Theory of Machines

ELENO
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 Definition:
 Theory of machines is defined as the branch of

Engineering-Science which deals with the study of
relative motion between various parts of the
machine, & forces which act on them.
 Knowledge of this subject is essential for an Engineer

for designing various parts of machine.
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 Sub-divisions of TOM:
 Kinematics deals with the relative motion between

various parts of machine.
 Dynamics deals with forces & their effects, while acting
upon the machine parts in motion.
 Kinetics deals with the inertia forces which arise from the
combined effect of the mass & motion of machine parts.
 Statics deals with forces & their effects while the machine
parts are at rest.
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 Kinematics of motion:
 Plane motion: Motion of a body is confined to only one

plane.
 Rectilinear motion: Motion of body along a straight line
path.
 Curvilinear motion: Motion of body along a curved path.
 Combined rectilinear-rotational: The motion of body
confined to one plane may not be either completely
rectilinear nor completely rotational.
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 Kinetics of motion:
 Newton’s laws of motion, Mass & weight, momentum,

force, moment, couple, Centripetal & Centrifugal forces,
Mass moment of inertia, Angular momentum, Torque,
Work, Energy, Power, Strain energy
 Impulse & Impact, Conservation of momentum,

Conservation of energy, collision, etc
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 What is a Mechanism?:
 A system of elements arranged to transmit motion in a

predetermined fashion.
 Mechanisms are treated as kinematic devices (analyzed

without regard to forces)
 Ex: Umbrella, Chain, Clock, Camera, Linkages, Gear trains,

Friction devices like brakes & clutches.
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 What is a Machine?:
 Just one term separates machine from Mechanism –

Energy
 A system of elements arranged to transmit motion &
energy in a predetermined fashion.
 Machines are treated as dynamic devices (analyzed with
regard to forces)
 Ex: Bicycle, Vehicles, Aircrafts, Lever, Hand pump, Screw,
etc
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 Kinematic Link:
 Each part of a machine which moves relative to some

other part is known as Kinematic link or element.
 A link may consist of several parts which are rigidly
fastened together so that they do not move relative to
one another.
 For ex: in a reciprocating steam engine, Piston, piston rod
& crosshead constitute one link.
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 Kinematic Link:
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 Characteristics of Kinematic Link:
 A link or element need not be a rigid body but it must be

a resistant body (transmit forces with negligible
deformation).
 A link should have some relative motion.
 2 links of a machine, when in contact with each other, are
said to form a pair.
 If relative motion between them is completely
constrained, it is called kinematic pair.
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 Types of Links:
 Rigid link: Does not undergo any deformation while

transmitting motion. Ex: Crank of reciprocating engine
 Flexible link: Partly deformed in a manner not to affect

the transmission of motion. Ex: Belts, ropes, chains
 Fluid link: Motion is transmitted through fluid by pressure

or compression. Ex: Hydraulic press, jacks, brakes
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 What is a Structure?
 It is an assembly of no. of rigid

bodies having no relative motion
between them & meant for
carrying loads having straining
action.
 A railway bridge, a roof truss,
machine frames, etc are
examples of structure.
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 Difference between machine & structure:
 The parts of a machine move relative to one another,

whereas the members of a structure do not move relative
to one another.
 A machine transforms the available energy into some
useful work, whereas in a structure, no energy is
transformed into useful work.
 The links of a machine may transmit both power &
motion, while members of structure transmit forces only.
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 Types of Constrained motions:
 Completely constrained motion: Motion between a

pair is limited to definite direction irrespective of the
direction of force applied.
 Ex: Piston & cylinder
 Incompletely constrained motion: Motion between

pair takes place in more than one direction.
 Ex: Round shaft in a circular hole.
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 Types of Constrained motions:
 Successfully constrained motion:

Motion between pair is such that
constrained motion is not completed
by itself but by some other means.
 Ex: Shaft in a footstep bearing
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 Types of Kinematic pairs (Relative motion):
 Sliding pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

such a way that one can slide relative to other.
 A sliding pair has completely constrained motion.
 Ex: Piston & cylinder, Cross-head & guides of

reciprocating steam engine, tail stock on the lathe
bed, ram & its guides in shaper.
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 Types of Kinematic pairs:
 Turning pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

such a way that one can turn or revolve about a
fixed axis of another link.
 A turning pair also has completely constrained

motion.
 Ex: Cycle wheels turning over their axles

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 Rolling pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

such a way that one rolls over another fixed link.
 A Rolling pair has successfully constrained motion.
 Ex: Ball & roller bearings
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 Screw pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

such a way that one element can turn about the
other by screw threads.
 Ex: The lead screw of a lathe with nut, Bolt with a

nut.
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 Spherical pair: Two elements of pair are connected

in such a way that one element turns or swivels
about the other fixed element.
 Ex: The ball & socket joint, attachment of a car

mirror, Pen stand
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 Types of Kinematic pairs (Type of contact):
 Lower pair: Two elements of pair have a surface

contact when relative motion takes place & the
surface of one element slides over surface of
another.
 Sliding pair, Turning pair, Screw pair form lower

pairs.
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 Types of Kinematic pairs (Type of contact):
 Higher pair: Two elements of pair have a line or

point contact when relative motion takes place &
the motion between two elements is partly turning
& partly sliding.
 A pair of friction discs, toothed gears, belt & rope

drives, cam & follower, ball & roller bearings are
examples of higher pairs.
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 Types of Kinematic pairs (Type of closure):
 Self closed pair: Two elements of pair are connected

together mechanically in such a way that only
desired relative motion occurs.
 Lower pairs are self closed pairs.
 Force-closed pair: Two elements of pair are not

connected mechanically but are kept in contact by
the action of external forces.
 Ex: Cam & follower
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 Kinematic Chain :
 When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way

that the last link is joined to the first link to transmit
definite motion is called Kinematic chain.
 A combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a

way that each link forms a part of two pairs & the
relative motion between between the links or
elements is successfully constrained
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 For example, the crankshaft of an engine forms a

kinematic pair with the bearings which are fixed in
pair, the connecting rod with the crank forms a
second kinematic pair, the piston with connecting
rod forms third pair & piston with cylinder forms a
fourth pair.
 The combination of these links is a kinematic chain

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 General equation for Kinematic Chain :
 If each link is assumed to form two pairs with two

adjacent links, then the relation between no. of
pairs (P) & no. of links (L) forming a kinematic chain
is expressed as:
 L = 2P - 4
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 General equation for Kinematic Chain :
 L = 2P - 4
 If LHS > RHS, it is not a kinematic chain & no relative
motion is possible.
 Such chain is called locked chain & is used in bridges
& trusses.
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 Mechanisms & its types:
 When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed,

the chain is known as mechanism.
 It may be used for transmitting or transforming
motion.
 Ex: Engine indicators, typewriter etc.
 A mechanism with 4 links is known as Simple
mechanism & mechanism with more than 4 links is
known as compound mechanism.
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 Inversion of mechanism:
 We can obtain as many mechanisms as the no. of

links in a kinematic chain by fixing different links.
 This method of obtaining different mechanisms by

fixing different links in a kinematic chain is known
as inversion of mechanism.
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 Degrees of Freedom:
 In the design or analysis of a mechanism, one of the

most important concern is the no. of degrees of
freedom.
 Also called movability of the mechanism.
 It is defined as the no. of input parameters which

must be independently controlled in order to bring
the mechanism into a useful engineering purpose.
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 Types of Kinematic Chains:
 The most important kinematic chains are those

which consists of 4 lower pairs, each pair being a
sliding pair & turning pair.
 There are 3 types of kinematic chains:
1. 4 bar chain or quadric cycle chain

2. Single slider crank chain
3. Double slider crank chain
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 Friction & its significance with TOM:
 At every joint in a machine, force of friction arises due to

relative motion between 2 parts.
 Some energy is wasted in overcoming this friction
 It plays an important role both in nature & in Engineering
 Ex: Motion of locomotive on rails, transmission of power by
belts, gears, etc
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 Types of Friction:
 Static & Dynamic friction

 Dynamic friction has 3 types:
1) Sliding friction: One body slides over another

2) Rolling friction: Balls or rollers interposed between
2 surfaces
3) Pivot friction: Motion of rotation
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 Types of Friction:
 Friction can be further classified as:
1. Friction between unlubricated surfaces-

friction between 2 dry & unlubricated
surfaces in contact known as dry or solid
friction.
2. Friction between lubricated surfaces-
Lubricant is applied between 2 surfaces in
contact. 34
ELENO
Depending on thickness of lubricant layer, friction is

further classified as:
a) Boundary friction (non-viscous friction): Thin layer

of lubricant. Lubricant layer forms a bond between
2 surfaces. Follows the laws of solid friction.
b) Fluid friction (viscous friction): Thick layer of
lubricant. Actual surfaces do not come in contact.
Fluid friction is not due to surfaces in contact but
due to viscosity of lubricant.
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 Laws of Solid friction:
 The force of friction is directly proportional to the

normal load between the surfaces
 It is independent of area of contact surface
 It depends upon the material of which the contact
surfaces are made
 It is independent of the velocity of sliding of one
body relative to other body
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 Laws of Fluid friction:
 The force of friction is almost independent of the

load
 Force of friction reduces with increase of
temperature of lubricant
 It is independent of the substances of bearing
substances
 The force of friction is different for different
lubricants
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 Belt Drives:
 Belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to

another by means of pulleys which rotate at same or
different speeds
 The amount of power transmitted depends on:
1) Velocity of belt
2) Tension under which belt is placed on pulleys
3) Arc of contact between belt & pulley
4) Conditions under which belt is used
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 Selection factors of a Belt Drive:
1) Speed of driving & driven shafts

2) Speed reduction ratio
3) Power to be transmitted
4) Centre distance between the shafts
5) Positive drive requirements
6) Shafts layout
7) Service conditions
8) Space available
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 Types of belt drives:
1) Light drives: Used to transmit small powers at belt speeds

up to 10 m/s. Ex: Agricultural machines & small machine
tools
2) Medium drives: Used to transmit medium power at belt
speeds above 10 m/s & up to 22 m/s as in machine tools
3) Heavy drives: Used to transmit large powers at belt speeds
above 22 m/s as in compressors & generators.
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 Types of belts:
1) Flat belt: For distance less than 8 meters between

pulleys
2) V-belt: for 2 pulleys very near to each other
3) Round belt: For distance more than 8 meters

between pulleys
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 Materials used for belts:
The most common materials for belts include
1) Leather: Soft & flexible, Suitable in hot & humid climate

2) Cotton or fabric: Cheaper & suitable in warm climates,
damp atmospheres & exposed positions.
3) Rubber: They may be easily made endless, not suitable for
high moisture environments like saw mills, paper mills, etc
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 Velocity ratio:
It is the ratio between the velocities of driver & follower.

& is given by:
N2/N1 = d1/d2
N1,N2 – Speed of driver & follower

d1,d2 – Diameters of driver & follower
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 Toothed Gearing:
 A Gear drive is useful when the

distance between the driver &
follower is very small.
 Used to transmit motion & power.
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 Advantages of a Gear drive:
 It transmits exact velocity ratio.

 It may be used to transmit large power.
 It has high efficiency.
 It has reliable service.
 It has compact layout.
 Manufacture of gears requires special tools &

equipment
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 Types of Gears:
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 Basic terminologies:
 Pitch Circle: Imaginary circle which by pure rolling

action, would give same motion as actual gear.
 Pitch circle diameter: Diameter of the pitch circle.
 Pitch point: Common point of contact between 2
pitch circles.
 Pressure angle: Angle between the common normal
to two gear teeth at the point of contact & common
tangent at pitch point. (14.5° & 20°)
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 Addendum: Radial distance of tooth from pitch

circle to top of the tooth
 Dedendum: Radial distance of a tooth from pitch
circle to bottom of the tooth.
 Circular pitch: Distance measured on the
circumference of the pitch circle from the point of
one tooth to corresponding point on next tooth.
 Pc = Πd/T
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 Module: Ratio of PCD to no. of teeth. (D/T)

 Path of contact: Path traced by the point of contact
of two teeth from the beginning to end of
engagement.
 Arc of contact: Path traced by point on pitch circle
from the beginning to end of engagement.
 Backlash: Difference between the tooth space &
tooth thickness measured along the pitch circle.
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 Precession of a Gyroscope:
 A simple Gyroscope consists of a wheel

fixed to a shaft & free to spin about the
axis of the shaft.
 If one end of the shaft of a non-spinning
gyroscope is placed on a support and
the gyroscope is released, the
gyroscope falls by rotating downward
about the tip of the support.
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 Precession of a Gyroscope:
 Since the fall involves rotation, it is governed by

Newton’s second law in angular form, which is given
by: T = dL/dt
 This equation tells us that the torque causing the

downward rotation (the fall) changes the angular
momentum L of gyroscope from its initial value of
zero.
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 A rapidly spinning gyroscope

behaves differently.
 It first rotates slightly

downward but then, while it is
still spinning about its shaft, it
begins to rotate horizontally
about a vertical axis
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 Why does the spinning gyroscope stay aloft instead

of falling over like the non-spinning gyroscope?
 The torque causes an incremental change in the
angular momentum of the gyroscope in an
incremental time interval dt
 dL = T x dt
 For a rapidly spinning gyroscope, the magnitude of
L is fixed. Thus the torque can change only its
direction, not its magnitude.
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 The Vector head of Angular

momentum L follows the
direction of Torque.
 This holds as well for a spinning

top, which is essentially a
spinning gyroscope at an angle
to the horizontal.
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Applications:
• Gyroscopes are used in

compasses & automatic pilots
on ships & aircrafts, steering
mechanisms of torpedoes,
inertial guidance systems in
space launch vehicles, ballistic
missiles & Orbital satellites
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Balancing of rotating masses:
• The high speeds of engines & other machines is a

common phenomenon. It is very essential that all
rotating & reciprocating parts should be completely
balanced.
• Unbalanced forces can produce unpleasant &
dangerous vibrations.
• Increase the load on bearings & stresses in various
members.
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• Whenever a certain mass is attached to a rotating

shaft, it exerts some centrifugal force, whose
effect is to bend the shaft & to produce vibrations
in it.
• Another mass is attached to the opposite side of

shaft, at such a position so as to balance the
effect of centrifugal force of first mass.
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• F = mrw^2 (Centrifugal force)

• The two forces which balance each other are
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
• But this type of arrangement for balancing gives
rise to a couple which tends to rock the shaft in
its bearings.
• So, to put the system in complete balance, 2
masses are placed in 2 different planes.
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• These balancing masses are placed in such a way

that they satisfy 2 conditions of equilibrium:
1) The net dynamic force acting on shaft is zero: The

line of action of 3 centrifugal forces must be
same.
2) The net couple due to dynamic forces acting on

shaft is zero.
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Balancing of several rotating masses in different

planes:
• In order to have complete balance of several

revolving masses in different planes, the following
conditions must be satisfied:
1) The resultant force must be zero

2) The resultant couple must be zero
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Flywheels:
• In case of steam engines, IC engines, reciprocating

pumps, the energy is developed during one stroke & the
engine is to run for the whole cycle on the energy
produced during this stroke.
• A flywheel serves as a reservoir which stores energy
when supply of energy is more than the requirement &
releases it when requirement of energy is more than
supply.
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Flywheel:
• A flywheel does not maintain a constant speed, it

simply reduces the speed fluctuation.
• When the flywheel absorbs energy, its speed
increases & when it releases energy, the speed
decreases.
• The energy from the power source to the machines is
supplied practically at a constant rate throughout the
operation.
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Governors:
• The function of Governor is to regulate the mean

speed of an engine when there are variations in the
load.
• The governor automatically controls the supply of

working fluid to the engine with the varying load
conditions & keeps the mean speed within certain
limits.
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ELENO
Types of Governors:
• Governors are mainly classified into 2 types:

1. Centrifugal governors
2. Inertia governors
• Centrifugal governors are further classified into

Pendulum type (Watt governor) & Loaded type
(Porter, Proell & Spring controlled governors)
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70
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Thank you
71

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ELENO

 Theory of machines is defined as the branch of

 Knowledge of this subject is essential for an Engineer

 Kinematics deals with the relative motion between

 Plane motion: Motion of a body is confined to only one

 Newton’s laws of motion, Mass & weight, momentum,

 Impulse & Impact, Conservation of momentum,

 A system of elements arranged to transmit motion in a

 Mechanisms are treated as kinematic devices (analyzed

 Ex: Umbrella, Chain, Clock, Camera, Linkages, Gear trains,

 Just one term separates machine from Mechanism –

 Each part of a machine which moves relative to some

 Characteristics of Kinematic Link:

 A link or element need not be a rigid body but it must be

 Rigid link: Does not undergo any deformation while

 Flexible link: Partly deformed in a manner not to affect

 Fluid link: Motion is transmitted through fluid by pressure

 It is an assembly of no. of rigid

 Difference between machine & structure:

 The parts of a machine move relative to one another,

 Types of Constrained motions:

 Completely constrained motion: Motion between a

 Incompletely constrained motion: Motion between

 Types of Constrained motions:

 Successfully constrained motion:

 Ex: Shaft in a footstep bearing

 Types of Kinematic pairs (Relative motion):

 Sliding pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

 A sliding pair has completely constrained motion.

 Ex: Piston & cylinder, Cross-head & guides of

 Types of Kinematic pairs:

 Turning pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

 A turning pair also has completely constrained

 Ex: Cycle wheels turning over their axles

 Types of Kinematic pairs:

 Rolling pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

 A Rolling pair has successfully constrained motion.

 Ex: Ball & roller bearings

 Types of Kinematic pairs:

 Screw pair: Two elements of pair are connected in

 Ex: The lead screw of a lathe with nut, Bolt with a

 Types of Kinematic pairs:

 Spherical pair: Two elements of pair are connected

 Ex: The ball & socket joint, attachment of a car

 Types of Kinematic pairs (Type of contact):

 Lower pair: Two elements of pair have a surface

 Sliding pair, Turning pair, Screw pair form lower

 Types of Kinematic pairs (Type of contact):

 Higher pair: Two elements of pair have a line or

 A pair of friction discs, toothed gears, belt & rope

 Types of Kinematic pairs (Type of closure):

 Self closed pair: Two elements of pair are connected

 Force-closed pair: Two elements of pair are not

 When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way

 A combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a

 For example, the crankshaft of an engine forms a

 The combination of these links is a kinematic chain

 General equation for Kinematic Chain :

 If each link is assumed to form two pairs with two

 General equation for Kinematic Chain :

 Mechanisms & its types:

 When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed,

 We can obtain as many mechanisms as the no. of

 This method of obtaining different mechanisms by