Course Title

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
EE202

Compiled By
M Saad Bin Arif
Course Incharge
Mohd Anas Anees
Department of Electrical Engineering
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
 Syllabus
UNIT I DC Motors

UNIT II Induction Motors

UNIT III Synchronous Motors and Special Machines

UNIT IV Transmission Lines and Cables

UNIT V Distribution and Utilization

Books*/References
1. Nagrath and Kothari : Electric Machines (TMH), 3rd edition
2. C. L. wadhwa : Electric Power System (Wiley Eastern)

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 UNIT – I
DC Motors
Content
1. Overview
2. Construction
3. Working Principle
4. Classification
5. EMF and Torque equation
6. Characteristics
7. Speed Control and Starters

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 Overview of DC Machines

▪ Direct-current (DC) machines are divided into dc generators and dc

motors.

▪ DC generators are not as common as they used to be, because direct

current, when required, is mainly produced by electronic rectifiers.

▪ While dc motors are widely used in many applications.

DC Generator
▪ A dc generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy (dc voltage and current) by using the principle of
magnetic induction.

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DC Motor
▪ An dc motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy by supplying a dc power (voltage and current).

Construction

▪ Construction-wise both DC generator and DC motor are same. A DC

machine has four essential parts

1. Field System
2. Armature
3. Commutator
4. Carbon Brushes

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1. Field System

▪ In DC machines, the field magnets provide uniform magnetic field

surrounding the armature. Generally, electromagnets are preferred in DC
machines in place of permanent magnets.

▪ The field magnet consists of four parts

• Yoke or Frame
• Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
• Magnetic Coils

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The Yoke or Frame
▪ Generally, cylindrical yoke is used in DC machines.
▪ Material of yoke possess high permeability and it provides the path to the flux.
▪ It is made of forged or cast steel or iron. Cast steel has very good magnetic properties. The
yoke provides mechanical protection to the internal parts of a DC machine.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

▪ Pole core has circular section and it carries the field magnets.
▪ The pole shoes are attached to pole core and act as support to the field coils. It also spreads
out the flux uniformly over the armature periphery.
▪ Usually pole cores are made of iron and casted with yoke. The pole shoes are formed by
laminated sheets of steel and bolted to the pole cores.

Magnetic Coils
▪ To set up the flux in magnetic circuit of DC machine the magnetomotive force or MMF is
required.
▪ An electromagnet is formed by field or magnetic coils, which are supported by the pole core.
▪ The magnetic flux produced by MMF is developed in these magnetic coils.
▪ After proper winding of coils these are dipped in insulating varnish to provide mechanical
strength and better insulating properties.

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2. Armature
▪ Armature is the drum shaped rotating part of DC machine.

▪ The armature conductors are fixed at the upper surface of drum in slots.

▪ There is a small air gap between armature and pole shoes of field magnets to avoid
any rubbing in DC machine. This air gap should be kept minimum.

▪ On the outer periphery the slots are formed by die cut or punch as shown in Figure.
Also some air ducts are provided for proper ventilation.

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▪ The armature conductors carry the current and are insulated using several layers of paper
or mica insulation.

▪ Figure (a) depicts a slot containing two coil sides, each consisting of a single conductor. Two
sides of one coil are housed approximately one pole pitch apart.

▪ One side occupies top layer and another side occupies the bottom layer of the respective
slots.

▪ In a multi turn coil, each coil side consists of as many conductors as the number of turns in
the coil.

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▪ Armature Windings

▪ Armature coil most commonly used in drum type armature are of two types namely
– lap winding – wave winding.

▪ In lap type finish of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and to the start end
of the adjacent coil under the same pole and similarly all coils are connected.

▪ Winding is known as lap winding because the side of successive coil overlap each other.

▪ Lap winding because of large number of parallel path and lesser number of conductor
per path is suitable for large current and low voltage machines.

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▪ Wave winding is also some times known as series winding. In wave winding finishing
end of one coil is connected to the start of the another coil.

▪ In wave winding, the winding progresses every N pole and S pole till it returns to the coil
side from where it was started.

▪ Wave winding gives more emf then lap winding hence it is used for high voltage and low
current machines.

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3. Commutator
▪ Commuator is an essential part of DC machines.
▪ It is placed between armature and the external circuit.
▪ The armature coils are connected with the commutator, which in turn gets
connected to external circuit through carbon brushes sliding on commutator.
▪ Commutator is made of wedge shaped segments of drop forged and hard
drawn copper.

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 ▪ A thin sheet of mica is used to separate or laminate the segments from each
other.

▪ It has cylindrical shape and approximately same diameter as armature. The

winding ends of armature are directly soldered to the commulator segments.

Commuator serves the following purpose :

▪ It completes electrical circuit by connecting the rotating armature coils and

stationary electrical circuit.

▪ In generating action it works as a rectifier which converts the generated AC

voltage into DC voltage.

▪ In motoring action it reverses the direction of DC current to maintain the

torque in same direction.

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4. Carbon Brushes
▪ The Function of brushes is to collect current from the commutator and supply it to
the external load circuit.

▪ These are housed in box-type brush holders attached to the stator end covers. A
small spring keeps the brushes pressed on the commutator surface

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 Principle - operation of DC Generator

▪ Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the
conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the conductor.

▪ The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on:

▪ the strength of the magnetic field,
▪ the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
▪ the speed at which the conductor is moved, and
▪ the length of the conductor within the magnetic field

▪ The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic lines of flux
and the direction of movement of the conductor.

▪ To determine the direction of current in a given situation, the RIGHT-HAND RULE FOR
GENERATORS is used.

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 Working of DC Motor
• Consider a part of a multi-polar DC motor as shown in Figure below.

▪ When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of DC supply:
▪ the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles
▪ the armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one
direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.

▪ Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper and
those under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the paper as shown in Figure.

▪ Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field,
mechanical force acts on it.

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▪ On applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor
is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces
add together to produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating.

▪ When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the
current in that conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes under
the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity.
▪ Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor remains the same.

▪ It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the

same as in a generator.

▪ By reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another,

it helps to develop a continuous and unidirectional torque.

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 Construction and Working of DC Motor
Source@LearnEngineering.org

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 EMF Equation
of DC Machine
▪ Consider a D.C generator whose field coil is excited to produce a flux
density distribution along the air gap and the armature is driven by a
prime mover at constant speed.
▪ Let us assume a p polar d.c generator is driven (by a prime mover) at n
rps.

▪ The excitation of the stator field is such that it produces a φ Wb flux per
pole. Also let z be the total number of armature conductors and a be
the number of parallel paths in the armature circuit.

▪ If D and L are the rotor diameter and

the length of the machine in meters
then area under each pole is ( πD/p ) L.

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Hence average flux density in the gap is given by

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▪ We thus see that across the armature a voltage will be generated so long
there exists some flux per pole and the machine runs with some speed.

▪ Therefore irrespective of the fact that the machine is operating as generator

or as motor, armature has an induced voltage in it governed essentially by
the above derived equation.

▪ This emf is called back emf for motor operation.

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 Torque Develop
DC machine

▪ Whenever armature carries current in presence of flux, conductor experiences

force which gives rise to the electromagnetic torque.

▪ Obviously Te will be developed both in motor and generator mode of operation.

▪ It may be noted that the direction of conductor currents reverses as we move from
one pole to the other. This ensures unidirectional torque to be produced.

▪ The derivation of the torque expression is shown below.

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 Thus we see that the above equation is applicable both for motor and
generator mode of operation.

▪ The direction of the electromagnetic torque, Te will be along the direction of

rotation in case of motor operation.

▪ When the machine runs steadily at a constant rpm then Te = Tload and Te =
Tpm, respectively for motor and generator.

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 Torque Equation

▪ When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor

conductors carry current.

▪ These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus each conductor
experiences a force.

▪ The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its
center.

▪ Hence torque is produced at the circumference of the rotor and rotor starts
rotating. The equation of torque is given by,

Where, F is force in linear direction. R is radius of the object being

rotated, and θ is the angle, the force F is making with R vector

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▪ The DC motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and torque of DC motor is a
very important parameter in this concern, and it’s of utmost importance to
understand the torque equation of DC motor for establishing its running
characteristics.

▪ To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a
DC motor, and its voltage equation.

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▪ Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, Eb is the
back emf produced and Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance
respectively then the voltage equation is given by,

▪ But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of DC
motor we multiply both sides of equation (2) by Ia.

therefore,

▪ Now I2a.Ra is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true
effective mechanical power that is required to produce the desired torque of DC
machine is given by,

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▪ The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where ω is speed in rad/sec.

▪ Now equating equation (4) & (5) we get,

▪ Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.

Where, P is no of poles, φ is flux per pole, Z is no. of conductors, A

is no. of parallel paths, and N is the speed of the D.C. motor.

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 Types of DC Motors

There are three types of d.c. motors characterized by the connections of

field winding in relation to the armature. They are

▪ Shunt Wound DC Motor

▪ Series Wound DC Motor

▪ Compound Wound DC Motor

✓ Short Shunt Connection

✓ Long Shunt Connection

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Shunt Wound DC Motor

▪ Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature.

▪ The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature
current.

▪ Shunt field windings are designed to produce the necessary m.m.f. by means of a
relatively large number of turns of wire having high resistance.

▪ Therefore, shunt field current is relatively

small compared with the armature current.

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 Torque and Speed equation
DC Shunt Motor

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 Characteristics
DC Shunt Motor

To study the performance of the DC shunt Motor various types of

characteristics are to be studied. These are:

▪ Torque Vs Armature current characteristics.

▪ Speed Vs Armature current characteristics.

▪ Speed Vs Torque characteristics.

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Series Wound DC Motor

▪ Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the
armature.

▪ series field winding carries the armature current.

▪ Since the current passing through a series field winding is the same as the
armature current, series field windings must be designed with much fewer turns
than shunt field windings for the same m.m.f.

▪ a series field winding has a relatively small

number of turns of thick wire and,
therefore, will possess a low resistance.

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M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU 34
Compound Wound DC Motor

▪ Compound-wound motor - has two field windings; one connected in

parallel with the armature and the other in series with it.

▪ There are two types of compound motor connections

▪ When the shunt field winding is directly

connected across the armature terminals,
it is called short-shunt connection.

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 ▪ When the shunt winding is so connected
that it shunts the series combination of armature
and series field, it is called long-shunt connection.

▪ The compound machines (generators or motors) are always designed so that the
flux produced by shunt field winding is considerably larger than the flux
produced by the series field winding.

▪ Therefore, shunt field in compound machines is the basic dominant factor in the
production of the magnetic field in the machine.

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Characteristics of DC Compound Motor

37
 Methods of Speed Control

▪ The foremost reason that a dc motor is used extensively in the design

of a control system is the ease with which its performance can be
tailored to meet the demands of the system.

▪ In other words Stated differently, a dc motor enables us to change its

speed at any desired torque without making any changes in its
construction.

▪ The two methods that are commonly used to secure speed control
are
▪ Armature resistance control.
▪ field control.
▪ Armature Voltage control.

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Armature Resistance Control

In this method, the speed control is achieved by inserting a resistance Rc, in

the armature circuit of a shunt, series, or compound motor as illustrated in Figure.

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• In a shunt or a compound motor, the field winding is connected directly
across the full-line voltage.
• The additional resistance in the armature circuit decreases the back emf in
the motor for any desired armature current.
• Since the flux in the motor is constant and the torque depends upon the
armature current, the decrease in the back emf forces a drop in the motor
speed.

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 We can express the speed of a dc motor in terms of its armature current as

• It is obvious from the above equation that any increase in the value of the
control resistance R, decreases the speed of the motor.

• The armature resistance control method, therefore, is suitable to operate

the motor at a speed lower than its rated speed while delivering the same
torque.
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• The speed-torque characteristics of series, shunt, and compound motors
for various values of the control resistor are depicted in Figure. In fact, the
starting resistors, as we have shown in the equivalent circuits of dc
motors, can also be used for speed-control purposes.

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The disadvantages of this method of speed control are the following:
▪ A considerable power loss in the control resistance Rc,
▪ A loss in the efficiency of the motor.
▪ Poor speed regulation for the shunt and the compound motors.

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▪ The armature resistance control method is essentially based upon the
reduction in the applied voltage across the armature terminals of a dc
motor.

▪ Therefore, it should be possible to control the speed of a dc motor by

simply connecting its armature to a variable voltage source.

▪ This method of speed control is known as the Ward-Leonard method and

is discussed in the next section.

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 Problem

▪ A 120-V, 2400-rpm shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.4 R and a

shunt field resistance of 160 0. The motor operates at its rated speed at
full load and takes 14.75 A. The no-load current is 2 A. When an external
resistance of 3.6 R is inserted in the armature circuit with no change in
the torque developed, calculate the motor speed, the power loss in the
external resistance, and the efficiency of the motor. Assume that the
rotational loss is proportional to the speed.

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SOLUTION
The field current:
If = 120/160 = 0.75 A

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M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU 47
 Example Problem Discussion

▪ It is evident from this example that (a) a large percentage of the power supplied to
the motor is lost in the control resistance, (b) the efficiency has decreased
considerably, and (c) the speed has been reduced to one-half of its rated value. It
is left for the reader to verify that there is no change in the torque developed by
the motor.

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Need of Starter

49
Need of Starter

50
 Principle of starter
▪ Starter is basically a resistance which is connected in series with the armature
winding only at the time of starting the motor to limit the starting current.

▪ The starter will remain in the circuit at the time of starting and will go out of
the circuit gradually as the motor speeds up to a desire speed.

▪ Types of starters (three point starter), working principle and operation

discussed in class.

-----END-----
# Please include the topics (with this material) discussed on board in class.
References
1. D. P. Kothari and I. Nagrath, Electric machines: Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004.
2. S. Chapman, Electric machinery fundamentals: Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2005.

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