M10 Handout

Combination

Combination refers to the selection of objects regardless of their order. That is, changing the order of the objects
does not create a new combination.

For instance, the 3 combinations of the 3 letters F, B, and O taken two at a time are:

      

FB, FO, and BO

FB and BF are considered one combination. Similarly, FO and OF, and BO and OB, are the same combinations.

There is only 1 combination that can be made from the letters F, B, and O taken 3 at a time. That is:

FBO

 FBO, FOB, BFO, BOF, OFB, and OBF are considered one combination.

The combination of n things or objects taken r at a time can be denoted in different ways:

C ( n , r ) ∨❑n C r ∨C n
()
r

In the first illustration, there are 3 things (letters F, B, and O) taken 2 at a time.

C(3,2) = 3

In the second illustration, there are 3 things taken 3 at a time.

C(3,3) = 1

Comparing Permutation and Combination

Combination is an arrangement of objects in which the order is not important. In permutation, the order of
the objects matters. For instance, AB and BA are two different permutations but they are counted as one and
the same combination.

Illustration 1.

Consider the number of permutations of the 4 letters A, B,C, and D taken 2 at a time.

n!
P ( n , r )=
( n−r ) !

4!
P ( 4,2 )=
( 4−2 ) !

4!
=4 ∙ 3=12
2!

The 12 permutations are listed below

AB and BA ------------------2 permutations

AC and CA------------------2 permutations

AD and DA------------------2 permutations

BC and CB------------------2 permutations

BD and DB------------------2 permutations

CD and DC------------------2 permutations

Total: 12 permutations

There are 12 permutations but only 6 combinations. This is because the order of the objects in combination is
not important.

AB or BA------------------1 combination
AC or CA------------------1 combination

AD or DA------------------1 combination

BC or CB------------------1 combination

BD or DB------------------1 combination

CD or DC------------------1 combination

Notice that the number of arrangements of 2 letters taken from the 4 letters A, B, C and D is equal to 2! Or 2. The
arrangements represent only 1 group or 1 combination. The ratio is 2! to 1 or r!:1.

Illustration 2.

Consider the number of permutations of the 4 letters A, B, C, and D taken 3 at a time.

n!
P ( n , r )=
( n−r ) !

4!
P ( 4,3 ) =
( 4−3 ) !

4!
¿ =4 ∙ 3 ∙2 ∙1=24
1!

The 24 permutations are listed below

ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, and CBA ---------6 permutations

ABD, ADB, BAD, BDA, DAB, and DBA---------6 permutations

ACD, ADC, CAD, CDA, DAC, and DCA ---------6 permutations

BCD, BDC, CBD,CDB, DBC, and DCB - ---------6 permutations

Total: 24 permutations

There are 24 permutations but only 4 combinations. This is illustrated below

ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, or CBA ---------1 combination

ABD, ADB, BAD, BDA, DAB, or DBA---------1 combination

ACD, ADC, CAD, CDA, DAC, or DCA ---------1 combination

BCD, BDC, CBD,CDB, DBC, or DCB - ---------1 combination

 Total: 4 combinations

Notice that the number of arrangements of 3 letters taken from the 4 letters A, B, C, and D is equal to 3! or 6.
The 6 arrangements represent only 1 group or combination. The ratio is 3! to 1 or r!:1.

In the permutation of n objects is taken r at a time, the elements of a set r objects taken from the n objects can
be rearranged in r! different ways. Since in combination order does not matter, the number of arrangements of
the elements of the same set of r objects represent only one group or one combination. The ratio is r! to 1.
Hence the following proportion:

r ! :1=P ( n , r ) :C (n , r )

Combination

The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is

n!
C (n , r )=
r ! ( n−r ) !

EXAMPLE 1. How many ways can you select a committee of 4 students out of 10 students?

SOLUTION

The arrangement or order of the students chosen is not important. Therefore, this is a combination problem,
where n=10 and r=4

n!
C (n , r )=
r ! ( n−r ) !

10!
C ( 10,4 )=
4 ! ( 10−4 ) !

10 !
¿
4 ! (6 !)

10∙ 9 ∙ 8∙ 7 ∙ 6 !
¿
4 ∙ 3 ∙2 ∙1 ∙ 6 !

¿ 210

EXAMPLE 2. How many triangles can be drawn on a plane using 4 non-collinear points?

SOLUTION

A triangle is a figure formed by three segments joining three (3) non-collinear points ( r =3).

If there are 4 points (n=4 ) on the plane, then

4!
C ( 4,3 )=
3 ! ( 4−3 ) !

4!
¿
3! 1 !
 4∙3!
¿
3!

¿4

EXAMPLE 3. In a culinary arts class, a student is asked to select dishes from a list of 10.

a. How many ways can he or she select 6?

b. How many ways can he or she select 4?

SOLUTION

Selecting from the list of dishes needs no arrangement. Hence, the problem is a combination problem.

a. For n=10 ,∧r =6 ,

10 !
C ( 10,6 )=
6 ! (10−6 ) !

10∙ 9 ∙ 8∙ 7 ∙ 6 !
¿
6 ! ( 4 ∙ 3∙ 2 ∙1 )

=210

b. For r n=1 0 ,∧r=4 ,

10!
C ( 10,4 )=
4 ! ( 10−4 ) !

10 ∙ 9 ∙8 ∙ 7 ∙6 !
¿
( 4 ∙ 3 ∙2 ∙1 ) (6! )

=210

Note that C ( 10,6 )=C ( 10,4 ) .

It can also be shown that

C ( 15,7 )=C ( 15,8 ) ,

C ( 9,3 )=C ( 9,6 ) ,

C ( 21,17 )=C ( 21,4 ) ,∧¿

C ( 100,97 )=C ( 100,3 )

In general,

C ( n , r ) =C ( n , n−r )

EXAMPLE 4. A committee of 5 students is to be chosen from 109 boys and 11 girls. How many committees can be
formed if the committee is to be comprised as follows:

a. All are boys.

b. At least 4 are girls.

c. There are 2 boys and 3 girls.

SOLUTION

a. From n=10boys, r =5 are to be chosen.

10 !
C ( 10,5 ) =
5 ! ( 10−5 ) !

10∙ 9 ∙ 8∙ 7 ∙ 6 ∙5 !
¿
5 ! ( 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙2 ∙ 1 )

¿ 252

b. If there are at least 4 girls, the committee may be formed as follows:

4 girls and 1 boy – [ C ( 11,4 ) ] [C ( 10,1 ) ] and

5 girls −C (11,5)

The total number of possible committees is:

[ C ( 11,4 ) ] [C ( 10,1 ) ] +C (11,5)

11! 10 ! 11!
¿ ∙ +
4 ! ( 11−4 ) ! 1 ! ( 10−1 ) ! 5! ( 11−5 ) !

11∙ 10 ∙ 9∙ 8 ∙ 7 ! 10 ∙ 9 ! 11 ∙ 10 ∙9 ∙ 8 ∙7 ∙ 6 !
¿ ∙ +
( 4 ∙ 3∙ 2 ∙1 ) (7 !) ( 1 ) ( 9 ) ! ( 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙2 ∙1 )(6 !)

¿ 330 ∙10+ 462

¿ 3,762

c. If there are exactly 2 boys and 3 girls, the number of committee may be determined using the Fundamental
Principle of Counting:

Number of combinations of 2 boys out of 10 Number of combinations of 3 girls out of 11

¿ C ( 10 ∙ 2 ) ∙ C(11 ∙ 3)

10! 11 !
¿ ∙
2! ( 10−2 ) ! 3 ! ( 11−3 ) !

10 ∙ 9∙ 8 ! 11 ∙ 10∙ 9 ∙ 8 !
¿ ∙
( 2∙ 1 ) (8 !) ( 3 ∙ 2∙ 1 ) (8 !)

¿ 45 x 165

¿ 7,425

EXAMPLE 5. Evaluate the following:

a. C ( 2,0 )+C ( 2,1 )+C (2,2)

b.2n in terms of C (n . r)

SOLUTION

a. C ( 2,0 )+C ( 2,1 )+C (2,2)

2! 2! 2!
¿ + +
0! ( 2−0 ) ! 2! ( 2−1 ) ! 2! ( 2−2 ) !

2∙ 1 2 ∙1 2∙ 1
¿ + +
1(2∙ 1) 1( 1) (2∙ 1)(0 !)

¿ 1+2+1

¿4

b. From the previous examples, note that:

C ( 2,0 )+C ( 2,1 )+C ( 2,2 )=4=22

C ( 3,0 ) +C ( 3,1 )+C ( 3,2 )+C ( 3,3 )=8=23

C ( 4,0 ) +C ( 4,1 ) +C ( 4,2 ) +C ( 4,3 )+ C ( 4,4 )=16=24

In general,

C ( n , 0 ) +C ( n ,1 ) +C ( n ,2 ) +…+ C ( n . n )=2n

Combination of n Objects Taken One or More at a Time

The number of combinations C of n objects taken one or more at a

time is

Proof

Let C(n,1)= the number of ways of selecting 1 object from n objects 

C(n,2)= the number of ways of selecting 2 objects from n objects 

C(n,3)= the number of ways of selecting 3 objects from n objects 

C(n,n) = the number of ways of selecting n objects from

C=c(n,1)+C(n,2)+C(1,3) + ... + C(n,n) 

C-C(n,0)=C(n,1) + C(1,2)+C(1,3)+...+C(n,n) – C(n,0)

C=C(n,0)+C(n,1)+C(n,2)+...+C(n,n) –C(n,0)

= C(n,0)+C(n,1)+C(n,2)+...+C(n,n)) -C(n,0)

But,

C(n,0)+C(n,1)+C(n,2)+...+C(n,n)=2" and C(n,0)=1.

Therefore,

C=2n−1

EXAMPLE 6. Norman has 6 friends. How many ways can he invite one or more of them to dinner?

SOLUTION

2n−1=26−1

¿ 64−1

¿63

Quartiles
Quartiles are values that divide a set of data into four equal parts. Each part is equal to a quarter of the data.
Quartiles are calculated only after the data have been sorted. Values are said to be sorted if they are arranged in
ascending order.

There are three quartiles, denoted by Q 1 , Q 2 , ¿ Q 3

1
Q 1 (First Quartile) This value is the median of the first half of the data. This separates of the scored values
4
3
from the upper
4
of the values. If there are N sorted values,
25% of N ≤ Q 1 ≤ 75% of N

1
Q 2 (Second Quartile) This value is the median of the entire data. This separates the bottom of the sorted
2
values from the
1
upper of the values. If there are N sorted values,
2
50% of N ≤ Q 2 ≤ 50% of N

3
Q 3 (Third Quartile) This value is the median of the second half of the data. This separates the bottom of the
4
second values
1
From the upper of the values. If there are N sorted values,
4
75% of N ≤ Q 3 ≤ 25% of N
Quartiles of Ungrouped Data

The quartiles for ungrouped data can be calculated by dividing the set of data into four equal sub-groups. These
equal sub-groups can easily be found if the number of values in the set of data is evenly divisible by 4. However,
there are times when the number of values in the set of data is not evenly divisible by 4. Because of this, several
methods on how to compute the quartiles for ungrouped data were developed by statisticians. In this method,
the median is used to divide the ordered data into two halves. In the computation of Q 1∧Q 3 ,the median of
the entire set of data is excluded.

In solving the quartiles, there are four cases to consider.

Let n be the number of values in the set of data

1
Case 1. n is odd and ( n−1) is also odd.
2

1
Case 2. n is odd and ( n−1) is even.
2
 Case 3. n is even and n is divisible by 4.

Case 4. n is even and n is not divisible by 4.

EXAMPLE 1. Find Q 1 , Q 2 , ¿ Q 3 for the following sets of scores of 11 students:

30, 12, 10, 16, 18, 24, 29, 27, 22, 14, 15

SOLUTION

1
Since n=11 is an odd number and ( n−1) = 5 is also an odd number, then this problem falls under Case 1.
2

Arrange the scores in ascending order. Then number them consecutively from 1 to n = 11.

Finding Q 1

1
Q 1 is the ¿ score.
4

1
¿ (3rd score)
4

The 3rd score is 14, therefore Q 1=14.

This means that 25% of the students scored lower than or equal to 14.
 Finding Q 2

1
Q 2 is the ¿ score.
2

1
¿ (6th score)
2

The 6th score is 18, thereforeQ 2=18 .

This means that 50% of the students scored lower than or equal to 18.

Finding Q 3

3
Q 3 is the ¿ score.
4

3
¿ (9th score).
4

The 9th score is 27, thereforeQ 3=27 .

This means that 75% of the students scored lower than or equal to 27.

EXAMPLE 2. Find Q 1 , Q 2 , ¿ Q 3 for the following sets of scores of 9 students:

27, 30, 20, 14, 17, 21, 26, 23, 16.

SOLUTION

1
Since n = 9 is odd and ( n−1 )=4 is even, then this problem falls under Case 2.
2

Arrange the scores in ascending order. Then number them consecutively from 1 to n= 9.

Number Score

1 14

2 16

3 17
 4 20

5 21

6 23

7 26

8 27

9 30

Finding Q 1

1 1 1 1
Q 1 is the mean of the
[ 4 ]
2 4 [ 2 ]
( n+1 )− ❑th and the ( n+1 ) + ❑th scores.

1 1 1 1
[ 4
( n+1 )−
2 ] [ 4
( n+1 ) +
2 ]
1 1 1 1
= ( 9+1 )− = ( 9+1 ) +
4 2 4 2

10 1 10 1
= − = +
4 2 4 2

10−2 10+2
= =
4 4

=2 (2nd score) =3 (3 rd score)

The 2nd score is 16 and the 3rd score is 17.

16+17
Therefore, Q 1= =16.5
2

This means 25% of the students scored lower than or equal to 16.5.

Finding Q 2

1
Q 2 is the median or the ¿ score.
2

1 1 1
( n+1 )= ( 9+ 1 )= ( 10 )=5 (5th score)
2 2 2

The 5th score is 21. Therefore, Q 2=21 . This means 50% of the students scored lower than 21.

Finding Q 3

3 1 3 1
Q 3 is the mean of the
[ 4 ]
2 4 [ 2 ]
( n+1 )− ❑th and the ( n+1 ) + ❑th scores.
 3 1 3 1
= ( n+1 )− = ( n+1 ) +
4 2 4 2

3 1 3 1
= ( 9+1 )− = ( 9+1 ) +
4 2 4 2

3 1 3 1
= ( 10 )− = ( 10 ) +
4 2 4 2

15 1 14 15 1 16
= − = = + =
2 2 2 2 2 2

=7 (7th score) =8 (8 th score)

The 7th score is 26 and the 8th score is 27.

26+27
Therefore, Q 3= =26.5 .
2

This means 75% of the students scored lower than or equal to 26.5.

EXAMPLE 3. Find Q 1 , Q 2 , ¿ Q 3 for the following sets of scores of 12 students:

48, 44, 24, 20, 23, 46, 50, 28, 31, 40, 21, 49.

SOLUTION.

Since n=12 is even and divisible by 4, therefore this problem falls under Case 3.

Arrange the scores in ascending order. Then number them consecutively from 1 to n=12.
EXAMPLE 4. . Find Q 1 , Q 2 , ¿ Q 3 for the following sets of scores of 10 students:

24, 29, 30, 16, 20, 22, 28, 21, 19, 27.

SOLUTION.

Since, n=10 is even but not divisible by 4, therefore this problem falls under Case 4.
Arrange the scores in ascending order. Then number them consecutively from 1 to n=10.