Strength of Materials

ELENO
® www.eleno-elc.com
Fundamentals of SOM:
• SOM is the branch of App Mech that deals with study of

internal forces & deformation caused due to externally
applied load on deformable bodies.
Applied
Mechanics
Engg Solid Fluid

Mechanics Mechanics Mechanics
1
ELENO
Nature of materials:
• Homogeneous materials are the materials with

A
same elastic properties (E,G,K,µ) in a given B
C
direction at any point.
Ex: Steel, Copper, Timber, etc
• Isotropic materials are the materials with same E
elastic properties in all directions at a given point. E

Ex: Steel, Copper, Bronze, fine grained material, etc E
2
ELENO
E
• Homogeneous + Isotropic are the materials with
E
same elastic properties (E,G,K,µ) in all directions E
E
at all points.
E
Ex: Steel, Copper E
• Orthotropic materials are the ones which exhibit

different elastic properties in 3 perpendicular
directions.
Ex: Wood, Graphite, Layered materials 3
ELENO
E1
• Anisotropic materials are the ones having

A E
different elastic properties at one point in E1
different directions.
B
Ex: Glass, Stone, etc E
• Homogeneous material defines the uniformity

of structure while Isotropic material defines the
uniformity of physical properties.
4
ELENO
Assumptions used in SOM:
1. Material should be Homogeneous and Isotropic.

2. Body under consideration should be prismatic.
3. Material should obey Hooke’s law.
4. Load must be static.
5. Effects of True Stress & True strain are neglected.
6. Material is assumed to be continuous & deformable. But
deformations must be within elastic limit.
7. Residual stresses & stress concentration effect are neglected.
5
ELENO
Some basic concepts:
• Strength: It is the resistance of a body against failure (Breaking

or Yielding)
Ex: Mild Steel = 250 MPa, Concrete = 8 MPa
• Stiffness: It is the resistance of a body against deformation.
• Primary design criteria is based on Strength and Stiffness.
6
ELENO
Concept of Stress and Strain:
• Stress: It is defined as the internal resisting force developed

per unit area against the deformation caused due to load.
dP
P P
By definition, Ƃ = P/A Unit: Pascal

7
ELENO
• Strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in length of a

member to its original length.
• It is a unitless quantity.
8
ELENO
Important points related to Stress-Strain:
1. A member that is free to move away (internal resistance = 0)

will never experience any stress.
2. Stress is a dependent parameter i.e it depends over strain.
3. So, in a Stress-Strain diagram, Stress is always taken on Y axis
and Strain on X axis.
4. If Strain is free to occur in any direction then stress will not
generate in that direction.
9
ELENO
True & Engineering Stress-Strain:
• Engineering Stress = Load (P)/ Original CSA of body

• True Stress = Load (P)/ Instantaneous CSA of body
• Engineering Strain = Change in length/ Original length

• True Strain = Change in length/ Instantaneous length
• Engg Stress-strain are calculated using original

dimensions while True Stress-strain are calculated
using instantaneous dimensions.
10
ELENO
True & Engineering Stress-Strain Relation:
Note:-
1. Volume remains constant
2. Residual stresses are
neglected
11
ELENO
Load and its Classification:
• Load is defined as an external force or couple to which a

component is subjected during its functionality.
Ex: Self weight, Bending moment, Twisting, Pressure, etc
• Load is mainly divided into 3 types:

wrt Time, wrt Direction, wrt Area
12
ELENO
1) With respect to time:

 Static - Dead load, Gradually applied load
 Dynamic – Impact load, Fatigue load
2) With respect to direction:

 Normal – Axial load, Eccentric load
 Shear/Tangential
3) With respect to Area:

 Concentrated Load – Point load, Moment
 Distributed load – UDL, UVL, UDM, UVM
13
ELENO
Couple and its types:
• Two equal and opposite forces at same distance or

Mechanical quantity which gives rotation to cross
section.
• Bending couple: Plane of couple is perpendicular to
cross section area.
• Twisting couple: Plane of couple is parallel to cross
section area
14
ELENO
Classification of Stress:
1) Normal Stress:
 Direct Normal
 Indirect Normal/Bending
2) Shear/Tangential:
 Direct Shear
 Indirect Shear/Twisting
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1) Direct normal Stress: 2) Bending Stress:
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1) Direct Shear Stress: 2) Twisting shear Stress:
17
ELENO
Types of Strains:
1) Normal Strain: Caused due to normal stress.

Ƹ = Change in dimensions/Original dimensions
Causes elongation and contraction
2) Shear Strain: Caused due to shear stress.
Distortion in shape occurs. Change in angle between two
perpendicular planes.
3) Volumetric strain: Caused due to normal load.
Ƹv = Change in Volume/Original volume
18
ELENO
Elastic Constants:
1) Young’s Modulus (Mpa, Gpa):

• E = Stress/Strain (Hooke’s Law)
• It is a material property
• It is the slope of stress-strain curve upto proportionality
limit.
• E (steel) = 200 Gpa
E (Diamond) = 1000 Gpa
19
ELENO
2) Shear Modulus (Mpa, Gpa):

• G = Ƚ/φ (Hooke’s Law)
• Modulus of rigidity
3) Bulk Modulus (Mpa, Gpa):

• Extension of Young’s modulus in 3D
• K = P/Ƹv (P= Hydrostatic pressure)
20
ELENO
4) Poisson’s Ratio:
• It is the ratio of Lateral strain to

longitudinal strain.
• µ = Ƹy/Ƹx
• For general materials,
µ = 0 to 0.5
• For cork, µ = 0
• For concrete = 0.1 to 0.2
21
ELENO
 The negative value of poisson’s ratio is also possible,

for some materials those are produced in laboratory
and they are called as anti-rubber .
 Some more such materials are- Auxetics and Smart

materials
 Highly useful in Military applications.
22
ELENO
Stress-Strain Curve for Mild steel:
• 0 to A: Hooke’s law is valid

• B to C: Plastic zone
• C to D: Strain-hardening zone
• D to E: Strain softening zone
• Up to A: Proportionality limit
• Up to B: Elastic limit
23
ELENO
 If tensile force is applied to a steel bar, it will have

some elongation. If the force is small enough, the ratio
of stress & strain will remain proportional. This is seen
in the curve as a straight line between zero & point A
– called the limit of Proportionality.
 If the force is greater, the material will experience

elastic deformation, but the stress-strain ratio will not
be proportional. This is seen between point A & B
called – Elastic limit.
24
ELENO
 Beyond elastic limit, the material will experience

plastic deformation.
This begins the yield point B.
 As seen in curve, the correlation between stress-strain

is no longer a straight line.
 It curves from point C – the lower yield point to D –

maximum ultimate stress, ending at E – Fracture
stress.
25
ELENO
 Important terms related to Stress-Strain curve:
• Elasticity is the property of material which enables the

material to return to its original form after the
external force is removed.
• Plasticity is a property that allows the material to
remain deformed without fracture after the force is
removed.
• Hooke’s Law: Within proportionality limit, Stress is
proportional to Strain.
26
ELENO
 Important terms related to Stress-Strain curve:
• Modulus of Resilience: It is the energy absorbed per

unit volume up to elastic limit. (Yellow area under
curve)
• Modulus of Resilience = ½ * Stress* Strain
= 0.5* PL/AE
• Modulus of Toughness: It is the energy absorbed per
unit volume up to breaking point. (Area under curve
from 0 to E)
27
ELENO
 Some observations from Stress-Strain curve:
• All grades of Steel have same Young’s modulus,

means the initial Stress-Strain curve will be same for
all grades.
• If after yielding, material undergoes large plastic
deformation under fracture, it is said to be ductile
otherwise brittle.
• Fracture strain depends upon % of carbon, high
carbon % gives higher strength but low fracture strain.
28
ELENO
 Proof Stress:
• Some ductile materials like Aluminium, Copper don’t

show its obvious yield point in testing that’s why to
determine their yield stress, the concept of Proof
stress is used.
• 0.2 % offset is taken on strain axis & from this point a
parallel line is drawn to initial stress-strain curve.
Intersection of this line with the curve gives required
yield stress.
29
ELENO
 Proof Stress:
30
ELENO
 Thermal Stress: Stress generated in body due to Heat

or Temperature.
• It is a secondary type of Stress.
31
ELENO
• Coefficient of Thermal expansion (α)

It describes how the size of an object changes with a
change in temperature.
• For mild steel, α=12*10^(-6)/°C

• For copper, α=16*10^(-6)/°C
• For Invar it is zero
32
ELENO
 Strain Energy:
The internal energy
stored by applying external
work.
 Resilience is the area

under load-deflection
curve within
proportionality limit.
33
ELENO
 Strain Energy:
U = ½ P*d
34
ELENO
 Proof Resilience (Up):
It is the maximum value of Resilience or It is the area

under load deflection curve up to proportionality limit.
 Modulus of Resilience (Um):

It is maximum resilience per unit volume.
Um = Up/V
Um = ½ stress*strain
35
ELENO
 Toughness (T):
It is the area under load deflection

curve up to failure point or It is
maximum strain energy stored till
failure.
Deflection Ductility
Stress Strength
Area under curve Toughness
36
ELENO
 Impact Load:
These are the loads which are

acting for a short interval of time.
Ex: Hammer force, Force over

piston in cylinder, Object dropped
from a height under gravity, etc
37
ELENO
 Stress-Strain system:
• Every Shear stress is accompanied by

equal & complimentary shear stress on
planes at right angles.
• The direction of shear stress on an

element is either towards or away from
corner in order to produce Static
equilibrium.
38
ELENO
 Complex Stress & Strain:
• Materials under stress often have direct and shear

stresses acting in two or more directions at the same
time. This is a complex stress situation.
• The Engineer must find the maximum stress in the
material.
• There are several theories about why a material fails.
The principle stresses & maximum shear stress are used
in those theories.
39
ELENO
 Principle plane & Principle stress:
• A plane where maximum normal stress acts.

• On this plane the shear stress is zero.
• The normal stress acting on principle plane is

called Principle Stress.
• The summation of normal stresses on any 2

mutually perpendicular planes remains constant.
40
ELENO
 Principle plane & Principle stress/strain Equations:
41
ELENO
 Principle plane & Principle stress insights:
• Even if Max normal stress is within limits of

material strength, failure can occur in shear.
• Max Shear stress is given by:
42
ELENO
 Mohr’s Circle diagram:
• It is a graphical method
to calculate principle
stress in which the
locus of a point whose
co-ordinates represent
the Normal stress &
Shear stress on any
plane.
43
ELENO
 Mohr’s Circle representation:

• Each radial line in Mohr’s circle represents a plane in the
material.
• The stresses on the plane will be represented by the
normal & shear stress component on that plane.
• All the angles at the centre of circle are twice that of
actual angles in material.
• Radial line on X-axis represents principle planes.
• Mohr’s circle is always symmetrical about normal stress
axis.
44
ELENO
 Mohr’s Circle Diagram Example:
45
ELENO
 Centroid and Moment of Inertia:
 Centroid is a point through which the entire area is

concentrated. It is applicable for thin plates & sheets of
negligible thickness.
 Centre of Mass is a point through which entire mass is
acting. It is applicable for solid bodies.
 Centre of Gravity is a point through which the entire
weight is acting. CM & CG are same when body is placed
in uniform gravity.
46
ELENO
 Centroid:
 For design purpose, members are analysed based on

their cross section only.
 Cross section area is always a plane surface.
 That’s why Centroid is used for design
47
ELENO
 Moment of Inertia:
 Resistance of given area or mass against externally

applied moment.
a) Linear motion – Inertia – Resistance against displacement

b) Rotational motion – Moment of Inertia – Resistance
against rotational motion
c) Design cases – Area moment of inertia – Resistance
against deformation
48
ELENO
 Parallel axis Theorem:
 Used to transfer
Moment of inertia from
centroidal axis to any
other axis which is
parallel to centroidal
axis.
49
ELENO
 Perpendicular axis
Theorem:
 Used to transfer
Moment of inertia from
centroidal axis to any
other axis which is
parallel to centroidal
axis.
50
ELENO
 Product of Inertia:
 The moment of inertia about any two mutually

perpendicular axes in the plane of area.
 It is used in Asymmetrical bending & to calculate
Principal MI.
 It can be positive, negative or zero & depends on
position of axes wrt given area.
 Among the 2 considered axes, if body is symmetric
about any one axis then this quantity is zero.
51
ELENO
 Principal Axis:
 It is the combination of 2
mutually perpendicular axes
about which the product of
inertia will be zero.
 For this one of the axis must be

like that about which body is
symmetric.
52
ELENO
 Principal MI:
 Maximum or minimum Moment of inertia acting

about principal axis.
 Max MI gives max strength & stability.

 Major principal MI axis – Plays important role in
beam design.
 Minor principal MI axis – Plays important role in
column design.
53
ELENO
 Why SFD, BMD?
• SFD & BMD are useful while designing a beam based

on Strength criteria.
• Due to shear load acting on beam, bending moment

& shear force vary along the beam’s length. Hence,
to know the type of variation, Max value of SF/BM,
we use SFD & BMD.
54
ELENO
 Classification of Beams:
Statically determinate:
No. of unknowns are less
than or equal to no. of
static equilibrium
equations.
Statically Indeterminate:
No. of unknowns are
more than no. of static
equilibrium equations.
55
ELENO
 Beam is defined as a structural member which is

subjected to transverse loads.
56
ELENO
 Support is defined as a member which acts as a

base/rest for beam. It exerts reactive forces on beam.
57
ELENO
 Loads acting on beam:
 Load is an external
force or couple to
which a beam is
subjected during its
functionality.
 Moment is a type of
load.
58
ELENO
 Sagging & Hogging of Beams:
 If the beam curves downwards

due to applied moment is called
Sagging.
 If the beam curves upwards due

to applied moment is called
hogging.
59
ELENO
 SFD & BMD: Important points
 Slope of BMD = Shear force

 Slope of SFD = Rate of loading
 dm = F*dx , dF = W*dx
 Change in bending moment between any 2 points =

Area of SFD between same 2 points.
 Where BM is max, slope is zero & vice versa
60
ELENO
 SFD & BMD: Load wise variation:
61
ELENO
 Problem-1:
1) Draw the SFD & BMD for the beam
62
ELENO
SFD & BMD can be plotted without

determining support reactions since it
is a cantilever beam.
However, values of SF & BM can be

verified if support reactions are
known.
63
ELENO
 Problem-2:
1) Draw the SFD & BMD for the beam
64
ELENO
65
ELENO
 Point of inflection:
 Whenever BM changes
sign, then curvature will
also change its sign at
that point.
 This point is called as

Point of Inflection.
66
ELENO
 Some more observations:
 If there is no externally applied moment, total

moment at any section equals the area under the
shear diagram up to that section.
 Critical values of BM also occur when SF crosses the

zero axis discontinuously. (eg: Beams under
concentrated loads)
67
ELENO
 Slope and Deflection of beams:
 This topic deals with behaviour of different beams

under various loading conditions.
 The concepts of slope & deflection are used in the
design of beam based on Rigidity or Stiffness criteria.
 Essential in analysis of Statically indeterminate beams.
68
ELENO
 Some points to note:
 The vertical displacement of any point on beam up

to its elastic curve is known as deflection of that
point.
 Condition for design based on Stiffness criteria:

Max deflection should be less than or equal to
Allowable deflection.
69
ELENO
 Some points to note:
 The angle made by a tangent drawn to elastic

curve with axis of beam is called Slope.
 Shape of elastic curve depends on type of loading.
 No load = Straight line

Pure bending = Arc of circle
SF + BM = Parabola
70
ELENO
 Governing equations for beam deflection:
 M/I = E/R
71
ELENO
 Methods to calculate slope & deflection:
1) Double integration method

 Suitable for prismatic beams
 Equation of BM is constant throughout length
2) Area moment method

 Suitable for both prismatic & non-prismatic beam
 Cantilever & SSB with symmetrical loading
72
ELENO
 Methods to calculate slope & deflection:
3) Strain Energy method

 Suitable for prismatic & non-prismatic beams
 Cantilever frames & Arches
 Deflection at any point in direction of load is equal

to partial derivative of total strain energy wrt load.
73
ELENO
 Standard equations:
74
ELENO
 Analysis of statically indeterminate beams:
75
ELENO
 Characteristics of indeterminate
beams:
 A Prop is added to reduce the

slope and deflection in beam.
 No. of unknowns = 4
 No. of static equilibrium
equations = 3
 dB=0 is the most commonly used
equation
76
ELENO
 Where are they used?
 Main purpose is to decrease deflection
It is used in these situations:

a) If deflections are high
b) If the span is more
c) For more lateral stability
d) To decrease the moment at fixed end
77
ELENO
 Solved Example:
For the propped beam shown below, determine the wall

moment & reaction at wall support.
78
ELENO
 Solution:
First find moment at prop support,
79
ELENO
 Solution:
80
ELENO
 Theory of Pure bending:
Pure bending is a case where

Bending moment is either
constant or maximum & Shear
force is zero.
SFD is a straight line while BMD is

rectangular.
81
ELENO
 Mechanics of bending:
82
ELENO
 Characteristics:
 Any point on neutral plane will have zero

bending stress & zero bending strain.
However, shear stress & shear strain may
act.
 Due to loading, beam axis bends in the
form of elastic curve. However, neutral
axis remains straight before & after load
application.
83
ELENO
 Assumptions in theory of pure bending:
1) Any cross-section which is plane before bending

remains plane after bending, then the variation of
strain is linear up to failure.
2) All materials are assumed to be homogeneous,
isotropic & follow Hooke’s law.
3) Due to pure bending, beam bends in the form of
circular arc with constant radius.
84
ELENO
 Equation for pure bending:
In practice, pure bending

condition is not possible because
of self weight.
That’s why principle of super-

position is used to find shear
force & bending moment values.
85
ELENO
 Section Modulus:
It is used to compare strength of

beam against bending.
Given by, Z = I/y
I = MI about neutral axis

y = Distance of outermost layer from
neutral axis
86
ELENO
 Significance of Section Modulus:
• Max bending stress = M*y(max)/I
• The section modulus indicates the distribution of

particles of cross section about neutral axis.
• If the particles are away from neutral axis, the

strength & stability in bending will be high.
87
ELENO
 Section Modulus for various Cross sections:
88
ELENO
 Moment of Resistance:
• It is the maximum value of bending moment which

can be applied on any beam before the start of
plastic deformation.
• In short, it is a couple produced when a beam is

subjected to bending under the action of loads.
89
ELENO
 Flexural Shear stress:
• Pure shear is a case

where Shear force is
maximum or constant
and Bending moment is
zero.
• SFD is rectangular while
BMD is a straight line.
90
ELENO
 Flexural Shear stress Equation:
• J = (V*A*y)/I*b
V = Shear force acting on cross section

I = MI of complete cross section about N.A
b = width of the section considered
A = Area either above or below section
y = Centroid distance of area from N.A
91
ELENO
 Characteristics of J:
• The value of flexural shear stress will always be zero

at top & bottom fibres because of complementary
shear stress condition.
• In case of rectangular cross section or cross sections

related to I-section or T-section, value of flexural
shear stress will always be maximum at Neutral Axis.
92
ELENO
 Shear stress variation

for different cross-
sections:
93
ELENO
 Observations:
 Usually a c/s which experiences lesser shear stress is

the most efficient. Hence, solid circular c/s is better
to resist shear force than a rectangular c/s.
 At a location of maximum bending stress, flexural

shear stress must be zero. But, at the location of
maximum shear stress, bending stress need not be
zero.
94
ELENO
 Torsion/ Twisting couple/ Torque:
 Pure Torsion is a condition where

the Twisting moment is either
constant or maximum & shear force
is zero.
 Sign convention:
Towards the section = +ve
Away from section = -ve
95
ELENO
 Assumptions in theory of pure

torsion:
 If any c/s of a shaft remains

plane after twisting, it means
the radius of section is constant
then shear strain in c/s of shaft
is linear with zero at centre &
maximum at all points on
circumference.
96
ELENO
 Assumptions in theory of pure

torsion:
 This (above) assumption in torsion is

applicable for solid & hollow circular
shafts only.
 All materials are assumed to be

homogeneous, isotropic & follow
Hooke’s law.
97
ELENO
 General equation of Torsion:
‫ =ז‬Shear stress J = Polar MI

T = Applied torque G = Modulus of rigidity
R = Radius Ѳ= Angle of twist
L = Length of Shaft
98
ELENO
 Polar Section Modulus:
 Zp = J/R
 Higher polar section modulus gives higher strength
against Torsion
99
ELENO
 Observations:
 The Polar section modulus is higher for hollow shaft

that’s why it has more strength against Torsion as
compared to solid shaft.
 If two different nature stresses are acting (Normal &

Shear), the design will be based on max principle
stress in case of brittle material & max shear stress
in case of ductile material.
100
ELENO
Thank you
101

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Strength of Materials

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ELENO

• SOM is the branch of App Mech that deals with study of

Engg Solid Fluid

• Homogeneous materials are the materials with

• Isotropic materials are the materials with same E

elastic properties in all directions at a given point. E

• Orthotropic materials are the ones which exhibit

• Anisotropic materials are the ones having

• Homogeneous material defines the uniformity

Assumptions used in SOM:

1. Material should be Homogeneous and Isotropic.

Some basic concepts:

• Strength: It is the resistance of a body against failure (Breaking

• Stiffness: It is the resistance of a body against deformation.

• Primary design criteria is based on Strength and Stiffness.

Concept of Stress and Strain:

• Stress: It is defined as the internal resisting force developed

By definition, Ƃ = P/A Unit: Pascal

• Strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in length of a

Important points related to Stress-Strain:

1. A member that is free to move away (internal resistance = 0)

True & Engineering Stress-Strain:

• Engineering Stress = Load (P)/ Original CSA of body

• Engineering Strain = Change in length/ Original length

• Engg Stress-strain are calculated using original

True & Engineering Stress-Strain Relation:

Load and its Classification:

• Load is defined as an external force or couple to which a

• Load is mainly divided into 3 types:

1) With respect to time:

2) With respect to direction:

3) With respect to Area:

Couple and its types:

• Two equal and opposite forces at same distance or

1) Direct normal Stress: 2) Bending Stress:

1) Direct Shear Stress: 2) Twisting shear Stress:

1) Normal Strain: Caused due to normal stress.

1) Young’s Modulus (Mpa, Gpa):

2) Shear Modulus (Mpa, Gpa):

3) Bulk Modulus (Mpa, Gpa):

• It is the ratio of Lateral strain to

 The negative value of poisson’s ratio is also possible,

 Some more such materials are- Auxetics and Smart

 Highly useful in Military applications.

Stress-Strain Curve for Mild steel:

• 0 to A: Hooke’s law is valid

 If tensile force is applied to a steel bar, it will have

 If the force is greater, the material will experience

 Beyond elastic limit, the material will experience

 As seen in curve, the correlation between stress-strain

 It curves from point C – the lower yield point to D –

 Important terms related to Stress-Strain curve:

• Elasticity is the property of material which enables the

 Important terms related to Stress-Strain curve:

• Modulus of Resilience: It is the energy absorbed per

 Some observations from Stress-Strain curve:

• All grades of Steel have same Young’s modulus,

• Some ductile materials like Aluminium, Copper don’t

 Thermal Stress: Stress generated in body due to Heat

• Coefficient of Thermal expansion (α)

• For mild steel, α=12*10^(-6)/°C

 Resilience is the area

 Proof Resilience (Up):

It is the maximum value of Resilience or It is the area