Approaches to testing the durability of

materials used in the construction and

maintenance of buildings

A. J. Lewry*t and L. F. E. Crewdson*

tBuilding Research Establishment, Garston, Watford WD2 7JR, UK

:tSouth Florida Test Service, Miami, Florida 33015, USA

This paper summarizes the factors involved and approaches taken when testing the durability of
construction materials. The problems associated with current standards are put into context and an
approach for the formulation of future standards is recommended. This paper is to be used as a
working document for the subcommittee on 'Design of short term test methods' of the RILEM
14D-TSL/CIB WaD on the design life of buildings. The recommended approach would enable the
response of materials to any environment to be modelled, a consequence of which would be more
accurate service-life prediction. In addition this would provide a better understanding for improving
material quality. Critical steps for this approach include: (i) consideration of the factors which might
affect the durability; (ii) accelerated testing to define the most significant factors causing degrada-
tion, and the mechanism of that degradation; (iii) evaluation of the significant causes of degrada-
tion in the proposed end use environment; (iv) construction of models and damage functions for
the material's response to the environment based on the accelerated test results and the environ-
mental measurements.

Keywords: construction materials; durability; testing

The durability testing of materials and components is a Clients want buildings that meet their requirements and
costly and time-consuming exercise. Durability is this will result in a need to define maintenance
defined in BS 75431 as: 'Ability of a building and its programmes and calculate building lifetimes. Con-
parts to perform its required function over a period of sequently the service life of the materials and/or compo-
time and under the influence of agents'. nents have to be estimatedl-s.
Durability is a fundamental property of building The contractor has to be able to construct the build-
materials and components; it is a major contributing ing and therefore needs to understand serviceability and
factor when considering the following issues: may have to convince the architect of the products'
fitness for purpose even when the specification covers
(a) estimation of service life; this. The supplier must show the suitability of the
(b) specification benchmarks; product for the proposed function to both the architect
(c) quality control; and contractor. This requires 'benchmarks' such as
(d) disputes. standards and agrement certificates which the manufac-
turer must use to control product quality if fitness for
The relative importance of these issues is in part deter- purpose is to be demonstrated.
mined by the respective interests of: Some guidance to the development of durability tests
now exists' but the application of these to the needs of
(a) the client; industry has yet to be fully implemented. The aim of
(b) the architect, designer and specifier; this paper is to review critically the current approaches
(c) the contractor; to durability testing and to recommend an integrated
(d) the supplier; approach to be used in the formulation of new stan-
(e) the manufacturer. dards. Work currently underway in the RILEM 140-
TSLICIB W80 committee will make technical
The client/architect, designer and specifier/contractor recommendations for the development of a general
relationships are the major driving forces-; the architect, guide for the prediction of service life. These recom-
designer, specifier and contractor are constantly aware mendations will be passed forward to the International
of the threat of litigation if the building develops faults. Organization for Standardization TC59/SC 3/WG 9
group on 'Design life of buildings'. The objective of the
ISO working group is to develop standards for describ-
"Correspondence to Dr A J. Lewry ing the design life of a building and for evaluating the

0950-0618/94/04/0211-12 © 1994 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4 211
© Crown copyright 1994 Building Research Estabiishment
Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson

probability that the design life will be achieved without Table 2 Materials and the weathering factors which degrade them
significant problems under the anticipated environmen- Material Weathering References
tal conditions. factor
Any estimation of service life must consider not only (see Table 1)
the durability of the material but any regulations relat- Brick 2,3,4,5,6 6
ing to its design and installation. Concrete/reinforced 2,3,4,5,6 7-9
concrete
Stone 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 IO 15
Weathering/degradation factors and their effects Metals 2,3,4.5,6 16, 17
Plastics
The major factors affecting the degradation of building Other polymers I, 2, 3,4, 5, 6 18-22
Surface coating
materials and components- are listed in Table 1. Wood I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 23,24
Weathering tests normally deal with weathering
factors only, but biological attack, stress, material
compatibility and wear and tear may be important in bility of the component must be considered. However,
some cases. Not all materials will be susceptible to all testing the whole or part of the component may not be
weathering factors (Tahle 2) and this should be taken feasible. Therefore, the results of each material are
into account when designing a durability testing system
normally taken and extrapolated to model the compo-
or regimes".
nent behaviour. Care should be taken at this stage to
ensure that the component's 'real-life' behaviour is
Materials and components modelled accurately. The same approach is essential to
extrapolate from the component to the actual building.
If the material is not to be used in isolation, it should be
Great care should be taken in all of these steps.
considered as a component; therefore the issue of
The relevance of test results to real-life situations
compatibility is importantv>. As materials are nor-
must also be taken into account; for example, a highly
mally used as part of a building component the dura-
durable mortar may not have the correct setting char-
acteristics to produce a high bond strength with
Table 1 Factors affecting the degradation of building materials and brick.". The situation is further complicated because a
components high bond strength is not necessarily an indicator of
Weathering Radiation low permeability to water, and one of the primary
solar purposes of a masonry wall is to prevent moisture
thermal penetration>,
2 Temperature
air Therefore the purpose and chemistry of a constituent
surface material with respect to the building component of
cycles/extremes
rate of change
which it forms a part must be taken into account when
3 Moisture designing a testing regime; otherwise, the results may be
solid (freeze/thaw) inappropriate and/or misleading.
liquid (rain/condensation/movement)
vapour (relative humidity/wetting-drying)
4 Air constituents
oxygen, ozone and carbon dioxide Approaches to testing
pollutant gases (S02' NO" etc.)
particulates When considering how to test for durability, an
mists/aerosols approach must be selected. Currently, durability tests
5 Marine environment can be divided into four approaches:
6 Below ground
groundwater and contaminants
contaminated land (a) benchmark tests;
seawater (b) reference materials/comparative tests;
Stress Stress (c) environmental/stress testing;
weight of building/components
(d) site testing.
Periodic stress
movement in end use environment
physical action of weathering factors such as These approaches are not mutually .exclusive in that
wind erosion tests have been or can be designed to incorporate one or
Biological attack Microbial more of these approaches.
Plants
Insects
Action of biological waste (a) 'Benchmark' tests
Incompatibility Chemical These are usually accelerated tests designed with a
Physical pass or fail criterion defined using historical data on a
Mechanical
material's performance within a certain environment,
Use Design
Installation/maintenance An example of this is the British Standard for roofing
Wear and tear slate-"; a slate is subjected to three accelerated tests:
Abuse water absorption, wetting/drying and acid immersion, If

212 Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4

 Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson

the slate passes all three, it is deemed to be durab le in
the United Kingdom environment.
The American Society for Testing an d Materials test
method for slate" carries this app roach a step further
by setting a series of levels for three accelerated tests
(Table 3); these levels are then used for service-life
prediction on the basis of historical knowledge of the
material in use.
Benchmark tests are relatively cheap and quick but to
formulate these tests kno wledge of the material and
are then placed into durability classes A to F (Ta ble 4 );
by expe rience the result is taken a stage furth er by defin-
ing the exposure zones of a building in which the stone
can be safely used (Figure 1).
The quality of du rability predictions is closely related
to the accuracy of the environmental simulation
performed in the test. The ASTM test" for the weath -
ering of bituminous roofing materials calls for the use of
' FS-40' fluorescent lamps containing large amo unts of
OV B radiation , very small amounts of visible light, and

climate are essential; a large database of in-service

performance is needed and the tests are usually limited
to a single material and climate.

(b) R eference materials/comparative tests

Reference materials are used in several accelerated tests
to calibrate either the equipment '? or the material s being
tested 30.
In the ASTM B 11 7 method for salt spray testin g-",
steel panels are exposed in the test equipment at either
monthly or more frequent periods to calibra te the
corrosive conditions.
The use of materials of known performance is a
comm on practice when new ma terials are to be tested.
Thus new materials can be quickly ranked by perfor-
mance to ascertain whether their service life is at least as
good as those currently in use. Ma terial performance
ranking cannot be used accurately to predict service life.
The Building Research Establishment salt crystalliza-
tion test-? simulates the effects of salt damage on lime-
stone; reference materials are included in the test
against which the unkn own is assessed. The limestones

Table 3 Service-life pred iction for slate using ASTM C 406

-
c=J
Cd
Zone 1 Paving . s te ps

Zone 2

Zon e 3
Cop inq s" • ch imneys. corni ces" .
open parapets . finials . plinths"

Str ings . plinth s", quo ins. tracery

hood moulds, solid parapets
(e xc luding cop ing stones" I.
cornices". mullions, sills
Modulus of
rupture
across Water Depth of Service
CJ Zone 4 Plain walling

Classifi- gra in absorption softeni ng life

• A stone normally suuabte for Zone 3 could be use d for
cation (MPa) (max, %) (max, mm) (years) co pings and cormces In Zone 2 If 11 w ere pro tected by
lead . SImilarly. a phn th In Zone 2 could be conside red as
62 0.25 0.05 > 75 Zone 3 II there w ere crotecnco aqar ns t riSing damp .
Grade SJ
Grade S2 62 0.36 0.20 4G--75
Grade S3 62 0.45 0.36 20-40 Figure I Exposure zones of a build ing in which a stone ca n be used

Table 4 Effect of enviro nment on the suita bility of limesto nes for th e four expos ure zones" of a
buildin g

Suitability zones for various limestones in a ran ge o f climatic conditions

Inland Expo sed coastal

Limestone Crystal- Low pollutio n High pollution Low pollution High pollution
du rability liza tion
class loss (%) ]\' 0 F rost No Fro st No Frost No Fro st
frost frost frost frost

Zones" Zon es Zones Zo nes Zones Zones Zones Zones

A <1 1-4 1--4 1--4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4

B 1 to 5 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2b-4 2L4
C >5 to 15 2-4 2-4 3-4 3-4 36-4 4
D > 15 t0 35 3-4 4 3--4 4
E >35 4 4 46_
F Shatt ers 4 4
early in test

"The exposure zones a re illustra ted in Figure I

' Probab ly lim ited to 50 years' life

Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4 213

Approaches to material durability testing: A J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson

virtually no infrared light. Figure 2 shows the spectral of UVB fluorescent lamp s is to achieve greater accelera-
power distribution of th is light source in comparison tion with in the test, at a lower cost; unfortunately the
with sunlight measured in Florida. The FS-40 light risk of producing erroneous results is increased . If the
source contains wavelengths of light much shorter and material's mode of degradation is well understood, the
therefore with higher photon energies than those found comparative type of weathering test is more suited to
in sunlight. quality control procedures where consistency is being
The photodegradation of organic materials is a result tested v.
of the ab sorbed radiant energy causing scission of As with benchmark tests, comparative tests are cheap
chemical bonds and subsequent forming of reacti ve and quick, with knowledge of the material, climate and
groups; the short wavelengths available in the UVB in-service performance being essential. The precision of
region can break bonds with higher energy than can the these tests is further limited by the consistency of the
wavelengths found in sunlight , as shown in Table 5. equipment and the reference standards.
T herefore the absorption of the short-wavelength degra-
dation may ultimately lead to alternative chemical (c) Environmental and stress testing
degradation pathways and possible reversals of material Environmental and stress testing describes either:
per formance rankings". The philosophy behind the use
(a) attempts to simulate and accelerate the entire
WaItS ,er Square -etRr
service environment-"; or
2...------------------------, (b) attempts to stress the material by intensifying the
environmental factor(s) to which it is susceptible".
us
Climatic chambers such as VENUS34 attempt to ac-
celerate all environmental conditions. Weath ering
1
machines with xenon-arc-type lamps, such as is specified
,\
I
I \
\
in ASTM G 26-9236, test materials with respect to simu-
O.JJ
,
I \ I
~
lated sunlight, wet/dry cycles and a range of tempera-
,I
"
I ture and humidity cycles. It is po ssible to have a more
G'--''--'''---'----''---''-'-l...L.L_-'---<.J-.-.----'-_--'-_-'--------1_---.J comprehensive simulated environment within the xenon
260 lOG S60 COO 460 600 &60 800 860 700 760 BOO
arc weathering machine when it is used in combination
Wavelength In nm with special attachments for generating pollutant gases
- Miami DorrIlght - - Uvoon fJ5-40 such as ozone, sulfur dioxide or oxides of nitrogen. It
should be noted that the effects of biological attack
Figure 2 Average optimum Mi ami da ylight ver sus Uvcon with FS-4 0 cannot be simulated in a weathering chamber, although
lamps work has been done by implementing a cyclic procedure
using a xenon arc testing machine and an accelerated
Table 5 Bond dissociation energies mildew chamber". Assessment of biological attack is
normally carried out separately.
Bond Bond Wavelength 2 3
ener gies (mm) In contrast to the ASTM test.", the building code of
(kca l mol -I) Dade County, Florida, specifies the xenon arc for
roofing materials as a special protocol for 'Accelerated
c=c (Acety lene) 228 125
Expo sure of Roofing Material s Using A Controlled
C~N (N itrile ) 209 137
C=O 174 164 Irradiance Water Cooled Xenon Arc Apparatus'v , Th is
C=C 145 197 test is based on ASTM G 26-92, where the Florida envi-
C -C (Aro m atic) 124 231
C-H (Ace ty lene) 121 236 ronment is simulated according to measurements made
CH (Ethylene) 106 270 of the light and heat. Rainfall is simulated by water
C- H (Aro ma tic) 103 278 spray cycles ( Table 6). The similarity between the
C-H (M ethane) 102 280
Q-H (Metha no l) 100 286 measured spectral power distributions of Miami sun-
O-H (Et hanol) 100 2H6 light and the specified light source is shown in Figure 3.
C- H (E thane) 99 289 The length of the test has been calculated according to
C-O (Etha nol) 92 311
C-o (Me tha no l) 89 32 1 environmental site measurements, with the radi ant
c-c (Et ha ne) 84 340 energy dosage used as the controlling factor.
C-Cl (Methyl chlo ride ) 84 340 Environmental simulation tests do not need reference
C-C (P ro pa ne) 83 345
C-C1 (E thyl chloride) 81 353 materials, are environmentally specific and the results
C-O (M ethyl ether) 76 376 are normally less open to misinterpretation. However,
RO-OR (Peroxide) 64 447 the tests are slower, and the simulated environment
RO-OH (Hydroperoxide) 36 794
must be compared with on-site environmental measure-
Note: Shaded area represents ments to ensure that the correct factors are being simu-
lated.
I Wavelengths available in Miami sunlight
2 Wavelengths available in borosilicat e filLered xenon arc Stress testing makes use of 'statistical reliability' tech-
3 Wavelengths available in FS-40, UVB lamp niques. Each of the simulated environmental parame-

214 Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4

 Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson

Table 6 Apparatus set-up for Dade County Accelerated Weathering may degrade by another mechanism, pro4ucing
Protocol for testing roofing materials
misleading results". It is essential to be aware of the
Test parameter Setting possibility of changes in the degradation mechanism, by
another mechanism, particularly when testing at the
Irradiance 0.35 ± 0.01 W m-2 nm' at 340 nm
Black-panel temperature 90 ± 2 °C
higher stress levels.
Dry-bulb temperature N/A
Cycle programme #162,90 minutes of light only followed by (d) Site testing
30 minutes of light with specimen spray
Relative humidity 60 ± 5% Site testing encompasses two approaches:
Conditioning water 63± 4 °C
(a) exposure site testing;
Water-cooled xenon arc weather-ometer":
Light source: filtered xenon arc lamp (b) in situ monitoring of buildings.
Filter combination: type'S' borosilicate inner and outer filters
Test length: total length 3600 h (approx. 5000 kJ m-2 nm! at 340 nm) Exposure site testing can range from relatively small
projects to the much larger intergovernment coopera-
ters is considered as a stress factor, and can be increased
tive programmes. Examples of national and intergov-
or decreased in intensity or magnitude to produce
ernment-funded tests are the programmes to investigate
different stress levels according to the experimental
the long-term impact of acid deposition on buildings
design. When 'reliability analysis' is used the distribu-
and building materials ":
tion of failures of replicate specimens over time is fitted
to a specific mathematical distribution such as the
(1) National Materials Exposure Programme
Weibull, lognormal, exponential, etc. By testing the
(NMEP) in the UK;
materials at different stress levels, and combinations of
(2) International Materials Exposure Programme
stress levels, the changes in the failure distribution can
(IMEP) coordinated by the United Nations
be modelled and a prediction made for any combination
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).
of stress levels.
If the environmental conditions for use are then
Both of these programmes provide a range of pollutant
specified they can be substituted into the equation, and
and meteorological climates (Figure 4) in which material
the predicted service life calculated. An example of such
degradation rates and mechanisms can be investigated.
a model suitable for weathering experimentation is the
Commercial testing sites are frequently used by the
Eyring equation which allows for mul:iple variables 39A.o.
industrial sector. The location of these laboratories
Schutyser has illustrated the degradation of an orgamc
usually coincides with an environment specifically
coating at different temperatures by the use of the
selected to stress naturally one or more of the weather-
Arrhenius Weibull model", Reliability analysis, used as
ing factors. Miami, Florida, has high sunlight, humidity
a basis for experimental design, produces a true estimate
and temperature levels (Figure 5) which comprise a ve~y
of service life; however, as with all statistical techniques,
demanding environment for materials exposed to It.
the results are a reflection of the quality of the test
Consequently there are several commercial weathering
design. Sufficient replicates, stress levels and combina-
tions of stress levels must be tested, resulting in a more
extensive and more expensive testing programme. In the
• Exposure sites
previously discussed techniques, only one exposure ~est o Main research centre/sub centre

run is called for; using the reliability approach, multlple

tests are necessary. In addition, there is always the
possibility that the accelerating/stressing of the material

wa.. perlquar......
1.5 . . . - - - - - - = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
34.
2 su

1.5

0.1

OL~:...-'---'--'------'--J.....-----'--J.....-___L_:_=:_:_~
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 100 150 700 750 BOO
Wavelength In nm
- MIMII Daylight - - x.non

Figure 3 Average optimum Miami daylight versus xenon arc with Figure 4 Location of sites in the International Materials Exposure
borosilicate filters Programme

Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4 215

Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson

companies. Other testing locations within the United

Figure 5 Exposure racks according to ASTM G 07 in use at a
commercial testing site in south Florida
labs in this area. European testing sites noted for high
levels of sunlight have been set up in Bandol in the
south of France, and are frequently used by European
States are also used. For example, Jacksonville, Florida,
is utilized by coatings manufacturers for its localized
effect of acid rain. Both government and commercial
testing for extreme cold environments was set up in
Alaska and Kapuskasing, Ontario, where average daily
maximum temperatures are -23°C and minima can be
as low as -50°C. The cited commercial sites are set up
to meet standards specifically written with industry's
needs in mind".
The advantages of site testing are that the measure-
ments made are specific to the test environment, the
level of confidence is high and the test results can be
used to set up accelerated tests.
However, a meaningful range of environments (for
example, tropical, desert, temperate and freeze/thaw)
should be selected if the tested material is expected to
perform globally. Atmospheric and other forms of pollu-
tion should also be considered if necessary. It should
also be noted that the outdoor environment is in itself
variable, and all outdoor testing should be accompanied

Table 7 Example of environmental data monitored at a commercial field site in Miami, Florida

Day 5° 26°

Direct Under glass Direct Under glass Direct Under glass

Total TUVR" Total TUVR Total TUVR Total TUVR Total TUVR Total TUVR SFTS notes

l 15.77 0.59 13.62 12.33 0.57 9.92 14.90 0.65 12.63 Condensed summary: Louisville,
2 16.31 0.61 14.09 12.83 0.57 10.43 15.46 0.67 IU3 Kentucky, 1993
3 22.42 0.76 19.45 16.34 0.67 12.98 20.62 0.81 16.68
4 23.39 0.79 20.37 16.27 0.69 13.44 21.19 0.82 17.80 Rainfall
Month Ambient
5 16.69 0.61 14.44 12.36 0.58 9.65 15.38 0.67 12.80 (mm)
6 24.25 0.79 21.27 16.38 0.67 13.46 21.86 0.83 18.36 Hi Lo Av
7 18.84 0.65 16.39 14.17 0.60 11.56 17.58 0.70 14.59
8 19.72 0.68 17.16 14.58 0.60 11.35 18.12 0.72 15.04 I 8 0 3 73
9 19.33 0.65 16.82 13.50 0.59 10.68 17.49 0.69 14.70 2 6 -4 I 80
10 20.08 0.68 17.41 14.46 0.61 11.61 18.63 0.73 15.49 3 11 2 6 70
11 20.19 0.70 17.67 14.49 0.62 11.40 18.47 0.74 15.79 4 19 8 13 39
12 26.13 0.77 22.79 17.68 0.66 14.32 23.60 0.81 19.91 5 25 14 20 48
13 17.70 0.60 15.31 13.04 0.56 10.62 16.43 0.65 14.03 6 29 18 23 57
14 14.97 0.55 12.95 11.45 0.51 9.20 14.00 0.60 11.95 7 33 23 28 103
15 19.38 0.69 16.78 14.12 0.62 11.21 17.82 0.74 15.13 8 31 20 25 135
16 24.94 0.78 21.80 16.83 0.67 13.62 22.53 0.82 19.11 9 27 17 21 67
17 18.82 0.64 16.37 13.85 0.57 11.25 17.39 0.68 14.82 10 19 8 13 97
18 20.02 0.67 17.35 14.23 0.60 11.32 18.33 0.71 15.54 II 13 3 7 53
19 17.22 0.63 14.83 12.75 0.57 10.25 15.69 0.66 13.46 12 9 2 6 46
20 17.80 0.65 15.39 13.31 0.59 10.75 16.52 0.70 14.10
21 14.00 0.52 12.05 10.91 0.49 8.59 13.20 0.57 11.03 *1 19 9 14 868
22 24.70 0.82 2[ .44 16.38 0.70 13.32 22.02 0.85 18.74
23 8.04 0.33 6.82 6.79 0.33 5.20 7.79 0.37 6.50 *1: Yearly average or total
24 14.77 0.56 12.71 12.11 0.55 9.86 14.18 0.64 12.09
25 8.75 0.36 7.52 7.86 0.39 6.39 8.69 0.43 7.30
26 24.00 0.74 20.83 16.08 0.65 12.64 21.58 0.79 18.07
27 10.94 0.46 9.33 10.27 0.49 8.27 11.07 0.54 9.32
28 12.64 0.49 10.92 10.41 0.49 8.38 12.09 0.55 10.42
29 17.87 0.70 15.78 13.42 0.65 11.24 16.43 0.75 14.41
30 19.84 0.72 17.47 14.51 0.65 12.02 18.35 0.77 15.78
31 14.50 0.55 12.69 11.88 0.56 9.58 13.93 0.64 11.85

*1 564.02 19.74 489.82 415.59 18.07 334.51 521.34 21.30 440.27

*2 13480 II 707 9933 7995 12460 10523
*3 5989.97 284.21 5162.39 6297.20 310.44 5514.10 64l8.76 318.64 5583.00
*4 143 164 123 384 150507 131 790 153 412 133437

TUVR": Total ultraviolet radiation in the 295-385 nm range

*1: Monthly total of solar energy in mcgajoules per square metre for 1 31 December 1993
*2: Monthly total of solar energy in langleys for 1-31 December [993
*3: Yearly total of solar energy in megajoules per square metre for 1 January-31 December 1993
*4: Yearly total of solar energy in langleys for 1 January-31 December 1993

216 Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4

 Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewryand L. F. E. Crewdson

Table 7 continued

Day Temperature (OC) Wind

Ambient Under Black Relative Rain- Wet Dew

glass panel humidity fall time pt Speed Dir.

Hi La Av Hi La Av Hi La Av Hi La Av (mm) (h) (h) (0C) (kph) (av)

1 28 17 23 38 16 26 38 13 26 91 66 78 0 0.0 4.3
2 27 17 22 39 17 26 45 13 26 91 61 76 0 0.0 11.3
3 29 17 21 45 17 27 46 14 26 91 59 80 0 0.0 14.3
4 31 16 23 54 16 30 54 13 28 91 54 79 0 0.0 14.5
5 29 18 23 41 17 26 42 14 26 91 72 85 0 0.0 14.7
6 27 13 19 49 12 25 47 9 23 92 40 77 0 0.0 11.1
7 28 16 20 47 11 26 46 12 25 91 61 79 0 0.0 12.6
8 28 15 21 47 14 27 47 12 25 92 61 82 0 0.0 14.8
9 27 15 20 43 14 24 46 11 24 92 56 81 0 0.0 15.1
10 29 14 21 50 13 28 47 11 25 92 58 80 0 0.0 9.2
11 25 13 20 41 13 24 40 11 24 90 51 76 TR 1.3 13.3
12 20 7 13 40 7 18 38 4 17 90 23 58 0 0.0 5.1
13 25 10 16 42 10 22 45 7 20 92 55 81 0 0.0 13.3
14 27 14 20 45 15 26 41 11 24 91 61 82 TR 0.6 15.1
15 24 14 19 * * 35 9 23 91 21 55 0 0.0 10.4
16 20 9 14 * 32 5 18 55 18 40 0 0.0 13.1
17 25 9 16 41 5 20 91 33 63 0 0.0 11.0
18 27 14 20 51 10 24 95 55 82 0 0.0 10.9
19 27 16 21 53 13 25 95 62 81 0 0.0 11.4
20 28 18 22 44 16 27 94 64 82 0 0.0 12.9
21 28 14 22 42 12 25 95 68 87 0 0.0 13.1
22 25 10 17 48 6 22 97 35 77 0 0.0 13.1
23 29 13 19 39 11 22 94 74 90 TR 1.7 19.7
24 28 12 19 49 10 24 95 75 88 0 0.0 13.2
25 19 8 13 30 4 17 98 72 90 1 2.5 22.3
26 19 7 12 35 3 16 99 47 75 0 0.0 15.3
27 23 9 15 38 6 18 97 66 85 0 0.0 14.7
28 27 12 20 45 9 23 98 73 89 TR 0.5 15.3
29 29 18 23 52 15 27 97 64 87 0 0.0 14.0
30 27 15 20 45 15 26 43 12 25 97 65 87 0 0.0 14.2
31 25 13 19 45 14 27 40 11 23 96 72 88 0 0.0 14.1
*1 26 13 19 44 14 25 43 10 23 92 56 79 1 6.6 407.4
*2 30 19 24 46 19 29 52 17 30 95 59 81 918 646.1 4519.5 16

*1: Monthly average or monthly total for 1-31 December

*2: Yearly average or yearly total for I January-Jl December 1993
*: Not recorded due to equipment malfunction

Day Temperature (0C) Wind

Ambient Under Black Relative Rain- Wet Dew

glass panel humidity fall time pt Speed Dir.

Hi La Av Hi La Av Hi La Av Hi La Av (mm) (h) (h) (0C) (kph) (av)

1 21 4 12 36 4 17 51 2 25 91 22 51 0 0.0 0.0
2 23 3 13 40 3 18 56 0 25 56 14 30 0 0.0 0.0
3 21 3 11 36 4 16 52 0 24 41 14 25 0 0.0 0.0
4 20 1 10 33 2 14 44 0 22 51 14 29 0 0.0 0.0
5 22 1 10 35 2 14 48 -1 23 46 14 27 0 0.0 0.0
6 22 4 11 37 3 15 50 3 23 42 14 30 0 0.0 0.0
7 22 3 12 34 3 15 44 0 22 47 15 32 0 0.0 0.0
8 18 6 11 21 6 12 24 4 13 55 21 40 0 0.0 0.0
9 23 4 12 38 4 17 52 1 25 70 19 45 0 0.0 0.0
10 25 4 13 41 3 18 56 1 27 66 14 40 0 0.0 0.0
11 21 10 15 31 9 15 43 8 19 91 21 40 1 1.0 3.9
12 16 4 11 26 4 14 37 4 18 90 30 56 TR 0.4 0.9
13 18 6 5 34 2 14 50 -2 23 85 19 63 0 0.0 0.0
14 18 6 II 31 2 14 46 0 19 55 21 40 0 0.0 0.0
15 23 4 12 25 3 12 36 0 is 71 19 45 0 0.0 0.0
16 25 4 13 29 2 12 43 0 18 66 14 40 0 0.0 0.0
17 18 2 9 30 1 12 46 -2 19 77 19 50 0 0.0 0.0
18 14 1 8 31 4 16 43 4 20 93 37 64 0 0.0 0.0
19 15 1 7 32 3 14 48 0 19 97 35 71 0 0.0 0.0
20 17 0 8 32 1 12 45 -2 19 94 18 54 0 0.0 0.0
21 19 4 11 18 3 9 22 0 11 67 22 41 0 0.0 0.0
22 17 2 8 31 1 13 46 1 20 78 26 52 0 0.0 0.0
23 16 -2 8 26 0 II 32 -3 16 38 16 22 0 0.0 0.0
24 16 -3 7 34 0 14 49 -4 19 26 15 20 0 0.0 0.0
25 22 0 10 37 I 15 53 -1 23 39 14 25 0 0.0 0.0
26 19 6 11 26 5 13 35 2 16 28 16 24 0 0.0 0.0
27 19 8 12 26 6 14 34 6 16 51 20 33 0 0.0 0.0
28 22 7 13 39 6 18 54 5 26 67 23 44 0 0.0 0.0
29 20 6 14 34 5 16 40 2 22 48 15 27 0 0.0 0.0
30 21 7 13 30 4 16 39 2 21 87 41 65 0 0.0 0.0
31 24 6 14 37 6 17 51 3 24 84 25 57 0 0.0 0.0
*1 20 4 11 32 3 14 44 1 20 64 20 41 I 1.4 4.8
*2 30 14 22 43 12 25 53 11 28 66 27 46 385 85.1 512.0

Solar radiation instruments are calibrated by the field transfer method ASTM E 824-81 and annually by the
manufacturer
Data compiled and reported by Charles B. Singh, Technical & Computer Services

Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number4 217

Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson
by instrumental monitoring of the weathering factors
relevant to the material being tested. An example of
weathering data is shown in Table 7. If outdoor tests
alone were used, it would be impossible to develop new
materials in the time required by the market for compet-
itive manufacture. An approach to reduce test time is by
extrapolating data assuming a predetermined function; if
improperly used, the extrapolation can lead to an inac-
curate and misleading result.
In addition to 'natural' exposure, site testing encom-
passes outdoor accelerated tests. An accelerated outdoor
test makes use of the natural environment and either in-
creases a single stress factor", or adds an additional stress
factor". The Fresnel reflector devices specified in ASTM
G 9()46 and ASTM D 4141 47 use highly efficient reflectors
arranged in a 'Fresnel array' to focus multiple reflections
of sunlight onto the surface of the specimen (Figure 6).
The Fresnel concentrator is most efficiently used in a
desert environment where it concentrates ultraviolet light
to approximately 500% of its natural leveL Acceleration is
attempted by increasing the irradiance level.
Karpatiw so developed outdoor exposure testing
procedures in which artificially generated physical
stresses are imposed on the specimens. This procedure
was set up for the testing of sealant materials where
movement in situ is a significant degradation factor. The
frequency and magnitude of the movement cycles are an
Figure 6 Fresnel reflecting device
218 Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4
accelerating factor and must be designed according to
the expected performance of the sealant material, but
the materials are exposed to natural weather conditions.
The advantage of using an accelerated site test is that
the natural environment is used, ensuring a higher level
of confidence. However, the artificial stresses imposed
by the accelerated weathering factor suffer from the
same disadvantages as a laboratory accelerated test, in
that the results must still be compared with field
measurements.
In general, for materials that have been in use for a
long period of time in a specific environment the corre-
lation between the accelerated testing and field perfor-
mance has been well established. Problems normally
arise when a new material is under development, or a
material is used in a new environment. For confidence
in the product, environmental simulation testing needs
to be verified by comparison with site testing. Stress
testing then needs to be performed to obtain estimates
of service life. Long, slow, testing procedures conflict
with the commercial factors involved and a compromise
testing programme is normally devised.
Evaluation of degradation and failure
The role of evaluation is critical in the effectiveness of a
durability testing programme. Generalized methods of
evaluation fall into the following categories:
(a) visual evaluation;
(b) instrumental evaluation of materials properties;
(c) analytical evaluation of chemical breakdown.
Visual evaluation, such as colour change, surface
roughness, reflectance, etc., is useful for material
changes of a cosmetic nature where the opinion of the
consumer or end user is an important factor, or where
the material shows a gross failure. Figure 7 illustrates a
typical rating scale for the cracking of painted surfaces.
The problems with this approach are that visual ratings
are very imprecise and subjective; consequently multiple
inspectors and more advanced levels of degradation are
required in order to show significant discrimination
between products. In addition, the resulting data is
unsuitable for many commonly used parametric statisti-
cal techniques. When the precision of a weathering test
is examined, a visual evaluation procedure itself can
become the dominant source of variability when
included in the specification. Precautions must be taken
to expose sufficient replicate specimens or use a suffi-
cient number of inspectors.
Instrumental measurement of visible degradation can
also be used. A more objective approach for evaluating
visible types of degradation is to use computer image
processing>', Instrumental methods are commonly used
to measure changes in the physical properties of materi-
als after weathering, for example change in breaking
strength, or change in bend strength. The use of an
instrumental method of measurement in combination
with sufficient replicate specimens may lead to a better
 Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson

SOUTH FLORIDA TEST SERVICE tive throughout the European Union (EU) is leading to
Impeclpcs' manual
the production of harmonized standards>', These
TNO REFERENCESTANDARDCRACKJCHECK IDENTIFICATION Comite Europeen de Normalisation (CEN) standards
will cover a wide range of materials and environments
~I 1r!~fl
\ ~ , with a 'CE' mark indicating proof of conformity to the

<' ~ i ») ~ l
standard. However, the lack of a defined approach to
t ' the design of testing regimes has led to a number of
I •
A - LONG LINE B - IRREGULAR C - SHORT PARALLEL
deviations in order to produce workable standards for
the industries concerned, especially when quality
... control and sampling have been considered.
r: ... -(
(k--:-
)
)- International committees such as RILEM 140-
J
I....
~

.1'
TSLICIB W80 and ISO TC59/SC3/WG9 on the predic-
'(
.." I \
~
J\ ~ tion of service life of building materials and components
D - SHORT RANDOM
"' E = CROWSFOOT F = LONG RANDOM
are providing generic approaches. A generic approach is
not specific and therefore is applicable to all types of
building materials and components.
~ ~ The problem with such generic approaches is that

~
a (.>

()
(...
o
C7
~~X7
o (""~
G ~ SIGMOID H = BRANCHED RANDOM
K - ALLIGATOR L - DIRECTIONAL
MOSAIC
Figure 7 Examples of visual rating scales for evaluating the cracking
of coatings
definition of pass/fail criteria and hence reduction of
litigation, and improved repeatability.
The use of analytical methods to monitor chemical
changes may offer a method of detecting meaningful
changes at a very early stage. Gerlock 52,53 has reported
the measurement of the variation in nitroxide free
radical concentration on the exposure to ultraviolet
radiation of melamine cross-linked acrylic copolymer
film. Such films are used in particular coatings systems
as the basis of the top clear coat. There is a detectable
change within a few hours of exposure testing. The
results of the measurements were found to be a complex
function of the light intensity and the humidity condi-
tions of the exposure.
The more accelerated the test the earlier an indication
of change can be detected. If early detection is possible,
it becomes less necessary to accelerate the degradation
processes by imposing unnatural stress, and the risk of
producing erroneous test results is reduced. However,
this is only true if the parameter detected is representa-
tive of the degradation process and can be related to the
long-term behaviour of the material.
Generic and future standards
The implementation of the construction product direc-
they can lose sight of the needs of industry or applica-
bility to real-life situations.
The way forward is to design standards which will
J l1li: MOSAIC simulate material response in every environment. Figure
8 shows a flowchart outlining the critical components of
standard development. Measurements of the appropri-
ate parameters in the intended end use environment
should be made. The environmental measurements can
then be used to design the appropriate test environment
for simulation. It may be necessary to determine, by
using accelerated tests, which of the parameters are
mainly responsible for the degradation, or it may be
possible to refer to a previously determined database of
information on degradation of the material. Tests can
then be made to calculate damage functions and thus
model the response of the material to these factors by
using the previously described environmental/stress
testing techniques. Environmental measurements could
then be fed into the model to verify its quality.
Standards developed using the scheme outlined in
Figure 8 would make service-life prediction an easier
exercise if testing can be related to 'life-years' and if
component/material failure could be related to building
failure.
Site Measurement
!
Degradation Mechanism(s)-
1
r-+ Damage function(s)
1
Model
t
"-- Accelerated test _-_..I
Flgure 8 Diagram to show critical components of standard test
development

Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4 219

Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson
An example of progress in the development of stan-
dards using environmental/stress testing can be seen in
current test development in the sealant industry. ASTM
and RILEM TC139 are moving towards the develop-
ment of new outdoor and accelerated testing methods.
The work in progress is an effective combination of
environmental/stress testing, with some aspects of envi-
ronmental simulation and some aspects of reliability
analysis incorporated. Several accelerated weathering
tests providing environmental simulations are being
evaluated to ascertain the basis for the laboratory tests.
Ranking techniques based on relative performances of
several sealants, comparing accelerated with outdoor
tests, win be used to find the test method which best
simulates outdoor exposures.
Based on findings by Karpati48- 50 and by Lacasse>,
frequency and amplitude of movement in situ are the
main factors of degradation. Within the selected labor-
atory test the sealant material is subjected to varying
levels of physical stress, based on the amount of move-
ment capability for which the material is rated. Failure
curves will be constructed for each of the stress levels
and predictions will be made based on the amplitude of
movement to which the sealant will be subjected in the
end use environment.
In addition the experimental plan incorporates exten-
sive measurement of the test environment and a review
of new methods of instrumental measurement of surface
cracking. The Appendix shows the experimental design
proposed for the xenon arc testing including the
numbers of specimens and stress levels used.
Standard development could be taken a step further
by using information technology (rr) to develop an
information package that would allow an architect
to specify the design and life of a building and then
be given a choice of materials and associated
standards.
Conclusions
When testing for the durability of a material for use in
the construction industry four approaches can be used:
(a) benchmark tests;
(b) reference materials/comparative testing;
(c) environmental/stress testing;
(d) site testing.
Traditional materials with a long history of field service
can be tested using benchmark tests and reference
materials. This can be extended to new materials of the
same type, but the environment is limited to that
covered by the database of the products' history.
When a new material and/or environment is consid-
ered, a comprehensive testing programme is required
including site and environmental/stress testing to give
confidence in the service performance; in addition this
would provide a better understanding for improving
material quality, The approach should be based on the
following:
220 Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4
(a) consideration of the factors which might affect the
durability;
(b) accelerated testing to define the most significant
factors causing degradation, and the mechanism
of that degradation;
(c) evaluation of the significant causes of degradation
in the proposed end use environment;
(d) construction of models and damage functions for
the material's response to the environment based
on the accelerated test results and the environ-
mental measurements.
Future standards should be written to model a mater-
ial's response in every environment in which it is to be
used so that service-life predictions become more accur-
ate. To ensure the accuracy of these predictions the step
of considering the material as part of a building compo-
nent must be taken fully into account. The work of the
subgroup 'Design of short term test methods' of the
RILEM 140-TSL/CIB W80 committee on 'Service life
prediction' is aimed at recommendations for modelling
the service life of materials using the approach
suggested in this paper.
The final aim should be an IT package which will
specify materials based on the design and environmen-
tal location of a building.
Acknowledgements
The BRE contribution to this work was funded by the
Construction Directorate of the UK Department of the
Environment.
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Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4 221

Approaches to material durability testing: A. J. Lewry and L. F. E. Crewdson

out at 500 kJ rrr? nrrr-' increments. Specimens will be each specimen will be started in a compressed state
adjusted each 250 kJ m- 2 nm' increments (approx. (Lacasse, ASTM 199455) . The specimens will be
weekly). adjusted in 250 kJ m- 2 nm-! at 340 nm increments
At the end of each inspection increment three speci- (approximately weekly).
mens of each sealant type and movement cycle plus all
specimens of sealant type A will be removed from the
device and inspected using a video imaging procedure, A specimen table for the xenon test is shown below.
and then inspected visually by three independent inspec-
tors. Three replicate specimens of each sealant type and Test Material Cycle # Joint Subtotals
(% of rated movement) specimens
movement cycle will then be subjected to dynamic
mechanical analysis. Xenon weather-
omcter Sealant A 33 30 30 350
Movement cycles. There will be three cycles, each Sealant B 33 30 30
utilizing a different amplitude of movement. The ampli- Sealant C 33 30 30
Sealant D 33 30 30
tudes will be based on the movement capability rating Sealant E 33 30 30
of each of the sealants as a percentage of their rating. Sealant F 33 50 200
66 50
The movement applied will be at 33%, 66% and 100% 100 50
of their rated capability. The cycles will be such that Control 50

222 Construction and Building Materials 1994 Volume 8 Number 4