficiently by bulk ANFO mixer
trucks. The quantities of ANFO required for
smaller operations can be mixed using a mini-
mixer. Alternatively, a hand-operated concrete
mixer (0.05 to 0.1 m3 capacity) can be used
although current regulations would require that
this be done in an explosives factory.
Any machine used for mixing should be designed to avoid the possibility of frictional
heating, and any bearings or gears must be protected from spillage of AN or ANFO.
Petrol engines cannot be used and electric-powered motors must be approved.
To provide an immediate visual indication of the distribution of fuel oil in the mix and to
distinguish between a mixed ANFO and straight AN, the fuel oil is often coloured with a vivid
oil-soluble dye.
0
Fuel Oil Content
311
Maximum VOD, explosive strength and
minimum fumes are obtained with 5.7% (by 41 !
mass) FO.
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Too much FO (insufficient oxygen in #
mixture) also causes excess CO to be 51
liberated in the detonation gases, whereas
insufficient FO (excess oxygen in mixture) -1
encourages the generation of greater
1 6 2 7 3-
volumes of nitrous fumes.
0
Density of ANFO
The loose-poured relative density of ANFO is normally in the range of 0.76 to 0.78.
Water Resistance of ANFO

Lack of water resistance is the major limitation and disadvantage of ANFO. AN is readily
dissolved in water, and the addition of 5.7% FO does little to reduce the rate of dissolution.
• The sensitivity, strength and VOD are all reduced by the absorption of water.
• ANFO which contains more than about 10% water usually fails to detonate.
KEEP ANFO DRY

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Diameter of ANFO Charge

The critical diameter of ANFO (i.e. the diameter below which ANFO cannot undergo a stable
detonation) is influenced by its confinement and charge density.
Loose poured ANFO in an unconfined state (e.g. in a light plastic or cardboard tube) will not
detonate effectively or reliably in diameters less than 100 mm.
Effect of particle size on ANFO performance

The sensitivity and VOD of ANFO increases as the prill sizes become smaller (through either
deliberate or uncontrolled breakdown of the AN prills). Where ANFO becomes very fine, a
detonator-sensitive explosive may result.
Sensitivity of ANFO
Although ANFO mixtures are explosive they are relatively insensitive and unless suitably
primed will not reliably detonate.
In general, the primer should have a very high VOD and should be completely embedded
within the ANFO column. Detonating cords may desensitise, partially detonate or reliably
detonate ANFO depending on conditions of use. (eg cord weight and hole diameter).
Bulk Powergel Explosives

Powergel is a range of blasting agents comprising emulsions doped with AN to achieve
varying properties.
A single Powergel MMU (Mobile Manufacturing Unit) is capable of delivering a range of

Powergel products. The units are designed with a pumping capacity of up to 150 kg/min
(depending on the blasthole size) through hoses of less than 25 mm diameter and up to 50 m
in length. However bulk emulsions have largely given way to the Energan range of products
and today only two formulations are in use at opencast mines and quarries; Powergel P100
and P400. These products allow in-hole shock tube initiation systems to be used with
confidence.
Powergel P100 is a cold emulsion used mainly in quarries and in coal blasts. P400 produces
more heave energy.
Explosive Properties
PROPERTY PRODUCT
ANFO POWERGEL P400 POWERGEL P100
Minimum Diameter (mm) 50 75 75
Water Resistance Nil Excellent Excellent
Density (g/cm) 0.8 1.25 1.25
Sensitivity - ≈ANFO ≈ANFO
Recommended Primer Pentolite Booster Pentolite boosters Pentolite boosters
Relative Effective 100% 93% 86%
Energy (% ANFO)
Unconfined VOD (∅100 ± 3.0 ± 4.0 ± 4.0
mm) (km/sec)

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Sensitivity
Whilst some degree of sensitivity results from the physical intimacy of the oxidiser and fuel
components, voids in the form of gas bubbles are the major sensitiser in Powergel products.
Rheology
The viscosity of bulk pumpable emulsion explosives is chosen so that they do not offer
excessive resistance to pumping. An undesirable consequence of this is that they can flow
into open joints which may intersect the blasthole wall. Known as runaways this can
particularly be a problem on some mines in the front row of holes where the rock mass has
been damaged from the backbreak of a previous blast. The only solution to this problem is
sleeving the holes with plastic liners.
Bulk Energan Explosives

Energan products are blasting agents comprising varying proportions of (in order of
decreasing concentration):
• Nitropril - prill particles
• Emulsion Phase - a supersaturated aqueous oxidiser solution dispersed as small
droplets in an oil mixture.
• Fuel Oil - distillate based.
The use of Energan products allows:

• an expansion of drilling patterns compared with ANFO, and hence a substantial
reduction in drilling costs;
• improved fragmentation on the standard ANFO pattern;
• increased muckpile heave, displacement and ease of digging, meaning reduced
overall drill and blast costs with increased productivity.
Heavy ANFO and a Doped Emulsion. The basic difference is that a Heavy ANFO is
augered into the blastholes whilst a Doped Emulsion is pumped.
PROPERTY PRODUCT
ANFO ENERGAN E3000 ENERGAN E3500
Minimum Diameter (mm) 50 100 150
Water Resistance Nil Excellent Excellent
Sensitivity - ≈ANFO ≈ANFO
Recommended Primer Pentolite Booster Pentolite Booster Pentolite Booster
Density (g/cm) 0.8 1.05 1.20
Relative Fragmentation 100% 104% 106%
Energy (REE) (% ANFO)
Relative Bulk Strength (% 100% 137% 159%
ANFO) (RBS)
Unconfined VOD (∅100 ± 3.0 ± 4.5 ± 4.5
mm) (km/sec)

16
Packaged Explosives
Packaged explosives are not commonly used in surface mining applications. Packaged
explosives are sometimes used to charge narrow blastholes when a pre-split is required in a
quarry, and they may also be used in exceptional circumstances for a production blast if it is
impossible to get an MMU on to the bench.
Packaged explosives are used in secondary blasting on the bench - this is covered in it's own
section.
There are four types of packaged explosive that we will cover in this course:
• Magnum and Magnum Gel series,
• Powergel series, and
• Energex barrel cartridges.
Packaged explosives are primarily Watergel or Powergel based emulsions which are
packaged in plastic sleeves like rather large sausages. The exceptions are the watergel
based Energex barrel cartridges.
Magnum/Magnum Gel
Magnum 365 Gel and Magnum Buster Gel will replace all the current emulsion based
cartridge explosives. The Gel series are watergel based explosives - an important change
from the emulsion based old products.
Most of the characteristics of these new products are very close to that of the old products -
we will see the important differences as we move through this course.
Watergel explosives are:

• water resistant,
• powerful,
• reliable,
• cord compatible (5, 8 and 10 g/m), and
• 6D detonator-sensitive.
Watergels have a similar total energy output than the old emulsion based packaged
explosives but this energy is distributed differently - Watergels have more heave energy but
less shock energy than emulsion based packaged explosives. Watergels have an 18 month
shelf life.
The Magnum 365 Gel and Magnum Buster Gel are cartridged explosives consisting of:
• a sensitiser - MMAN,
• an oxidiser - AN and sodium nitrate,
• a fuel - carbohydrate (typically crumb rubber or maize)
• a gelling agent - guar gum, and
• a cross linking agent that holds the liquid and solids together.

17
Aluminium is added to increase energy output.

The product is a gassed to a density of 1.18 - 1.25 g/cm³ and has a constant gel like
structure, with a rubbery feel.
The old series Magnum cartridges are emulsion based.
Their characteristics are:

• A firm putty like consistency - they are easy to load and tamp well,
• High energy, with favourable energy partitioning,
• Improved sensitivity and power at high densities,
• 6D detonator sensitive,
• Cord sensitive in diameters greater than 32 mm,
• Superior gap sensitivity (50 mm), and
• Excellent water resistance.
Packaged Powergel Emulsion

Explosives
While containing no ingredient that is
itself an explosive, Powergel 800 series
emulsions are powerful and reliable
explosives which can be made
detonator-sensitive or non-detonator
sensitive (primer sensitive). Both types
exhibit the same consistent, putty-like
nature and have very high explosion
efficiency and high VOD due to the
extremely fine and intimately mixed
ingredients.
The most popular packaged explosives used in the blasting industry throughout South Africa
today are Powergel 810. Powergel 813 and Powergel 816.
Safety
Packaged Powergels are high explosives and sensitive to initiation by a No 6 strength
detonator. They are not however cord sensitive and detonating cord downlines should not be
used with packaged emulsion explosives in small diameter holes.
Storage and handling

Emulsion explosives must be stored and handled with due respect and care, and all
regulations pertaining to the handling and use of explosives apply.
Under normal conditions the storage life of packaged Powergel is well beyond 3 months.
Packaging
Packaged Explosives are supplied in 25 kg cases constructed of fibreboard. A polythene
internal case liner is provided as an effective moisture barrier.

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Properties Unit POWERGEL 813 POWERGEL 816

25-38 45-130 25-38 45-130
mm mm mm mm
Relative Effective energy (REE) % 161 174 186 201
(ANFO = 100%)
VOD
-Unconfined in 25 mm diameter km/s 4.6 - 5.0 4.6 - 5.0
Density - Average g/cm3 1.18 1.18 1.18 1.18
Water Resistance - Excellent Excellent
Recommended Primer - No. 6 Strength Det No. 6 Strength Det
Powergel Stubbies and Energex Pillow Packs

POWERGEL STUBBIES consist of detonator sensitive emulsion explosive in short cartridges
ideal for secondary blasting. The plasticity of the emulsion gives maximum coupling to the
rock. This, together with the high VOD, results in a high concussion effect and excellent
breakage. Initiation should be from the top of the charge.
ENERGEX PILLOW PACKS are made from a watergel explosive and are detonator
sensitive.

19
Oxygen Balance
The oxygen balance of an explosive is defined as the mass of free oxygen available per unit
mass of substance for reaction.
• Oxidisers have positive oxygen balances,
• Fuels have negative balances.
In oxygen balanced explosives, ingredients are mixed so that the requirements of the fuel are
exactly matched by the oxygen available from the oxidisers.
Explosives do not depend on the oxygen present in the atmosphere to function.
Oxygen positive explosive

The excess available oxygen will continue to react with any available molecules, usually
carbon, hydrogen, aluminium and nitrogen.
Thus while all available carbon will be converted to non poisonous carbon dioxide instead of
carbon monoxide, highly toxic nitrogen oxides will be formed instead of the relatively
harmless nitrogen.
Some of these nitrous fumes will appear as a red cloud. Nitrous fumes can indicate that
insufficient fuel is taking part in the reaction. This can be due to poor mixing, segregation or
shortage of fuel.
Oxygen negative explosive

Too much fuel is present for the available oxygen resulting in incomplete oxidisation of the
fuels. In particular, more of the carbon is converted to toxic carbon monoxide instead of the
less harmful carbon dioxide. Nitrous fumes are very much reduced with an oxygen negative
explosive. Most formulations are oxygen negative for performance reasons.
Ingredient Oxygen Balance

(%)
Ammonium Nitrate prills +19.9
Aluminium (Atomised) - 89.0
Diesel Oil -334.4
Anthracite dust (typical) -233.6
The equation used for calculating oxygen balance is :-
( Mass × Oxygen Balance) for each ingredient

Oxygen Balance = %
( Total Mass of ingredients)

20
The Rock Breaking Process

When as explosive charge detonates in a blasthole, several dynamic processes take place
within a few thousandths of a second. These events have a sequence but stages of the rock
breakage process overlap depending on rock type and blast geometry.
The various stages of explosive/rock interaction are as follows:
Blasthole For most explosives, the explosion pressure exceeds the compressive
expansion strength of the rock immediately after detonation and crushing occurs. For
and crushing hard rocks, the crushed zone may be only millimetres thick. The energy
expended is termed the shock energy.
Radial cracks As the blasthole expands, the rock near the blasthole, being unable to
stretch, fails in tension, resulting in the formation of small radial cracks
around the circumference of the blasthole.
Shock waves A compressive shock wave radiates out from the blasthole in all directions
through the solid rock mass. Before long it becomes a strain wave.
Whenever this strain wave encounters cracks or joints, some energy is
reflected (as a tensile wave) often causing the rock to fail.
Free face At open joints, there is major reflection of shock waves and some spalling of
reflections slabbing of rock fragments. At the major free face, large loose blocks may
and cracking detach from the rest of the rock mass. These would then be isolated from
other rock breakage mechanisms and could end up as oversize material.
Gas pressure The high-temperature, high-pressure gases generated in the blasthole
- crack wedge and work their way into and along cracks and joints, seeking the
extension path of least resistance to free faces and the atmosphere. This opens
cracks, dislodges and displaces the rock mass toward the free face. This
gives the heave of the muckpile and is the major factor influencing the final
profile and looseness of the muckpile. Once released to the atmosphere,
any energy remaining in these explosion gases will not do any more work
and if intense enough will cause airblast or flyrock.
Flexural To varying degrees, further fragmentation of the rock mass can result as
bending - movement occurs. Slabs of brittle rock can be flexed and cracked. Further
fractures in shearing, tearing, colliding and tumbling can break blocks, especially along
movement minor or tightly closed joints that have escaped previous processes.

21
Reflected stress waves

multiply cracks near
blasthole
Spalling occurs at
open joints
Reflected Stress Wave
Fewer cracks initialised

Radial cracks stop at
open joints
Free Face

BCP 1 - Properties of Explosives

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BCP 1 - Properties of Explosives

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Blasting Competency Programme

Module 1: Properties of Explosives

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Since then, explosives have been the primary method of

The discovery of nitroglycerine (NG) was the result of pioneer

The final step was taken in 1846 by Ascanio Sobrero (1812-

Alfred Nobel made the discovery that nitroglycerine could be

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

The Explosive Reaction

1kg of explosive will react to form 700 to

All explosives require some initial energy

Detonator Sensitive Explosives

Detonator sensitive explosives supplied by AEL to Southern African mines include:

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

These properties will dictate the handling

Emulsions and watergels (slurries) have good

Relative density is the density relative to water. An

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Recommended Minimum Diameter

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Velocity of Detonation (VOD)

The VOD of explosives increases with

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

• Relative Bulk Strength (RBS) is defined as the effective energy of an explosive

ICI developed a computer model called CPeX (Commercial Performance of eXplosives) to

Fragmentation Energy and Heave Energy

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Only a small percentage (perhaps

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

The accuracy of pyrotechnic detonators also deteriorates significantly when exposed to

Explosive Max Operating Temp (°C)

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Nitropril AN characteristics include:

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil)

In large operations, quantities of correctly

Water Resistance of ANFO

KEEP ANFO DRY

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Diameter of ANFO Charge

Effect of particle size on ANFO performance

Bulk Powergel Explosives

A single Powergel MMU (Mobile Manufacturing Unit) is capable of delivering a range of

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Bulk Energan Explosives

The use of Energan products allows:

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Watergel explosives are:

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Aluminium is added to increase energy output.

Their characteristics are:

Packaged Powergel Emulsion

Storage and handling

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Properties Unit POWERGEL 813 POWERGEL 816

Powergel Stubbies and Energex Pillow Packs

© African Explosives Limited, 2009

Oxygen positive explosive

Oxygen negative explosive

Ingredient Oxygen Balance

The equation used for calculating oxygen balance is :-

( Mass × Oxygen Balance) for each ingredient