applied

sciences
Article
Evaluation of Ultrasonic Bonding Strength with
Optoacoustic Methods
Takumi Kamimura 1 , Sanichiro Yoshida 2 and Tomohiro Sasaki 1, *
1 Graduate School of Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-ninocho, Nishi-ku, Niigata-shi, Niigata 950-2181, Japan;
taku3.kamimura@gmail.com
2 Department of Chemistry and Physics, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA 70402, USA;
syoshida@selu.edu
* Correspondence: tomodx@eng.niigata-u.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-25-262-6710




Received: 31 May 2018; Accepted: 19 June 2018; Published: 23 June 2018


Abstract: This study reports the application of an optoacoustic method for evaluating the bonding
strength of ultrasonically bonded joints in a non-destructive and non-contact fashion. It is proposed
that the bonding strength is correlated with the resonant frequency of bonded joints. The bonding
strength measured with a destructive tensile test roughly increased with the vibration time, however,
it varied, causing the transitional and dispersed formation of micro-bonds at the bonding interface.
Scanning Electron Microscopic observation of the fractured surface suggested that the bonding strength
depends on the total bonded area of micro-bonds. Frequency response of the bonded joint was examined
with a non-destructive method using a piezo-electric vibrator. The experiment revealed that the resonant
frequency exponentially increased with the bonding strength. In addition, this vibration behavior was
dynamically visualized with electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI). The correlation between
the bonded area and the resonant frequency is discussed based on finite element analysis. The results
indicate the possibility for in-situ evaluation of the ultrasonic bonding strength.

Keywords: ultrasonic bonding; bonding strength; nondestructive testing; resonant frequency;

electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI)

1. Introduction
Ultrasonic bonding is one of the solid-state bonding techniques that uses high frequency vibration
to bond metal sheets. This technique is utilized in the automotive industry for joining parts such as
wire bonding on a semiconductor substrate, wiring components with electrode terminals, and thin
film electrodes of lithium ion batteries. The importance of the ultrasonic bonding is increasing with
electrification of automobiles and the expansion of demand of electric vehicles. In addition, as the
ultrasonic bonding has advantages such as short-time and low energy compared with other solid-state
bonding techniques [1], the ultrasonic bonding is expected to be a promising tool in dissimilar bonding
for automotive body panels. Since the industrial importance and the demand of the bonding quality
increase, inspection methods for assuring the reliability of the bonding are required.
Destructive methods including a tensile testing, tensile shear testing, etc. are utilized to evaluate
the bonding strength. The bonding reliability is evaluated statistically by a sampling inspection. On the
other hand, nondestructive methods including ultrasonic testing or radiographic testing are conducted
for evaluation of the state of the bonding. Some researchers evaluated the deterioration inside
materials with ultrasonic waves [2–4], electrical methods [5], thermography [6,7], and radiography [8].
The ultrasonic testing detects the reflected waves coming from the discontinuous interfaces due to
cracks and un-bonded regions. In addition, some researches [9–11] tried to detect the residual stress
around the bonded area by nonlinearity of the sound wave. These methods used the acoustoelastic

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026; doi:10.3390/app8071026 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 2 of 16

effect, in which the sound velocity depends on the elasticity of materials. The bonding strength
is often estimated with the bonded area. The bonded area was visualized by ultrasonic C-scan
testing [12–15] and radiography [16,17]. In these studies, it was indicated that the relation between
the bonded area and the bonding strength are linearly correlated. However, C-scan testing and
radiography are not suitable for in-situ measurement of the bonding strength, because it needs
measurement equipment outside of the production line and is time-consuming. There have been other
ways to evaluate the bonding area with ultrasonic techniques including the A-scan method [18,19],
resonant frequency measurement [20], cantilever test [21], electrical method [22], and thermographic
test [23]. Application of an optical technique is an effective methodology for non-contact measurement.
However, there are few studies that relate the optical measurement to evaluation of the bonding
strength. The bonded area detected by the optical coherence tomography [24] had a correlation with
the bonding strength. Furthermore, nondestructive evaluations are of technical interest, as well as
fundamental interest, in the measurement of interfacial strength between dissimilar materials such as
metal/polymer dissimilar joints [25] and fiber reinforced composites [26–28]. The interfacial strength
is extremely important in controlling the mechanical property of joints.
In our study, we propose a new method to evaluate the bonding strength that is non-destructive
and quick by analyzing the elastic behavior of the bonded materials. We expect that the elastic behavior
will change depending on the bonding strength. By analyzing the elastic behavior of bonded materials,
it is expected that the bonding strength can be evaluated. We focus on the optoacoustic methods to
analyze the elastic behavior in a non-destructive way. The ultrasonic bonding uses acoustic vibration,
so we considered that it will be possible to measure the elastic behavior in situ. In addition, the
vibration behavior can be measured without contact using the optics with the acoustics.

2. Theory
First, we describe formation and enlargement of the bonded area in an ultrasonic bonding process.
The ultrasonic bonding process consists of two main steps: a clamping step and a vibrating step. At the
clamping step, a normal force is applied to the bonding part by the ultrasonic horn and the faying
surfaces get into an intimate contact under the exertion of the normal force. During the vibrating
step, the ultrasonic horn vibrates parallel to the contact area with the bonding tip at the ultrasonic
frequency, causing relative motion between the plates to be bonded. At the initial phase in the bonding
mechanism, oxide films on the faying surface break, and new surfaces get into contact. By achieving
intermetallic bonding, micro-bonds are created. These micro-bonds create a convex contact part, so
that micro-bonds are formed dispersedly at the macroscopic bonding interface. With increase in the
vibration time, each micro-bond gradually enlarges, leading to an increase of the bonding strength.
In our study, we consider the bonded specimen that consists of two pieces of metal sheet as shown
in Figure 1. From the bonding mechanism described above, we hypothesize an elastic modulus of
the micro-bond is the same as the elastic modulus of other areas. The apparent spring constant of
the total bonded area K (N/mm) is expressed by the spring constant per unit area k (N/mm · mm2 )
as K = k · A, where A (mm2 ) is the total area of micro-bonds. Since the total area of micro-bonds is
small at the initial phase during bonding, the number of springs is also small. Thus, it is considered
that the spring constant, K, is small if the bond is weak. The micro-bonds develop with the vibration
in the latter bonding phase, resulting in an increase of the total bonded area, A, and the total spring
constant, K. Considering the specimen as a spring-mass system in which two plates are connected via
micro-bonds, the resonant frequency f is given as Equation (1).
r
1 K
f= (1)
2π M

where K is the apparent spring constant at the bonded part. M is the mass of the bonded specimen.
As it is considered that the mass is constant during the bonding, the resonant frequency of the bonded
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 3 of 16
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Appl. Sci.
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8, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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specimen is solely affected by the apparent spring constant K. Namely, the bonding strength could be
specimen
specimen is
is solely
solely affected
affected by
by the
the apparent
apparent spring
spring constant
constant K.
K. Namely,
Namely, the
the bonding
bonding strength
strength could
could
evaluated by measuring the resonant frequency.
be
be evaluated
evaluated by
by measuring
measuring the
the resonant
resonant frequency.
frequency.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Change
Change of
of apparent
apparent spring
spring constant
constant by
by enlargement
enlargement of
of bonded
bonded area.
area.
Figure 1. Change of apparent spring constant by enlargement of bonded area.

3.
3. Experimental
Experimental Procedure
Procedure
3. Experimental Procedure
3.1. Specimens
3.1. Specimens
3.1.
Bonded
Specimens Bonded
Bonded by by the
by the Ultrasonic
the Ultrasonic Bonding
Ultrasonic Bonding
Bonding
Figure
Figure222 illustrates
Figure
illustrates
illustrates thethe
the schematics
schematics of
schematics of the
of the ultrasonic
the ultrasonic bonding
ultrasonic bonding machine
bonding machine and
machine and bonding
and bonding
bonding tip
tip geometry.
tip geometry.
geometry.
An
An ultrasonic
ultrasonic bonder
bonder with
with an
an output
output power
power of
of 2.4
2.4 kW
kW and
and aa driving
driving frequency
frequency of
of 14.71
14.71 kHz
kHz was
was used
used
An ultrasonic bonder with an output power of 2.4 kW and a driving frequency of 14.71 kHz was
for
for the
the bonding.
bonding. The
The amplitude
amplitude of
of the
the ultrasonic
ultrasonic horn
horn under
under no
no load
load was
was 53
53 µµmm (peak-peak).
(peak-peak). An
An
used for the bonding. The amplitude of the ultrasonic horn under no load was 53 µm (peak-peak).
industrial
industrial aluminum
aluminum alloy,
alloy, AA6061-T6
AA6061-T6 sheet,
sheet, was
was used
used for
for the
the bonded
bonded specimen.
specimen. The
The sheet
sheet was
was cut
cut
An industrial aluminum alloy, AA6061-T6 sheet, was used for the bonded specimen. The sheet was cut
into two metal sheets as shown in Figure
Figure3.3. The upper sheet had
hada aasize
size
sizeofof
of5050
intotwo
into twometal
metalsheets
sheetsas asshown
shownin inFigure 3.The
Theupper
uppersheet
sheethad 50×××11
11
11× ×× 0.5
0.5 mm.
0.5 mm. The
mm. The lower
The lower
lower
sheet had aa size of 50 ×× 11.5 ×× 0.8 mm. The lower sheet was placed on an anvil and clamped by a
sheet had a size of 50 × 11.5 × 0.8 mm. The lower sheet was placed on an anvil and clampedbybya
sheet had size of 50 11.5 0.8 mm. The lower sheet was placed on an anvil and clamped
fixture to suppress slippage. The upper sheet was lapped on the lower sheet in such a way that the
afixture
fixturetotosuppress
suppressslippage.
slippage.The The upper
upper sheet
sheet was waslapped
lapped on onthethelower
lower sheet in such
sheet a way
in such thatthat
a way the
total length of the bonded specimen was 85 mm. Vibration was applied by the bonding tip of the
the total length of the bonded specimen was 85 mm. Vibration was applied by the bonding tipthe
total length of the bonded specimen was 85 mm. Vibration was applied by the bonding tip of of
ultrasonic
ultrasonic horn
horn under
under aa normal
normal force
force of
ofof588
588 N. Bonding strength was controlled by changing the
the ultrasonic horn under a normal force 588N. N.Bonding
Bondingstrength
strengthwas was controlled
controlled by changing the
by changing the
vibration time
vibration time within
time within 1000
within 1000
1000 ms.ms.
ms. TheThe bonding
bonding tip tip of the
of the ultrasonic
the ultrasonic
ultrasonic hornhorn and
horn and the
and the anvil
the anvil had
had aaa knurled
anvil had knurled
knurled
vibration The bonding tip of
surface
surface shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 2b.
2b. There
There were
were 13
13 ×× 13
13 protrusions
protrusions with
with aa 0.8
0.8 mm
mm pitch,
pitch, 0.3
0.3 mm
mm height,
height, and
and
surface shown in Figure 2b. There were 13 × 13 protrusions with a 0.8 mm pitch, 0.3 mm height, and
90°
90° angle
angle of
of groove.
groove. The
The total
total tip
tip area
area was
was 10
10 ×× 10
10 mm.
mm. The
The bonding
bonding was
was carried
carried out
out by
by aligning
aligning the
the
90◦ angle of groove. The total tip area was 10 × 10 mm. The bonding was carried out by aligning the
protrusions
protrusionsof of the
ofthe horn
thehorn
horntip tip and
tipand
andthethe anvil
theanvil
anviltiptip with
tipwith
witheacheach other.
eachother.
other.
protrusions

(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a)
2. (a) Ultrasonic
(a) Ultrasonic bonder;
Ultrasonic bonder; (b)
bonder; (b) Bonding
(b) Bonding tip
Bonding geometry.
tip geometry.
tip geometry.

The
The bonding
bonding strength
strength was
was measured
measured by by aa tensile
tensile shear
shear test
test (Figure
(Figure 4).
4). The
The test
test was
was conducted
conducted atat
aa cross-head
cross-head speed
speed ofof 0.1
0.1 mm/s.
mm/s. The
The maximum
maximum load load during
during the
the tensile
tensile shear
shear test
test was
was defined
defined as
as the
the
bonding
bonding strength
strength in
in this
this study.
study. The
The fractured
fractured surface
surface was
was observed
observed byby aa scanning
scanning electron
electron microscope
microscope
(SEM)
(SEM) and
and results
results were
were output
output to
to aa digital
digital image
image with
with aa constant
constant brightness
brightness andand contrast.
contrast. The
The image
image
was
was binarized
binarized with
with aa constant
constant intensity
intensity threshold,
threshold, then,
then, the
the bonded
bonded area
area was
was estimated
estimated byby measuring
measuring
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 4 of 16

The bonding strength was measured by a tensile shear test (Figure 4). The test was conducted at a
cross-head speed of 0.1 mm/s. The maximum load during the tensile shear test was defined as the
bonding
Appl.Appl. strength
Sci.
Sci. 2018, 2018, 8,in
8, x FOR this PEER
x PEER
FOR study. The fractured surface was observed by a scanning electron microscope
REVIEW
REVIEW 4 of 17
4 of 17
(SEM) and results were output to a digital image with a constant brightness and contrast. The image
was the
the total total
areaarea
binarized of the
with ofawhite
the white region.
region.
constant The The
intensity details
details of bonded
of the
threshold, thethe
then, bonded
areaarea
bonded estimation
estimation
area are described
are described
was estimated in Section
in Section
by measuring
4.1. area of the white region. The details of the bonded area estimation are described in Section 4.1.
4.1.total
the

Figure
Figure
Figure 3. 3. Bonded
3. Bonded
Bonded specimen.
specimen.
specimen.

Figure 4. Tensile
Figure shear
4. Tensile
Tensile test.
shearshear
test. test.

3.2. 3.2. Measurement

3.2. Measurement of Frequency
Frequency
of Frequency Response
Response
Response
The The experimental
experimental
experimental arrangement
arrangement to detect
to detect the resonant
the resonant frequency
frequency of the of bonded
the the bonded
bonded specimen
specimen
specimen is is
shownshown in Figure
in Figure 5. The
5. The 20 mm 20 mm portion
portion of theof bonded
the bonded specimen
specimen was was
fixed
was fixed fixed
on aon a piezoelectric
piezoelectric actuator.
actuator.
a piezoelectric actuator.
A A sinusoidal-voltage
A sinusoidal-voltage
sinusoidal-voltage wave
wave wave generated
generated
generated by aaby
by a function
function
function generator
generator
generator was wasinput input
to the topiezoelectric
the piezoelectric actuator
actuator
through
through an amplifier.
amplifier.
an amplifier. The The amplitude
amplitude of input
of the the input voltage
voltage to theto piezoelectric
the piezoelectric
piezoelectric actuator
actuator
actuator waswas
was 100 100
mV,mV,
100 mV,
whichwhich corresponded
whichcorresponded
correspondedtotothethe to the displacement
displacement
displacement amplitude
amplitude
amplitude of
of about
of about about
2.1 µm.2.1 A2.1
μm. μm. A capacitance
A capacitance
capacitance displacement
displacement
displacement gauge
gauge
was gauge
was was
placed placed
at the placed
at the
other at theofother
other
end end
endspecimen
the of specimen
of the theinspecimen
orderin in order
toorder
detect tothe to detect
detect theofamplitude
the amplitude
amplitude of the
the vibrating of vibrating
the vibrating
bonded
bonded
bonded
specimen. The specimen.
specimen.output The The
output
voltage output voltage
voltage
of the of the
capacitance of the capacitance
capacitance
gauge gauge
was recorded gaugeintowas
was recorded
arecorded
personal into into a (PC),
personal
a personal
computer
computer
computer
changing (PC),
the (PC),
driving changing
changing
frequency the
the driving driving
of the frequency
frequency
piezoelectric of piezoelectric
the The
ofactuator.
the piezoelectric
driving actuator.
actuator.
frequency ThewasThe driving
driving frequency
frequency
increased from
was
10 towas
1000 increased
increased
Hz at from from
10 to101000
the increment toof1000
HzHz,
0.5 Hzand
at at increment
the the increment
from 1000 to of Hz,
of10,000
0.5 0.5HzHz,
and and
in thefrom from
10001000
logarithmic to 10,000
to increment
10,000 Hzofin Hz 0.1
in the
10the
0.1 0.1
logarithmic
logarithmic increment
increment of 10 of 10Hz. Hz.
We
Hz. We computed the frequency responses at each driving We computed
computed the the frequency
frequency responses
responses at at
each each driving
driving
through Fourier transformation, frequency
frequency
and through
through
the peak Fourier
Fourier
frequency transformation,
transformation,
in the amplitudeand and the peak
thespectrum
peak frequency
frequency
was found toinbeamplitude
in the the
±5amplitude
Hz around spectrum
spectrum was was
the driving found found
to beto be
frequency.
±5 Hz
The ±5 around
Hz around
maximum the the driving
driving
amplitude in thefrequency.
frequency.
Fourier The The maximum
maximum
spectrum amplitude
wasamplitude
plotted in the
against inthe
thedriving
Fourier
Fourier spectrum
spectrum
frequency wastowas plotted
plotted
obtain
the against
against
frequency the
the driving driving
response. frequency
frequency
From thetofrequencyto obtain
obtain the the frequency
frequency
response, response.
response.
resonant From
From the
frequencies the frequency
frequency
of the response,
response,
bonded specimen
were resonant
resonant
identified.frequencies
frequencies of the
Sampling offrequency
the bonded
bonded specimen
specimen
of output andwere
were identified.
identified.
input voltage Sampling
Sampling
was frequency
frequency
100,000 Hz, the of output
of output
number of and
and
inputinput voltage
voltage was
samples was 10,000. was 100,000
100,000 Hz, Hz,
the the
numbernumber
of of samples
samples was was 10,000.
10,000.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 5 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Multifunction I/O Device

(National Instrument Co. USB-6361) PC

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW Displacement gauge 5 of 17

Amplifier

Multifunction I/O Device

(National Instrument Co. USB-6361) PC Detector
Jig
Amplifier Displacement gauge Welded specimen
Vibration

Detector
Piezoelectric actuator
Jig
Welded specimen
Vibration Stage

Figure 5. Experimental setup Piezoelectric actuator

formeasuring
measuring the
the resonant
Figure 5. Experimental setup for resonantfrequency
frequency byby
a piezoelectric actuator
a piezoelectric and aand a
actuator
capacitance displacement gauge. I/O = input/output; PC = personal computer.
capacitance displacement gauge. I/O = input/output; PC = personal computer.
Stage
3.3. Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI)
3.3. Electronic Speckle
Figure Pattern Interferometry
5. Experimental (ESPI)
setup for measuring the resonant frequency by a piezoelectric actuator and a
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) was used to visualize bending motion in the
capacitance displacement gauge. I/O = input/output; PC = personal computer.
Electronic
above speckle
vibration test. In pattern interferometry
addition, this technique(ESPI) was used
can measure to visualize
the resonant bending
frequency andmotion
vibrationin the
above vibration
mode test.
simultaneously
3.3. Electronic In addition,
Speckle [29–34].
Pattern this technique
Figure (ESPI) can
6 illustrates
Interferometry measure
the schematic theofresonant
ESPI to frequency and vibration
measure out-of-plane
mode displacement.
simultaneously A semiconductor
[29–34]. Figurelaser with wavelength
6 illustrates theofschematic
660 nm was ofused
ESPIfortothe light source.
measure The
out-of-plane
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) was used to visualize bending motion in the
light was expanded
displacement. by a lens and splitwith
into wavelength
two paths (arm 1660
andnm armwas2) with a beam splitter, and
above vibration test. In addition, this technique can measure the resonant frequency and vibration source.
A semiconductor laser of used for the light
used
The light
modeto
was irradiate the specimen
expanded
simultaneously a lensand
by[29–34]. and a split
Figurereference
into plane.
twothe
6 illustrates An
paths A6061-T6
(arm 1ofand
schematic sheet,
ESPIarmwhich
to 2) is the
with
measure same material
aout-of-plane
beam splitter, and
as the bonded
used todisplacement. specimen,
irradiate theAspecimen was
semiconductor utilized
andlaser for the reference
with wavelength
a reference plane. An plane.
of 660 The roll
nm was used
A6061-T6 direction
sheet, forwhichof the
the light reference
is source.
the same plane
The material
was aligned with
light wasspecimen, the
expanded by specimen.
a lens When
and split the laser is irradiated on a rough surface, the lights and theplane
of
as the bonded was utilized for into
the two paths (arm
reference 1 and
plane. Thearm roll2)direction
with a beam splitter,
of the reference
random
used tophase overlap
irradiate and interfere
the specimen with each
and a reference other
plane. Andue to thesheet,
A6061-T6 coherence
which of thesame
is the laser,material
thereby a
was aligned with the specimen. When the laser is irradiated on a rough surface, the lights of the
speckle
as thepattern
bonded in formed.was
specimen, Theutilized
superposed
for thespeckle
reference pattern of the
plane. The rollreference
direction plane and the specimen
of the reference plane
random
were phase overlap and
wasphotographed
aligned with the
interfere
by aspecimen. with each
charge coupled
When the devise other
laser(CCD)
duecamera.
to theonBy
is irradiated
coherence
a subtracting
of the
rough surface,
laser, therebyimage
a photographed
the lights of the
a speckle
pattern in vibration
random
before formed.
phase Thefromsuperposed
overlap and interfere
another image speckle
with
after eachpattern
other of
deformation, duethe
to reference
and the
thencoherence plane
calculating of theand thethereby
thelaser,
absolutespecimen a ofwere
value
photographed
speckle
them, by a charge
pattern
a subtract in
image coupled
formed.wasThe deviseto (CCD)
superposed
created speckle
recognize camera.
pattern By
of subtracting
the reference
the deformation of theaplane
photographed
and the
bonded image
specimen
specimen. before
The
were
vibration
subtracted photographed
from another
speckle by a charge
image
intensity coupled
after
changes devise
deformation,
with (CCD)
the phase and camera.
then By
difference ofsubtracting
calculating
the objecttheabeam
photographed
absolute
(arm 2)valueimageoftothem,
relative
thebefore
a subtract vibration
reference
image beam from another
(arm
was created 1). The image after
phase
to recognize deformation,
difference
the is caused
deformation andbythen
ofthe
thecalculating
displacement theof
bonded specimen. absolute valuesubtracted
the specimen.
The of
them, a subtract image was created to recognize the deformation of the bonded specimen. The
speckle intensity changes with the phase difference of the object beam (arm 2) relative to the reference
subtracted speckle intensity changes
Multifunction I/O with
Device the phase difference of the object beam (arm 2) relative to
beam (arm 1). Thebeam
the reference phase difference
(arm 1).Instrument
(National The phaseisCo.
caused by the
difference
USB-6361) displacement
is caused of the specimen.
by the displacement of the specimen.
PC
Multifunction I/O Device
Amplifier
(National Instrument Co. USB-6361)
Laser
PC
Amplifier
Screen
Laser

Screen Beamsplitter Charge coupled devise

(CCD)
Beamsplitter Charge coupled devise
(CCD)
Jig
Bonded specimen
VibrationJig
Piezoelectric actuator Bonded specimen y
Vibration x
Piezoelectric actuator y
Stage x z
Stage z

Figure 6. Experimental setup of electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI).

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 6 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

The specimen Figure

was
Figure 6.
6. Experimental
vibrated
Experimentalinsetup of
of electronic
the same
setup manner
electronic speckle
as pattern
speckle interferometry
interferometry (ESPI).
the measurement
pattern of frequency response.
(ESPI).
The input voltage to the piezoelectric actuator was 5 mV, which is lower than that used in the
The
The specimen
specimen was
was vibrated
vibrated in
in the
the same
same manner
manner as the
the measurement of
of frequency response. The
measurement of frequency response described in theasSection
measurement
3.2, because frequency response.
the ESPI cannot The the
detect
input
input voltage
voltage to
to the
the piezoelectric
piezoelectric actuator
actuator was
was 55 mV,
mV, which
which is
is lower
lower than
than that
that used
used in
in the
the per
largemeasurement
displacement of owing to response
frequency high sensitivity.
described The
in frame
the rate3.2,
Section ofbecause
the CCD the camera
ESPI was detect
cannot 30 frames
the
measurement of frequency response described in the Section 3.2, because the ESPI cannot detect the
second
large(fps). The brightness
displacement owing to of high
the subtract images
sensitivity. was multiplied
The frame rate of the CCDby 10camera
to make was the
30images
frames brighter.
per
large displacement owing to high sensitivity. The frame rate of the CCD camera was 30 frames per
second (fps).
secondand The
The brightness
brightness of
(fps).Discussions of the
the subtract
subtract images
images was
was multiplied
multiplied by
by 10
10 to
to make
make the
the images
images brighter.
brighter.
4. Results
4.
4. Results
Results and
and Discussions
Discussions
4.1. Formation of Bonds under the Ultrasonic Bonding
4.1.
4.1. Formation
Figure 7 shows
Formation of
of Bonds under
under the
the relation
Bonds Ultrasonic
thebetween
Ultrasonicthe Bonding
vibration time and the bonding strength. The vertical
Bonding
axis is the vibration
Figure time.
the The horizontal
Figure 7 shows the relation between the vibration
7 shows relation between axis
the is the bonding
vibration time
time and
andstrength.
the
the bonding Withstrength.
bonding vibration
strength. The
Thetimes shorter
vertical
vertical
axis
thanaxis is the
200 isms, vibration
theavibration
joint strongtime. The
time.enough horizontal
to measure
The horizontal axis is
axis the the
is the bonding
bond strength.
strength
bonding With
was With
strength. vibration
not obtained.
vibration Thistimes
timestimeshorter
shorterperiod
than
can bethan 200
200 ms,
ms, aa joint
considered as an
joint strong enough
incubation
strong enoughtimeto
to measure
to form
measure the bond
thethebond strength
strength was
micro-bonds not
not obtained.
wasthough This
the removal
obtained. This time of period
time oxide film.
period
The can
can be
be considered
bonding strength as
considered as an
an incubation
roughly increased
incubation time
time to
to form
with the
the micro-bonds
the vibration
form time ofthough
micro-bonds 200 ms,the
though removal
while
the it had
removal of
ofaoxide
largefilm.
oxide variance
film.
The bonding
The bonding strength
strength roughly increased
roughly time.
increased with the
with thethe vibration
vibration time of 200 ms, while it had a large
especially in the shorter vibration In addition, fracturetime mode of changed
200 ms, while with theit had a largetime.
vibration
variance
variance especially
especially in
in the shorter
thetheshorter vibration
vibration time. In
time.timeIn addition,
addition, the fracture mode changed with
with the
The specimen bonded with shorter vibration broke atthe thefracture
bondedmode interfacechangedbetween the two
the
vibration
vibration time.
time. The
The specimen
specimen bonded
bonded with
with the
the shorter
shorter vibration
vibration time
time broke
broke at
at the
the bonded
bonded interface
interface
sheets as showntwo
between
in Figure as 8a. Wheninthe vibration time increased to over 400 ms, the fracture occurred
between the the two sheets
sheets as shown
shown in Figure
Figure 8a.8a. When
When the the vibration
vibration timetime increased
increased to to over
over 400400 ms,
ms, the
the
around the
fracture bonded part as shown in Figure 8b. We call this fracture mode the base material fracture.
fracture occurred
occurred around
around the the bonded
bonded partpart asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 8b.
8b. WeWe call
call this
this fracture
fracture mode
mode the the base
base
During the vibration,During
material the uppervibration,
bonding sheet in contact with thecontact
ultrasonic horn is compressed by
material fracture.
fracture. During the the vibration, the the upper
upper bonding
bonding sheet
sheet inin contact withwith thethe ultrasonic
ultrasonic horn horn
the normal
is force. This causes thinning of the bonding part. the
The base metal facture is due tofacturea decrease
is compressed
compressed by by the
the normal
normal force.
force. This
This causes
causes thinning
thinning of of the bonding
bonding part.part. The
The base
base metal
metal facture
of the
is fracture
is due
due to strengthof
to aa decrease
decrease ofthe
of thefracture
the specimen
fracture by the
strength
strength of thinning.
of the
the specimen
specimen by by the
the thinning.
thinning.

Figure7.7.Vibration
Figure timevs.
Vibration time vs.bonding
bonding strength.
strength.
Figure 7. Vibration time vs. bonding strength.

Figure 8. Fracture pattern after the tensile shear test. (a) Interface fracture, the vibration time 300 ms;
(b) Base material fracture, the vibration time 400 ms.
Appl. Appl. Sci. 2018,
Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
8, 1026 7 of 177 of 16

Figure 8. Fracture pattern after the tensile shear test. (a) Interface fracture, the vibration time 300 ms;
(b) Base material fracture, the vibration time 400 ms.
The changes in bonding strength are associated with the development of the bonded area. In order
to estimate the bonded area, the fracture surface that exhibited the interface fracture was observed.
The changes in bonding strength are associated with the development of the bonded area. In
Figure 9 shows
order an example
to estimate of an SEM
the bonded area, image of thesurface
the fracture interface fractured
that exhibited surface. This specimen
the interface fracture wasshowed
a bonding strength of 532 N at the vibration time of 200 ms. In the fracture
observed. Figure 9 shows an example of an SEM image of the interface fractured surface. This surface, two characteristic
patterns are observed
specimen showed ain white on
bonding the fractured
strength of 532 N at surface: the scratch
the vibration time ofpattern
200 ms.shown in Figure
In the fracture 9b,c, and
surface,
the dimple pattern inpatterns
two characteristic Figure are 9d,e. In the initial
observed in white stage
on theoffractured
ultrasonic bonding,
surface: the ultrasonic
the scratch vibration
pattern shown
in Figure
causes friction9b,c, and the
between dimple
metal sheetspattern in Figure
forming 9d,e. Inpattern.
the scratch the initial stage
Thus, of scratch
the ultrasonic bonding,
pattern the in
observed
ultrasonic vibration causes friction between metal sheets forming
the SEM image is not considered to be the “un-bonded region”. The intermetallic bond is achievedthe scratch pattern. Thus, the
scratch
thorugh pattern
removal of observed
oxide films in and
the SEM imageadhesion
interfacial is not considered to be thesurface,
on the scratched “un-bonded region”.
resulting The
in formation
of micro-bonds. In addition, these phenomena mainly occur at the stress concentration part the
intermetallic bond is achieved thorugh removal of oxide films and interfacial adhesion on caused
scratched surface, resulting in formation of micro-bonds. In addition, these phenomena mainly occur
by the horn and anvil tips, or uneven contact part due to rolling. Thus, the formation of micro-bonds
at the stress concentration part caused by the horn and anvil tips, or uneven contact part due to rolling.
occurs dispersedly at the bonding interface. Since the micro-bond is torn off in the tensile shear test,
Thus, the formation of micro-bonds occurs dispersedly at the bonding interface. Since the micro-bond
the resultant
is torn offdimple patternshear
in the tensile is observed in the fractured
test, the resultant dimple surface.
pattern isThe variation
observed in fractured
in the the bonding strength
surface.
observed in Figure
The variation 7 isbonding
in the considered to be
strength due to in
observed theFigure
transient formationtoofbemicro-bonds.
7 is considered Figure 10
due to the transient
shows the relation between the bonding strength and the total area of
formation of micro-bonds. Figure 10 shows the relation between the bonding strength and the totalthe white region in the SEM
imageareacomputed
of the whitewith the image
region in the binarization.
SEM image computed The total area
with theincludes both the scratch
image binarization. pattern
The total area and
includespattern.
the dimple both theThescratch pattern
bonding and the increases
strength dimple pattern.
with theThecalculated
bonding strength
bondedincreases with the the
area, indicating
calculated of
development bonded area, indicating
a bonded the development
region. However, of a bonded
it was difficult region. However,
to identify the accurateit was difficultarea
bonded to by
identify the accurate bonded area by the image analysis, because the size
the image analysis, because the size of the micro-bonds, about 10 to 100 µm, was so small that it was of the micro-bonds, about
10 to 100 μm, was so small that it was difficult to distinguish between the scratch pattern and the
difficult to distinguish between the scratch pattern and the dimple pattern. Actual area of the bonded
dimple pattern. Actual area of the bonded region is surmised to be smaller than the values shown in
region is surmised to be smaller than the values shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10.

Figure 9. Fracture surface observation at bonded area by SEM. (a) Bonded interface; (b) Scratch part;
Figure
(c) 9. Fracturescratch
Magnified surface observation
part; (d) Dimpleat bonded
pattern; (e)area by SEM.
Magnified (a) Bonded
dimple pattern. interface; (b) Scratch part;
(c) Magnified scratch part; (d) Dimple pattern; (e) Magnified dimple pattern.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 8 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Figure 10. Relation between bonded area and bonding strength.

Figure 10. Relation between bonded area and bonding strength.
4.2. Evaluation of Bonding Strength
Figure with Frequency
10. Relation Response
between bonded area and bonding strength.
4.2. Evaluation of Bonding Strength with Frequency Response
Figure 11 illustrates the frequency response of the bonded specimen. The horizontal axis is the
4.2.driving
Evaluation
Figure of Bonding
11 frequency.
illustrates theStrength
The vertical
frequencywith Frequency
axis response
is Response
an amplitude
of the spectrum that means The
bonded specimen. the displacement of is the
horizontal axis
drivingspecimen.
frequency.
Figure 11 The Thefivevertical
peaks are
illustrates theaxisseenis at
frequencyan163, 606, 1918,spectrum
amplitude
response of3487,
the and
bonded6033 Hz in thethe
thatspecimen.
means frequency
Thedisplacementresponse.ofWe
horizontal axisspecimen.
is the
interpret that these peaks are the resonant frequencies. Figure 12 shows the bonding strength plotted
driving
The five peaks frequency.
are seen The at 163, vertical axis is3487,
606, 1918, an amplitude
and 6033 spectrumHz in thethat means response.
frequency the displacement of
We interpret
against the resonant frequency. The red circle plots show the interface fractures. Blue triangle plots
specimen.
that these peaks The five
are the peaks are
resonant seen at 163,
frequencies. 606, 1918, 3487,
Figurefracture, and
12 shows 6033 Hz in the frequency response. We
show the base material fractures. In the interface thethe bonding
bonding strength
strength plotted against
exponentially
interpretfrequency.
the resonant that these peaks The are the
red resonant
circle plots frequencies.
show the Figure 12
interface shows theBlue
fractures. bondingtriangle strength
plotsplotted
show the
increased with the resonant frequency. This tendency appeared at each of the resonant frequencies
base material fractures. In the interface fracture, the bonding strength exponentially increased plots
against
shown the
in resonant
Figure 11. frequency.
It is noted The
that red
the circle
bonding plots
strengthshow of the
the interface
specimen fractures.
exhibits a Blue triangle
correlation with with the
show the basefrequency
thefrequency.
resonant material better fractures.
than In the
the interface
vibration time. fracture, the bonding strength exponentially
resonant This tendency appeared at each ofThe
theapproach
resonantinfrequencies
this study is shown
similar to
inthe
Figure 11.
increased
“tappingwith mode” theinresonant
atomic force frequency. This(AFM), tendency appeared at forced
each of the resonant frequencies
It is noted that the bonding strengthmicroscopy
of the specimenwhich exhibitsutilizes the
a correlation vibration
with theofresonanta cantilever.
frequency
shown
In AFM, in Figure 11. It isenergy
the potential noted that of thetheobject
bonding altersstrength of the specimen
the resonance behavior of exhibits a correlation
the cantilever. In thewith
betterthethan
present
thecase,
resonant vibration
frequency
the resonant
time.
better The approach
than
frequency the in thistime.
vibration
of the vibrating
study
jointThe
is similar
(theapproach
to changes
cantilever)in
the
this“tapping
study
dependingis mode”
similar in
to atomic
on the the
force “tapping
microscopy
interfacialmode” (AFM),
strengthin atomic which
between force utilizes
themicroscopy the forced
two sheets.(AFM), vibration
which
The results of a cantilever.
utilizesusefulness
indicate the forcedofvibration In AFM,
this method the potential
of a cantilever.
in the
energy of the object
In evaluation
AFM, alters
the ofpotential
the bonding the
energy resonance
strength
of the behavior
in aobject altersofthe
non-destructive the cantilever.
manner
resonance in the In the
case
behavior present
of interface
of case, theOn
fractures.
the cantilever. resonant
In the
frequency the of
present otherthehand,
case, vibrating in thejoint
the resonant case of the
(the
frequency base
cantilever)material
of the fracture,
changes
vibrating the
depending
joint (the bonding onstrength
cantilever)thechanges is deviated
interfacial from the
strength
depending onbetween
the
the two relation
sheets.observed
interfacial strength
The results inbetween
theindicate
interfacial fracture.
theusefulness
two Figure
sheets. ofThe13 results
this shows
method bonding
in theparts
indicate of specimens.
usefulness
evaluation theIndentations
ofofthis method
bondinginstrength
the
on the
evaluation bonding
of the part
bonding became bigger
strength indue
a to penetration
non-destructive of the
manner knurled
in theedges
case on
of the ultrasonic
interface horn On
fractures.
in a non-destructive manner in the case of interface fractures. On the other hand, in the case of the base
thetip.
material
Withhand,
other
fracture,
the development
thein bonding
ofofthe
the casestrength micro-bonds
the base at thefracture,
material
is deviated from
bondingthe interface,
the relation bonding a relative
strength
observed
motion
in isthe
betweenfrom
deviated
interfacial
the the
bonding sheets during the ultrasonic bonding is hindered. This may cause the relative motionfracture.
Figure relation
13 showsobserved
bonding in the interfacial fracture. Figure 13 shows bonding parts of partspecimens. Indentations
between the horn tipparts and the of specimens. Indentations
upper sheet, causing on the bonding
the enhancement of edge penetration became bigger
and the due to
on the bonding part became bigger due to penetration of the knurled edges on the ultrasonic horn
penetration
thinningof the
of theknurled
bondingedges part. Theon resonant
the ultrasonic
frequency horn tip. With
measured thestudy
in this development
is affected by ofthe
thesecond
micro-bonds
tip. With the development of the micro-bonds at the bonding interface, a relative motion between the
moment of
at the bonding the area of
interface, the bonded
a relative part, because
motion between the the
specimen
bonding vibrates
sheetswithduring
a bending themotion.
ultrasonic Thus,bonding
bonding sheets ofduring
the deviation resonant thefrequency
ultrasonicinbonding is
the basebetween hindered.
material fractureThisis may cause to
considered theberelative to motion
duesheet, the
is hindered.
between This
the may cause the
the upper sheet, causing the enhancement of edge penetration andcausing
relative motion the horn tip and the upper
thinning of horn
the bonded tip and part. the
the enhancement
thinning of theofbonding edge penetration
part. The resonant and the thinning
frequency of the bonding
measured in this studypart. The resonant
is affected frequency
by the second
measured
moment in ofthisthestudy
area ofisthe affected
bondedby thebecause
part, secondthe moment
specimen ofvibrates
the area withof athe bonded
bending part,Thus,
motion. because
the specimen
the deviation vibrates with a bending
of resonant frequencymotion.in the base Thus, the deviation
material fracture of is resonant
considered frequency
to be dueintothe thebase
thinning
material fracture of theis bonded
considered part.to be due to the thinning of the bonded part.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

Figure 11. Frequency response of bonded specimen. (a) Driving frequency from 10 to 1000 Hz;
(b) Driving frequency from 1000 to 10,000 Hz.
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

Figure
Appl. Sci. 2018, 11. Frequency response of bonded specimen. (a) Driving frequency from 10 to 1000 Hz; (b)
8, 1026 9 of 16
Driving frequency from 1000 to 10,000 Hz.

Figure Relation
12. 12.
Figure Relationbetween
between resonant frequency
resonant frequency at at each
each of vibration
of vibration modemode and bonding
and bonding strength.strength.
The The
resonances were observed at the driving frequency of (a) 173 Hz; (b) 626 Hz; (c)(d)1485.9 Hz;
resonances were observed the driving frequency of (a) 173 Hz; (b) 626 Hz; (c) 1485.9 Hz;
(d) 1717.9
1717.9 Hz, and(e)
Hz, and (e)2013.7
2013.7Hz.Hz.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Figure Indentation
13. 13.
Figure Indentationatatcontacted
contacted area withthe
area with thehorn
horn bonding
bonding tip. tip. (a) Vibration
(a) Vibration time istime is 200
200 ms; (b) ms;
(b) Vibration
Vibrationtime
time is
is 1000 ms.
1000 ms.

4.3. Evaluation of Bonding Strength with ESPI

The ESPI arrangement in this study visualizes the out-of-plane displacement distribution of the
specimen surface (the out-of-plane component of the bending displacement). Since the frame rate of
the CCD camera (30 fps) is much lower than the driving frequency of the vibration test, the ESPI
image shows the averaged displacement during a given frame. Figure 14 shows interference fringes
observed at four driving frequencies. Here, the left and right ends of the image are the clamped and
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 10 of 16

Figure 13. Indentation at contacted area with the horn bonding tip. (a) Vibration time is 200 ms; (b)
Vibration
4.3. Evaluation time is 1000
of Bonding ms.
Strength with ESPI
TheEvaluation
4.3. ESPI arrangement in this study
of Bonding Strength visualizes the out-of-plane displacement distribution of the
with ESPI
specimen surface (the out-of-plane component of the bending displacement). Since the frame rate of
The ESPI arrangement in this study visualizes the out-of-plane displacement distribution of the
the CCD camera (30 fps) is much lower than the driving frequency of the vibration test, the ESPI image
specimen surface (the out-of-plane component of the bending displacement). Since the frame rate of
showsthethe
CCD averaged
camera displacement
(30 fps) is much during
lowera than
giventheframe. Figure
driving 14 shows
frequency interference
of the fringes
vibration test, the observed
ESPI
at four driving frequencies. Here, the left and right ends of the image are the
image shows the averaged displacement during a given frame. Figure 14 shows interference fringesclamped and oscillating
(driven by theattransducer)
observed four driving ends of the specimen,
frequencies. respectively.
Here, the left and right endsIn the fringe
of the image patterns (a)–(c), itand
are the clamped is seen
that oscillating
in going from the by
(driven clamped to the oscillating
the transducer) ends of theend, the fringe
specimen, interval decreases.
respectively. In the fringe This indicates
patterns (a)– that
(c), it is seen that
the out-of-plane in going from
displacement the clamped
increases to the oscillating
nonlinearly from theend, the fringe
clamped to theinterval decreases.
oscillating end.This
In other
indicates that the out-of-plane displacement increases nonlinearly from the clamped
words, the specimen underwent a bending motion. As the driving frequency increases from 160 Hz to to the oscillating
170.5end.
Hz In other words,
(Figure 14a–c),thethespecimen underwent
fringe interval a bending
becomes motion.
smaller, As the driving
indicating that in frequency increases
this frequency range
from 160 Hz to 170.5 Hz (Figure 14a–c), the fringe interval becomes smaller, indicating that in this
the vibration amplitude increases with the driving frequency. At the driving frequency of 173 Hz
frequency range the vibration amplitude increases with the driving frequency. At the driving
(Figure 14d), the type of fringe pattern observed in Figure 14a–c that represents a monotonic increase
frequency of 173 Hz (Figure 14d), the type of fringe pattern observed in Figure 14a–c that represents
in the out-of-plane displacement from the clamped to oscillating end disappears. Instead, a bright
a monotonic increase in the out-of-plane displacement from the clamped to oscillating end disappears.
region appears
Instead, in the
a bright middle
region of the
appears specimen.
in the middle of This
the pattern
specimen. is This
considered
pattern istoconsidered
indicate an to eigen mode
indicate
(resonance) oscillation, and is called the characteristic pattern hereafter.
an eigen mode (resonance) oscillation, and is called the characteristic pattern hereafter.

Figure
Figure 14. 14. Increasein
Increase innumber
number ofoffringes as resonance
fringes is reached.(a)
as resonance - (c) show
is reached. (a–c)fringe
showpatterns
fringeatpatterns
the driving
at the
frequency
driving near the
frequency resonance,
near and (d) 173
the resonance, andHz(d)
shows a fringe
173 Hz pattern
shows at thepattern
a fringe resonance.at the resonance.

In a characteristic pattern, the bright region is interpreted as representing a node of the oscillation.
Since dark fringes generally represent null displacement and at a node of eigen mode oscillation
the oscillation is null, this interpretation may sound counterintuitive. However, we believe this is a
correct interpretation. The ground for this argument is as follows. When the specimen is oscillated at
resonance, the vibration is close to null in the vicinity of nodal points and much larger in the other areas.
In the present experimental arrangement, it is expected that the oscillation in non-nodal areas is so large
that the speckle pattern loses correlation between the subtracted (after deformation) frame and the
subtracted-from (before deformation) frame. (See Section 3.3. Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry
(ESPI) for the image subtraction.) Consequently, the gray scale level of the captured image tends to be
saturated in both the after-deformation and before-deformation frames, converging to the maximum
level of 255 (in the 8-bit format). Therefore, when the image subtraction is made, the gray-scale values
of the before and after deformation images are close to each other in the vicinity of 255. This makes
these areas appear to be dark. On the other hand, the gray-scale value in the area near a nodal point
 in the other areas. In the present experimental arrangement, it is expected that the oscillation in non-
nodal areas is so large that the speckle pattern loses correlation between the subtracted (after
deformation) frame and the subtracted-from (before deformation) frame. (See Section 3.3. Electronic
Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI) for the image subtraction.) Consequently, the gray scale level
of the captured image tends to be saturated in both the after-deformation and before-deformation
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 11 of 16
frames, converging to the maximum level of 255 (in the 8-bit format). Therefore, when the image
subtraction is made, the gray-scale values of the before and after deformation images are close to each
tendsother
to bein the vicinity
a low of 255.
value that This makes
fluctuates fromthese areas appear
subtraction to be dark.Consequently,
to subtraction. On the other hand, the
in the gray-
subtracted
scale value in the area near a
image the nodal area appears to be whiter.nodal point tends to be a low value that fluctuates from subtraction to
subtraction. Consequently, in the subtracted image the nodal area appears to be whiter.
Figure 15 shows the frequency response of the bonded specimen detected by ESPI. The total
Figure 15 shows the frequency response of the bonded specimen detected by ESPI. The total
intensity of the specimen was plotted against the driving frequency. Original data was smoothed with
intensity of the specimen was plotted against the driving frequency. Original data was smoothed
the 10-point
with themoving
10-pointaverage
moving method. The averaged
average method. total intensity
The averaged showsshows
total intensity a rapid decrease
a rapid at certain
decrease at
frequencies, which appears
certain frequencies, whichas appears
sharp minima
as sharpinminima
Figurein15.Figure
Based15.on the above
Based on the argument, we interpret
above argument, we
that these minima
interpret represent
that these minimaresonant frequencies.
represent resonant frequencies.

Figure 15. Frequency response of bonded specimen detected by ESPI.

Figure 15. Frequency response of bonded specimen detected by ESPI.
Characteristic patterns were observed at other frequencies as shown in Figure 16. Figure 16a, b, e–g
Characteristic
show the similar patterns
bendingwere observed
motion at other
to Figure 14d. frequencies as shown
The nodes appeared in Figure
bright. 16. Figure
The number 16a,b,e–g
of nodes
showincreased
the similar with bending motion
the increase to Figure
in driving 14d. The
frequency, nodes appeared
as expected. In Figure bright.
16c, d, h,The
the number of nodes
fringes appear
in thewith
increased transverse direction.
the increase These patterns
in driving canasbeexpected.
frequency, interpreted
In as representing
Figure 16c,d,h, torsional vibration
the fringes appear in
modes.
the transverse direction.
Appl. Sci. 2018, These
8, x FOR PEER patterns can be interpreted as representing torsional vibration12modes.
REVIEW of 17

Figure 16. Visualized vibration modes by ESPI. (a) First mode; (b) Second mode; (c) Third mode; (d)
Figure 16. Visualized vibration modes by ESPI. (a) First mode; (b) Second mode; (c) Third mode;
Fourth mode; (e) Fifth mode; (f) Sixth mode; (g) Seventh mode; (h) Eighth mode.
(d) Fourth mode; (e) Fifth mode; (f) Sixth mode; (g) Seventh mode; (h) Eighth mode.
In this fashion, the ESPI method allowed us to find several resonant patterns and frequencies.
Accordingly, we compared the bonding strength with the resonant frequency. Figure 17 plots the
bonding strength as a function of the resonant frequency determined by the above-mentioned
method. Yellow rhombus plots show the interface fracture detected by EPSI. Red circle plots show
the interface fracture detected by the capacitance displacement gauge (Figure 12). Similarly, blue
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 12 of 16

In this fashion, the ESPI method allowed us to find several resonant patterns and frequencies.
Accordingly, we compared the bonding strength with the resonant frequency. Figure 17 plots the
bonding strength as a function of the resonant frequency determined by the above-mentioned method.
Yellow rhombus plots show the interface fracture detected by EPSI. Red circle plots show the interface
fracture detected by the capacitance displacement gauge (Figure 12). Similarly, blue triangle plots show
the base material fracture detected by the capacitance displacement gauge. Notice that the results from
the capacitance displacement gauge and those from the ESPI measurement show the same general
dependence on the resonant frequency. The two data sets clearly indicate that the bonding strength
exponentially increases with the resonant frequency. This result demonstrates that the optoacoustic
method can evaluate the bonding strength in a non-destructive and non-contact fashion. It also
indicates that the resonant frequency can be detected by monitoring the total intensity of speckles in
the observing
Appl. Sci. 2018,surface.
8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Figure 17. Relation

Figure between
17. Relation resonant
between frequency
resonant frequencydetected
detected by ESPI and
by ESPI andbonding
bonding strength.
strength. (a) 1st
(a) 1st
resonant frequency
resonant (173Hz),
frequency (173Hz),and
and(b)
(b)2nd
2nd resonant frequency(626Hz).
resonant frequency (626Hz).

5. Finite
5. Finite Element
Element Analysis
Analysis

5.1. 5.1.
ModelModel
We carried out eigenvalue analysis using the commercial finite element analysis (FEA) solver
We carried out eigenvalue analysis using the commercial finite element analysis (FEA) solver
LS-DYNA (R 7.1, Livermore Software Technology Corp., Livermore, CA, USA). Figure 18 shows the
LS-DYNA (R 7.1, Livermore Software Technology Corp., Livermore, CA, USA). Figure 18 shows the
specimen model in FEA. The size of the upper and lower plates was commonly 50.0 mm in length,
specimen
11.5 mm model in FEA.
in width, and The sizeinofthickness.
0.8 mm the upper andsheets
Two lowerwereplates wasin
lapped commonly
such a way50.0 thatmmthe in length,
total
11.5 length
mm inof width, and 0.8 mm in thickness. Two sheets were lapped in
the bonded specimen was 85 mm. The 8-node hexahedron element was employed. Thesuch a way that the total length
of the
element size was 0.125 × 0.125 × 0.1 mm. The numbers of nodes and elements were 671,142 to 670,313 size
bonded specimen was 85 mm. The 8-node hexahedron element was employed. The element
0.125 × 0.125
was depending × 0.1
on the bondedmm. area
The and
numbers
588,800,of respectively.
nodes and elements
The specimenwere was671,142 to 670,313
modeled as an depending
elastic
material.
on the bonded Physical
area properties
and 588,800, of A6061-T6 are shown
respectively. The in Table 1. The
specimen was10modeled
mm edgeas of an
the elastic
lower platematerial.
was fixed. Because the specimen was fixed by the screw of a jig at a point
Physical properties of A6061-T6 are shown in Table 1. The 10 mm edge of the lower plate was fixed.10 mm away from the edge
in thethe
Because experiment,
specimenit was was considered
fixed by the thatscrew
the clamp force
of a jig atwas applied
a point at this
10 mm area. from
away The other side ofin the
the edge
the specimen was a free edge. Assuming that the contact area with
experiment, it was considered that the clamp force was applied at this area. The other sidethe bonding tip was 10 × 10 mmof the
and the micro-bond was preferentially formed in the bonding interface under the knurled edges on
specimen was a free edge. Assuming that the contact area with the bonding tip was 10 × 10 mm and
the bonding tip, 13 × 13 bonded areas were arranged on the bonded interface. As shown in Figure 19,
the micro-bond was preferentially formed in the bonding interface under the knurled edges on the
the bonded area was expressed by merging nodes on the contact surfaces of two plates. In addition,
bonding tip, 13 of
enlargement × the
13 bonded
bonded area areas
waswere arranged
modeled by anon the bonded
increase in numberinterface. As shown
of the merged nodesinshown
Figure 19,
the bonded area was expressed by merging nodes on the contact surfaces of
as black points in Figure 19b–d. The total bonded area was set to five conditions: 2.06 mm , 2.64 mm two plates.
2 In addition,
2,

enlargement of the bonded area

5.90 mm , 6.89 mm , and 12.51 mm .
2 2 was 2modeled by an increase in number of the merged nodes shown as
black points in Figure 19b–d. The total bonded area was set to five conditions: 2.06 mm2 , 2.64 mm2 ,
5.90 mm2 , 6.89 mm2 , and 12.51 mm2 .

Figure 18. Bonded specimen model by finite element analysis (FEA).

Table 1. Physical properties of A6061-T6.

 and the micro-bond was preferentially formed in the bonding interface under the knurled edges on
the bonding tip, 13 × 13 bonded areas were arranged on the bonded interface. As shown in Figure 19,
the bonded area was expressed by merging nodes on the contact surfaces of two plates. In addition,
enlargement of the bonded area was modeled by an increase in number of the merged nodes shown
Appl. as
Sci.black
2018, points
8, 1026 in Figure 19b–d. The total bonded area was set to five conditions: 2.06 mm , 2.64 mm13, of 16
2 2

5.90 mm , 6.89 mm , and 12.51 mm .

2 2 2

Figure
Figure 18.18. Bondedspecimen
Bonded specimen model
model by
byfinite
finiteelement
elementanalysis (FEA).
analysis (FEA).

Table 1. Physical properties of A6061-T6.

Table 1. Physical properties of A6061-T6.
Material Density Young’s modulus Poison’s ration
Material Density (Kg/mm3 Young’s Modulus (GPa) Poison’s Ration
3 )
(Kg/mm ) (GPa)
A6061-T6 2.7 × 10−6
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
68.9 0.33
14 of 17
A6061 – T6 2.7 ×10-6 68.9 0.33

Figure 19. Enlargement of bonded area.

Figure 19. Enlargement of bonded area.
5.2. Results
5.2. Results
Figure 20 illustrates the relation between the bonded area and the resonant frequency at each
vibration
Figure mode obtained
20 illustrates by FEA. The
the relation resultsthe
between show that thearea
bonded resonant
and frequency goesfrequency
the resonant up as the bonded
at each
area increases. The relation between them is exponential. The bonded
vibration mode obtained by FEA. The results show that the resonant frequency goes up as the area increased as the resonant
bondedfrequency increased,
area increases. The similar to the
relation experimental
between them results indicated in
is exponential. TheFigures
bonded12 and
area17. This factas
increased
supports the claim that the resonant frequency of the bonded part increases with the bonded area.
the resonant frequency increased, similar to the experimental results indicated in Figures 12 and 17.
The vibration modes and the resonant frequency analyzed by FEA are illustrated in Figure 21. The
This fact supports the claim that the resonant frequency of the bonded part increases with the
colors of the pattern presented in Figure 21 represent the relative magnitude of the displacement
bondedvector.
area. The
Theredvibration
means modes
the largerand the resonant
displacement, andfrequency
the blue analyzed
means theby FEA displacement.
smaller are illustrated
in Figure 21. 21a,
Figure Theb,colors of the pattern
e, f, h showed presented
the bending vibration inmodes.
FigureThe21 nodes
represent the relative
of vibration magnitude
were seen as a blueof
the displacement
area. Figure vector.
21c, d, g The red means
illustrated the larger
the torsional displacement,
vibration modes. Theseand the blue
vibration means
modes are the smaller
consistent
displacement. Figure 21a,b,e,f,h showed the bending vibration modes. The nodes of
with the experimental result observed in the ESPI measurement, except for the eighth vibration mode. vibration were
seen asThe seventh
a blue area.mode
Figureshown in Figure
21c,d,g 21g coincides
illustrated with the vibration
the torsional eighth mode observed
modes. in ESPI
These (Figure modes
vibration 16h).
The resonant
are consistent with thefrequency obtainedresult
experimental by FEA was plotted
observed in theagainst the experimental
ESPI measurement, result
except forinthe
ESPI in
eighth
Figure 22. The result indicates that the FEA result is correlated with the
vibration mode. The seventh mode shown in Figure 21g coincides with the eighth mode observed ESPI result, and the vibration
in ESPImode can16h).
(Figure be visualized
The resonantusing ESPI.
frequency obtained by FEA was plotted against the experimental
result in ESPI in Figure 22. The result indicates that the FEA result is correlated with the ESPI result,
and the vibration mode can be visualized using ESPI.

Figure 20. Relation between first resonant frequency and bonded area.
 Figure 21a, b, e, f, h showed the bending vibration modes. The nodes of vibration were seen as a blue
area. Figure 21c, d, g illustrated the torsional vibration modes. These vibration modes are consistent
with the experimental result observed in the ESPI measurement, except for the eighth vibration mode.
The seventh mode shown in Figure 21g coincides with the eighth mode observed in ESPI (Figure 16h).
The resonant frequency obtained by FEA was plotted against the experimental result in ESPI in
Appl. Figure 22.
Sci. 2018, 8, The
1026 result indicates that the FEA result is correlated with the ESPI result, and the vibration
14 of 16
mode can be visualized using ESPI.

Appl.
Figure 20. Relation between first resonant frequency and bonded area.
Figure 20.REVIEW
Relation between first resonant frequency and bonded area.
Appl. Sci.Sci. 2018,
2018, 8, x8,FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW 15 17
15 of of 17

Figure 21. Composite

Figure
Figure 21.21.Composite displacements
Composite displacements
displacements in
in the
in x,
x, y,
thethe x, zzy,directions.
y, z directions.
directions. (a)
(a)(a)First
First
First mode:
mode:
mode: 118.03
118.03
118.03 Hz,
Hz,Hz, (b)Second
(b)(b) Second
Second
mode: mode: 701.60 Hz, (c) Third mode: 1426.74 Hz, (d) Fourth mode: 1659.86 Hz, (e) Fifth
mode: 701.60 Hz, (c) Third mode: 1426.74 Hz, (d) Fourth mode: 1659.86 Hz, (e) Fifth mode: 1994.54 Hz,
701.60 Hz, (c) Third mode: 1426.74 Hz, (d) Fourth mode: 1659.86 Hz, (e) Fifth mode:
mode: 1994.54
1994.54
Hz,Hz,
(f) Sixth (f) (f)
mode: Sixth
Sixth mode:
4002.46
mode: Hz, 4002.46 Hz,
(g) Hz,
4002.46 (g)(g)
Seventh Seventh
mode:
Seventh mode:
4019.39
mode: 4019.39
Hz,Hz,
Hz, (h)
4019.39 (h)(h)
Eighth Eighth
mode:
Eighth mode:
6747.37
mode: 6747.37
Hz.Hz.
Hz.
6747.37

Figure
Figure
Figure 22. Resonance
22.22.Resonance
Resonance detected
detected
detected byby
by ESPI
ESPI
ESPI vs.
vs.
vs. resonance
resonance
resonance by
byby FEA.
FEA.
FEA.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1026 15 of 16

6. Conclusions
We applied the optoacoustic method to evaluate the bonding strength in a non-destructive and
non-contact fashion. The experiment showed that the bonding strength of an ultrasonically bonded
joint increased with the enlargement of the bonded area. The increase in the bonded area led to
the higher resonant frequency of the joint in the vibration test: the resonant frequency increased
exponentially with the bonding strength. It was indicated that the joint strength is correlated with the
resonant frequency of the joint better than with the vibration time. In addition, the resonant frequency
and the vibration modes were visualized by ESPI. The exponential correlation between the bonded
area and the resonant frequency was confirmed by FEA. The vibration modes obtained by FEA were
consistent with the experimental results in ESPI.
This study indicated that it is possible to evaluate the ultrasonic bonding strength by obtaining
the correlation curve beforehand between the bonding strength measured by the tensile shear test and
the resonant frequency with a non-destructive method.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: S.Y., Funding acquisition: T.S., Investigation: T.K. and T.S., Project
administration: T.S., Writing, original draft: T.K., Writing, review and editing: S.Y. and T.S.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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