Chute Aerators.

II: Hydraulic Design

Michael Pfister1 and Willi H. Hager, F.ASCE2
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Abstract: Chute aerators are applied if cavitation damage on spillways is expected or observed. The aerator efficiency is usually
described with the ratio of the air discharge entrained through the air supply ducts and the water discharge, which does however not
account for the resulting air concentration distribution within the flow or for air detrainment. The present study investigates the streamwise
development of the air transport along the flow downstream of chute aerators. Based on an extensive test program in which six governing
parameters were systematically varied, the development of the average and the bottom air concentrations is provided up to the self-
aeration point. Based on this information, an optimization of aerators in terms of increased air entrainment and reduced detrainment rates
is possible, by assuming minimum required air concentrations. The main parameters influencing the air transport downstream of aerators
are the approach flow Froude number, the deflector angle and the chute bottom angle.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲HY.1943-7900.0000201
CE Database subject headings: Aeration; Cavitation; Entrainment; Spillways.
Author keywords: Air; Aerator; Cavitation; Chute; Deflector; Detrainment; Entrainment; Offset.

Introduction
Major cavitation damage occurred on spillways between 1970
and 1980, e.g., at Keban Dam 共Turkey兲 or Karun Dam 共Iran兲.
Chute aeration has been considered the most efficient technical
measure to counter cavitation damage, such that extensive experi-
ments have been conducted on chute aerators. Other means in-
cluding the treatment of chute concrete, the use of smooth
shuttering formwork or the application of steel fibers were less
effective, in addition to increased cost 共Pan and Shao 1984兲.
Cavitation risk is usually characterized with the cavitation
index K = 共h p + ha − hv兲 / 共V2 / 2g兲, in which h p = bottom pressure
head, hv = vapor pressure head, ha = atmospheric pressure head,
V = chute flow velocity, and g = acceleration due to gravity. An
index of K ⬍ 0.2 is generally considered critical, requiring chute
flow aeration 共Pugh and Rhone 1988; Falvey 1990兲. Following
Peterka 共1953兲 and Rasmussen 共1956兲, an average 共subscript a兲
air concentration Ca = QA / 共QA + QW兲 of approximately 0.01⬍ Ca
⬍ 0.06 avoids cavitation damage, with QA = air supply discharge
and QW = water discharge. Although it is evident that the bottom
共subscript b兲 air concentration Cb is of prime interest in the con-
text of cavitation prevention, the aforementioned criterion relates
to the average concentration.
Bottom aerators were investigated by, among others, Ko-
schitzky 共1987兲, Rutschmann 共1988兲, Chanson 共1988兲,
Rutschmann and Hager 共1990兲, Skripalle 共1994兲, Kökpınar and
1
Dr. sc. ETH, Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology
共VAW兲, ETH Zurich, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland 共corresponding au-
thor兲. E-mail: pfister@vaw.baug.ethz.ch
2
Prof. Dr., Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology
共VAW兲, ETH Zurich, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland. E-mail: hager@vaw.
baug.ethz.ch
Note. This manuscript was submitted on April 11, 2008; approved on
January 7, 2010; published online on May 14, 2010. Discussion period
open until November 1, 2010; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Hydraulic Engi-
neering, Vol. 136, No. 6, June 1, 2010. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429/2010/
6-360–367/$25.00.
Göğüş 共2002兲, and Gaskin et al. 共2003兲. The chute aerator effi-
ciency was normally described with the global air entrainment
coefficient ␤ = QA / QW, i.e., the ratio of the air supply discharge
and the water discharge. However, these studies do not account
for the streamwise air detrainment, as ␤ measures only the local
air entrainment at the aerator. The development of Cb was par-
ticularly not considered in these studies. Chanson 共1989兲 mea-
sured air concentrations and discussed air entrainment and
detrainment regions along the chute downstream of aerators. He
also related the observed deaeration process at the reattachment
zone to the associated increased bottom pressure. Kramer 共2004兲
further investigated the air detrainment characteristics in the far-
field downstream of the jet impact zone including the natural
self-aeration process. Information concerning the air transport in
the vicinity of aerators is necessary to quantify the air transport
between the aerator and the natural inception point including 共1兲
the efficiency of an aerator and 共2兲 the distance to a second po-
tentially required aerator in terms of the overall aerated chute
reach downstream of an aerator.
The present experimental study investigates the air distribution
and transport downstream of chute aerators, primarily as repre-
sented by Cb and Ca, containing entrapped and entrained air as
described by Wilhelms 共1997兲. Based on systematic measure-
ments and on the analysis of 共1兲 the air-water flow surface; 共2兲
Ca共x / L兲; and 共3兲 Cb共x / L兲, general air transport zones downstream
of chute aerators are described. Three flow zones are introduced,
namely 共1兲 the jet zone along 0 ⬍ x / L ⱕ 1; 共2兲 the reattachment
and spray zone along 1 ⬍ x / L ⬍ 3; and 共3兲 the far-field zone
downstream of x / L = 3, with x = streamwise coordinate and L
= jet length. Furthermore, the general features of the main air
transport parameters Ca and Cb were derived from experimenta-
tion. This paper highlights the results concerning Ca and Cb,
while the general air transport zones and an equation for L are
introduced in a companion paper 共Pfister and Hager 2010兲.
Experimental Setup
The experiments were conducted in a 0.3 m wide and 6 m long
sectional chute model at the Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrol-

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J. Hydraul. Eng., 2010, 136(6): 360-367

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Fig. 1. Definition sketch with notation
ogy, and Glaciology 共VAW兲 of ETH Zurich. The chute bottom
angle ␸ was set to 12°, 30°, and 50° relative to the horizontal.
Flows of variable approach 共subcript o兲 flow depths ho and
Froude numbers Fo = Vo / 共gho兲0.5 were generated with a jet-box,
with Vo = approach flow velocity 共Fig. 1兲. It was possible to vary
Fo and ho independently by adapting the discharge, i.e., different
ho were tested with the same Fo, and different Fo with the same
h o.
The discharge was measured with an electromagnetic flow
meter 共Krohne, Germany兲. The flow depths upstream of the aera-
tor were measured with a point gauge and the pressures in the air
cavity with an U-shaped manometer. The air entrained by the
aerators was supplied through a lateral duct and measured using a
thermoelectric anemometer 共Schiltknecht, Switzerland兲. The two-
dimensional 共2D兲 air concentration distribution of the flow was
measured using a fiber-optical probe 共RBI Instrumentation,
France兲.
The following parameters influence the air transport process
共Fig. 1兲: deflector height t, deflector angle ␣, offset height s, chute
bottom angle ␸, approach flow velocity Vo, and depth ho, mea-
sured upstream of the deflector. The jet length L was visually
detected as the distance between x = 0 and the reattachment point
P of the lower jet trajectory. All experiments were conducted with
approximately zero subpressure head hs ⬇ 0 in the cavity below
the jet, i.e., the pressure head in the cavity corresponds to atmo-
spheric pressure. The air-water flow surfaces were defined along
the isoconcentration lines of C = 0.90. In total, 93 tests were con-
ducted, including almost 60,000 air concentration measurement
points. Three types of aerators were systematically investigated:
共1兲 deflector without offset; 共2兲 offset without deflector; and 共3兲
combination of both. Five deflector geometries were tested, each
combined with offset heights of s = 0, 25, and 45 mm and partially
also 100 mm. Furthermore, offsets of s = 25, 45, and 100 mm
height without deflector were analyzed. Scale effects related to
the present investigation are discussed in the companion paper
共Pfister and Hager 2010兲, their effect was argued to be small.
Air Entrainment Coefficient
The relevant dimensionless parameters governing the aeration
process may be derived from a dimensional analysis 共Koschitzky
1987; Chanson 1988; Rutschmann 1988; Wood 1991; Pfister
2008兲 as Fo, ␣, ␸, and 共s + t兲 / ho, beside dimensionless terms for
the cavity subpressure, the viscosity and the surface tension. The
latter three were not considered in the present data analysis.
The air entrainment coefficient ␤ is commonly used to de-
scribe the air entrainment capacity of an aerator. Although this
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010 / 361
J. Hydraul. Eng., 2010, 136(6): 360-367
Fig. 2. Relations between ␤ and 共a兲 Fo; 共b兲 ␣; 共c兲 ␸; and 共d兲
共s + t兲 / ho. Symbols represent test series according to Table 1.
parameter is not considered significant, as it represents only the
local air entrainment at the aerator without specifying the down-
stream air concentration development, it was measured to permit
comparisons with previous results. Herein ␤ is defined using QA
supplied from the air duct, thereby not accounting for the air
transport and entrainment along the upper jet trajectory. The char-
acteristic parameters influencing ␤ were systematically varied in
the hydraulic model 共Fig. 2兲. Test series were conducted varying
one parameter and keeping the other parameters constant. As a
consequence, the isolated effect of each single parameter on ␤
was found. Several test series resulted for each basic parameter,
depending on the selected boundary conditions.
The isolated effect of Fo on ␤ is shown in Fig. 2共a兲. Three
conclusions may be drawn: 共1兲 ␤ increases significantly with Fo;
共2兲 the extended curves of all test series intersect the abscissa at
Fo ⱖ 4; and 共3兲 the lower set of curves including offsets without
deflectors is flatter, while those for aerators with deflectors are
more sensitive to changes of Fo. Furthermore, deflectors with
relatively large ␣ induce a steeper curve than flat deflectors. The
effect of ␣ on ␤ is given in Fig. 2共b兲: for 0 ° ⱕ ␣ ⱕ 11.3°, ␤
increases with ␣. Steep deflectors entrain thus more air than off-
sets, for otherwise identical boundary conditions. Furthermore,
tests with equal Fo are similar relative to ␤, while small Fo 共sym-
bol ⌬兲 generate smaller ␤. In contrast, no significant effect of ␸
on ␤ was found, as shown in Fig. 2共c兲. Consequently, ␤ is obvi-
ously independent of ␸. The effect of 共s + t兲 / ho on ␤ is shown in
Fig. 2共d兲. Again, no clear trend results and ␤ seems to be inde-
pendent of the dimensionless aerator geometry and flow depth
term. Each test series is denoted by a character in the legend of
Fig. 2 defining the related parameters, which were kept constant
for the relative test series, according to Table 1.
It is known from literature that ␤ is primarily a function of Fo
共Rutschmann 1988; Chanson 1988; Rutschmann and Hager 1990;
Kökpınar and Göğüş 2002兲. The present investigation points also
to the strong effect of ␣, provided ␣ ⬎ 0. The effect of the other
 Table 1. Test Series from Fig. 2 with Parameters Held Constant for a
Specific Series
Fig. 2共a兲
Series ␸ 共degrees兲 ␣ 共degrees兲 共s + t兲 / ho 共⫺兲
A 50 5.7 0.3
B 50 0 0.9
C 50 0 0.5
D 50 5.7 0.8
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E 30 8.1 0.6
F 30 0 0.4
G 30 0 0.8 Fig. 3. Air entrainment coefficient ␤ measured 共a兲 on hydraulic mod-
H 30 8.1 0.9 els; 共b兲 validated on prototypes. Gray: limitation of Eq. 共1兲.
I 30 8.1 0.2
J 12 0 0.7
K 12 11.3 0.9 Ⰷ 0 causing pressure fluctuations with a reduced ␤ value. In Fig.
3共a兲 the measured ␤ values are plotted as a function of the term
L 12 11.3 0.6
⌽␤ = F2o关1 + Fo tan ␣兴 from Eq. 共1兲, intersecting the abscissa ␤ = 0
Fig. 2共b兲 at ⌽␤ ⬇ 36. As a consequence, a minimum Fo is required to gen-
Series ␸ 共degrees兲 Fo 共⫺兲 共s + t兲 / ho 共⫺兲 erate air entrainment. The minimum values are Fo ⬵ 6 for offsets,
A 50 7.5 0.2 Fo ⬵ 5 for aerators with flat deflectors 共␣ = 5.7°兲 and Fo ⬵ 4 for
B 50 7.5 0.9
aerators with steep deflectors 共␣ = 11.3°兲. Rutschmann 共1988兲
stated similar values. From Eq. 共1兲 the air entrainment depends
C 50 7.5 0.6
primarily on Fo and only slightly on the aerator geometry. Fur-
D 30 6.8 0.6
thermore, aerators with deflectors are more efficient in terms of
E 30 7.5 0.9
air entrainment than those with only offsets.
F 30 7.5 0.2 Fig. 3共a兲 includes also data of Koschitzky 共1987兲, Rutschmann
G 12 7.5 0.2 共1988兲, and Skripalle 共1994兲. Koschitzky accounted for the effect
H 12 7.5 0.9 of cavity subpressure. His tests with relatively small subpressures
Fig. 2共c兲 were adjusted between 0.6⬍ ␤ / ␤ M ⬍ 1 by Rutschmann and Hager
Series ␣ 共degrees兲 Fo 共⫺兲 共s + t兲 / ho 共1990兲, with ␤ M = maximum air entrainment coefficient for hs = 0.
Furthermore, only tests with a fully open air duct were consid-
A 5.7 7.5 0.2 ered. A coefficient of R2 = 0.91 resulted between the modified data
B 5.7 7.5 0.4 set of Koschitzky and Eq. 共1兲. The data set of Rutschmann was
C 5.7 7.5 0.1 limited to 共1兲 0 ⬍ hs / ho ⬍ 0.1; 共2兲 0 ⬍ ␤ ⬍ 0.8; and 共3兲 Fo ⬎ 4.2,
D 8.1 7.5 0.2 resulting in R2 = 0.94 between his data and Eq. 共1兲. The data set of
E 0 7.5 0.7 Skripalle describes offsets without deflectors on horizontal chutes.
F 11.3 7.5 0.9 Test with hs ⬇ 0 and with a smooth chute surface were considered,
Fig. 2共d兲 resulting in R2 = 0.89. These three additional data sets confirm the
accuracy of Eq. 共1兲 such that its limitations may be extended
Series ␣ 共degrees兲 Fo 共⫺兲 ␸ 共degrees兲
according to the boundary conditions of these studies to 5.8
A 5.7 7.4 50 ⱕ Fo ⱕ 16 . 1, 0 . 06 ⱕ 共s + t兲 / ho ⱕ 2.1, 0 ° ⱕ ␣ ⱕ 11.3°, and 0 ° ⱕ ␸
B 11.3 7.5 50 ⱕ 50°.
C 8.1 7.4 50 Furthermore, Wood 共1991兲 presented prototype measurements
D 0 7.7 50 of ␤. Five chute aerators were analyzed, namely Foz do Areia
E 0 9.5 30 Dam 共Brazil兲, Emborcação Dam 共Brazil兲, Amaluza Dam 共Ecua-
F 0 7.5 30 dor兲, Colbun Dam 共Chile兲, and Tarbela Dam 共Pakistan兲. Aerators
G 13.3 7.5 30 with subpressure coefficients smaller than 0.4, according to the
H 13.3 9.2 30 definition of Wood, were considered. These prototype data fit with
I 5.7 7.5 12
Eq. 共1兲 to R2 = 0.88 关Fig. 3共b兲兴.
J 13.3 7.5 12
K 13.3 9 12
Average Air Concentration

Downstream of the jet reattachment point P 共Fig. 1兲, the average

parameters ho, t, s, and ␸ on ␤ was found insignificant. It is
air concentration Ca, integrated over the flow depth defined be-
proposed that
tween z = 0 and the upper air-water flow surface zu at C = 0.90, is

冕
␤ = 0.0028F2o关1 + Fo tan ␣兴 − 0.1, for 0 ⬍ ␤ ⬍ 0.80 共1兲 zu
1
which yielded a coefficient of determination R = 0.93. Eq. 共1兲
2 Ca = C共z兲dz 共2兲
zu 0
may be applied to aerators consisting of deflectors, offsets or
combinations, given that hs ⬇ 0. The air duct should consist of a In the context of cavitation prevention, the values of Ca共x / L兲 are
sufficiently large cross-section to avoid relevant subpressures hs of interest in the reattachment and the spray zone 共II兲 共1 ⬍ x / L

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Fig. 4. Average air concentration Ca 共a兲 at x / L = 3 versus L / ho; 共b兲
comparison between measured and computed values from Eq. 共4兲
along far-field zone 共III兲 for x / L ⬎ 3
⬍ 3兲, as well as in the far-field zone 共III兲 共x / L ⱖ 3兲. The jet zone
共I兲 is irrelevant because no cavitation occurs as long as the flow is
separated from the chute bottom.
Reattachment and Spray Zone
The values of Ca strongly decrease in the reattachment region
共1 ⬍ x / L ⬍ 1.25兲 due to flow deflection, typically from 1.0Ca at P
to values of 共0.4 to 0.9兲Ca within the short distance of 0.25L. The
relative detrainment rate is in particular large for steep and high
deflectors with large Fo. For such conditions, the corresponding ␤
is also large, such that the absolute downstream air transport is
still relatively large. A local maximum of Ca appears in the spray
region at approximately 1.5⬍ x / L ⬍ 2, generated by water par-
ticles ejected from the flow surface due to jet reattachment,
thereby elevating the C = 0.90 isoconcentration line. As a conse-
quence, the transport of entrapped air near the surface increases,
while the air concentration close to the chute bottom decreases.
As described in the companion paper, local flow phenomena
strongly influence Ca along the reattachment and spray zone 共II兲,
complicating a quantification of Ca. A data analysis indicates that
the value of Ca at x / L = 3 共subscript 3L兲 varies with the relative
jet length L / ho as
L nent ⫺1.3. Large approach flow depths ho potentially generate
Ca共3L兲 = 0.008 + Cai, for 5 ⱕ L/ho ⱕ 40 共3兲
ho
The measured values of Ca共3L兲 are compared with Eq. 共3兲 in Fig.
4共a兲, resulting in R2 = 0.88. The data indicate an average incipient
共subscript i兲 air concentration of Cai ⬵ 0.10 for L / ho = 0. Cai is
equal or marginally smaller than Ca共x / L = 0兲 measured at jet take-
off, as Ca共x / L = 0兲 also includes the air entrapped along a deflec-
tor.
Far-Field Zone
The analysis of Ca共x兲 along the far-field zone 共III兲 indicates that
the values tend to decrease in the streamwise direction for ␸
= 12°, remain constant for ␸ = 30°, and slightly increase for ␸
= 50°. For given ␸, all respective curves similarly decrease or
increase for x / L ⬎ 3, indicating an insignificant effect of the other
varied parameters. The concentration curves were therefore de-
fined as a function of ␸ with respect to Ca共3L兲 at the beginning of
zone 共III兲 according to Eq. 共3兲. The values of Ca共x / L ⱖ 3兲 were
found with R2 = 0.86 as
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010 / 363
J. Hydraul. Eng., 2010, 136(6): 360-367
Ca = Ca共3L兲 + 0.02 冉 冊
x
L
− 3 sin共␸ − 30°兲, for 3 ⱕ x/L ⱕ 9
共4兲
The model data of Ca共x / L ⱖ 3兲 and those computed with Eq. 共4兲
are compared in Fig. 4共b兲. Flows on “steep” chutes with ␸
ⱖ 30° have sufficient air transport capacity to maintain the aver-
age air concentration, while the flow deaerates otherwise. This
average streamwise air detrainment is slightly smaller from Eq.
共4兲 than as given by Kramer 共2004兲, who investigated chute bot-
tom angles between 0 ° ⱕ ␸ ⱕ 26°. An aerator designed for large
values of Ca in the far-field zone 共III兲 should preferably produce a
long jet 共large L兲 on a steep chute allowing for a progressive jet
disintegration, combined with a high air concentration Ca共3L兲.
Bottom Air Concentration
The bottom air concentration profile Cb downstream of point P is
defined experimentally using the values measured closest to the
model chute bottom, i.e., Cb = C共2 mmⱕ z ⱕ 3 mm兲. A data
evaluation motivated a distinction between the streamwise devel-
opment of Cb in zone 共II兲 for 共1兲 offset aerators without deflectors
共s ⬎ 0 and ␣ = 0兲 and 共2兲 deflector aerators with or without offsets
共s ⱖ 0 and ␣ ⬎ 0兲, while the far-field zone 共III兲 can be described
independent of the aerator type.
Reattachment and Spray Zone
Aerators consisting of offsets without a deflector are exclusively
characterized by s, as t = ␣ = 0. Similar to the aforementioned in-
vestigation of ␤, test series were conducted with a systematic
parameter variation to determine the isolated effect of the inves-
tigated variables on Cb. The analysis of all varied parameters
provided Cb versus the streamwise coordinate 关共x / L兲 − 1兴.
The effect of Fo was found as F−2 o , i.e., the values of
Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴 decrease less for larger than for smaller Fo. The two
parameters ho and s were combined to form the relative drop
height ho / 共ho + s兲, and their effect was described with the expo-
thick jets with an increased disintegration capacity resulting in
high values of Cb, while jets impinge with a relatively steep angle
onto the chute for high offsets, resulting in a deaeration at the
chute bottom 共Chanson 1988兲. The effect of the chute slope was
retained as 共sin ␸兲0.4. Combining the individual effects of all pa-
rameters on Cb along 1 ⱕ x / L ⱕ 3 results in the function f O for
offsets
fO = 冉 冊 冉 冊
x
L
− 1 F−2
o
ho
s + ho
−1.3
共sin ␸兲0.4, for 0 ⱕ f O ⱕ 0.2
共5兲
Fig. 5共a兲 shows Cb共f O兲 for all tests conducted with offsets, indi-
cating good agreement. Tests with approach flow Weber numbers
Wo = Vo / 共␴ / ␷ho兲0.5 ⬍ 140 were excluded, as they underestimate
Cb due to scale effects, with ␴ = surface tension and ␷ = viscosity
of water. The trend of Cb may be approximated using the hyper-
bolic tangent function, i.e., Cb = 1 − tanh关4.8f O0.2兴, with R2 = 0.74, as
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Fig. 5. Bottom air concentration Cb in spray and reattachment zone

共II兲 for offsets: 共a兲 semilogarithmic streamwise development Cb共f O兲
of test data and Eq. 共6兲; 共b兲 comparison of measured and with Eq. 共7兲
computed values Cb共3L兲 at x / L = 3 Fig. 6. Exponents m and n versus sin ␸, with 共쎲兲 and 共䊏兲 mean
values from Table 1

冉 冉 冊 冉 冊
Cb = 1 − tanh 4.8
x
L
−1
0.2
F−0.4
o
ho
s + ho
−0.26
共sin ␸兲0.08 , 冊 offsets 共t = ␣ = 0兲, as summarized in Table 2. In the test series
for 1 ⱕ x/L ⱕ 3 共6兲 relative to Fo for example, all curves Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴Fno collapse for
␸ = 50° with the exponent n = −2.5, for ␸ = 30° the exponent is n
Eq. 共6兲 starts at P 共f O = 0兲 with Cb = 1 decreasing then in the = −1.5, and n = −1.0 for ␸ = 12°. Accordingly, the exponent n is
streamwise direction. At the end of zone 共II兲 the values of Cb expressed as a function of ␸ as
become very small, unless self-aeration occurs 共Kramer 2004兲.
The length L, which is specified in the companion paper 共Pfister
n = − 1 − 共1.5 sin ␸兲3 共8兲
and Hager 2010兲, is influenced by the same governing parameters
as Cb in Eq. 共6兲, such that the effect of each parameter varied in As regards to the isolated effect of ␣, all curves Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴
the model on Cb共x兲 must account for both, Eq. 共6兲 and L. A ⫻共tan ␣兲m collapse for ␸ = 50° with the exponent m = −1.0, the
sensitivity analysis indicates that Cb共x兲 mainly increases with Fo exponent is m = 0 for ␸ = 30°, and m = 0.5 for ␸ = 12°, such that
and ho, while the effects of s and ␸ are marginal. The parameters
Fo, ho and partially ␸ are usually given for a certain spillway by m = 0.5 − 共1.5 sin ␸兲3 共9兲
design and economic reasons. The efficiency of an offset aerator
can therefore only marginally be increased by s, such that it Both Eqs. 共8兲 and 共9兲 are shown in Fig. 6. The negative values of
should exclusively be used for large Fo ⬎ 6, as typically occur in n increase with ␸, indicating an amplified effect of Fo on the
bottom outlets or at chute ends. It can be concluded that offsets bottom air transport particularly for steep chutes, i.e., ␸ ⬎ 30°. In
operate generally less effectively in terms of bottom air entrain- contrast, the effect of m on 共tan ␣兲m is dual: The exponent is
ment than deflector aerators because the turbulence-generating positive for ␸ ⱕ 30° and negative for ␸ ⬎ 30°. The bottom air
deflector is absent 共Ervine et al. 1995兲, and L is relatively short. transport is reduced on “flat” chutes when applying steep deflec-
The concentration Cb共3L兲 at the end of zone 共II兲 is obtained by tors and increases on steep chutes with steep deflectors. This phe-
inserting x / L = 3 into Eq. 共6兲 as nomenon results from the jet impact angles at P: steep deflectors

冉 冉 冊 冊
on flat chutes generate a large impact angle of the aerated jet on
−0.26
ho the cute bottom, known to cause significant deaeration 共Chanson
Cb共3L兲 = 1 − tanh 5.5 F−0.4 共sin ␸兲0.08 , at x/L = 3
o
s + ho 1988; Ervine et al. 1995兲. In contrast, the effect of ␣ on the
impact angle is reduced on steep chutes while the disintegration
共7兲
process is amplified. The curve Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴共tan ␣兲m is indepen-
The Cb共3L兲 values derived from Eq. 共7兲 and those measured are dent of ␣ for ␸ = 30° because then m = 0 and 共tan ␣兲0 = 1. How-
compared in Fig. 5共b兲, with R2 = 0.87. The test data were linearly ever, L depends on ␣ such that the bottom air concentration at the
interpolated between neighbor values if no measurement was absolute, not normalized, location x remains a function of ␣.
available at exactly x / L = 3. The two parameters ho and s were combined into ho / 共ho + s兲,
Aerator flows with deflectors and with offsets s ⱖ 0 are influ- i.e., the identical normalization as for offsets. The effect of this
enced by all varied parameters. For these, an effect of ␸ on both relative drop height is smaller than for offsets, resulting in a re-
Fo and ␣ was found. Hence, the effects of Fo and ␣ on duced exponent of ⫺0.2. Furthermore, no relevant effect of t on
Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴 cannot be described with the same exponent as for Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴 was found. As the effect of ␸ is included in the

Table 2. Exponents n and m Describing Effects of ␸ on Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴Fno and on Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴共tan ␣兲m. nv= No Value Available
Angle Parameter Exponent series 1 Exponent series 2 Exponent series 3 Mean
␸ = 50° Fo ⫺2.5 ⫺3 nv n = −2.5
tan ␣ ⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1 m = −1.0
␸ = 30° Fo ⫺1.5 ⫺1.5 ⫺1.5 n = −1.5
tan ␣ 0 0 0 m = 0.0
␸ = 12° Fo ⫺1 ⫺1 nv n = −1.0
tan ␣ 0.5 0.5 0.5 m = +0.5

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J. Hydraul. Eng., 2010, 136(6): 360-367

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Fig. 7. Bottom air concentration Cb in spray and reattachment zone
共II兲 for deflectors with or without offsets: 共a兲 semilogarithmic stream-
wise development Cb共f D兲 of test data and Eq. 共11兲; 共b兲 comparison of
measured and with Eq. 共12兲 computed values Cb共3L兲 at x / L = 3
exponents n and m, the individual effects of the varied parameters
on Cb关共x / L兲 − 1兴 derived from all test series results in the function
f D for deflectors along 1 ⱕ x / L ⱕ 3 as
冉 冊 冉 冊
−0.2
x ho
fD = − 1 Fno共tan ␣兲m , for 0 ⱕ f D ⱕ 0.3
L s + ho
共10兲
Fig. 7共a兲 shows the measured data Cb共f D兲 in a semilogarithmic
plot. All data essentially collapse, such that the resulting trend
follows the hyperbolic tangent function Cb = 1 − tanh关4.8f D0.25兴. Ac-
cordingly, the bottom air concentration starts at P 共f D = 0兲 with
Cb = 1 and drastically decreases in the streamwise direction. The
values tend to Cb → 0 at the end of zone 共II兲, if self-aeration is
absent. The general trend of Cb for deflector aerators may there-
fore be expressed as
冉 冉 冊
Cb = 1 − tanh 4.8
x
L
−1
0.25
冉 冊 冊 −0.05
ho
⫻F0.25n
o 共tan ␣兲 0.25m
, for 1 ⱕ x/L ⱕ 3
s + ho
共11兲
Eq. 共11兲 slightly differs from Eq. 共6兲, but the data analysis indi-
cated that two different normalizations were needed to describe
the distribution of Cb for aerators with deflectors or offsets. The
1 , 200 Cb data are compared with Eq. 共11兲 in Fig. 7共a兲
共R2 = 0.79兲. Again, tests with Wo ⬍ 140 were excluded for the
derivation of Eq. 共11兲.
Considering the combined effects of all relevant parameters on
Cb共x兲 from Eq. 共11兲 and from L specified in the companion paper
requires a distinction between flat chutes with approximately ␸
ⱕ 30° and steep chutes with ␸ ⬎ 30°. An increase of the param-
eters Fo, ␸, ␣, ho, t, and s causes an increase of the bottom air
concentration. Their effect is small on flat chutes, whereas on
steep chutes large values of Fo and ␣ strongly increases the bot-
tom air transport.
The approach flow conditions are usually determined by the
spillway geometry and the discharge, such that they cannot be
varied for unregulated chutes. Furthermore, the chute angle typi-
cally follows the topography and economical considerations.
These parameters may generally not be varied to optimize an
aerator. Hence, only the aerator geometry characterized by ␣, s,
and t may be selected to design an aerator. An optimization may
be necessary for low Fo and should involve ␸: For ␸ ⱕ 30° a
combination of large ␣, s and t values is effective, while for ␸
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010 / 365
J. Hydraul. Eng., 2010, 136(6): 360-367
Fig. 8. Normalized trend of Cb / Cb共3L兲关⌽IIICb兴 in far-field zone 共III兲
⬎ 30° mainly ␣ influences Cb共x兲. In engineering practice, the
spectrum of the typically applied geometrical parameters is 5 °
⬍ ␣ ⬍ 12°, 0.1 m ⬍ t ⬍ 0.3 m, and s ⬍ 1 m. Note that s is defined
as chute bottom elevation difference not considering local aerator
grooves to optimize the transverse air flow in the jet cavity, and
that s and t are defined perpendicular to the chute bottom 共Fig. 1兲.
At the end of zone 共II兲 the values of Cb共3L兲 may be derived
from Eq. 共11兲 by substituting x / L = 3
冉
Cb共3L兲 = 1 − tanh 5.7 F0.25n
o 共tan ␣兲0.25m 冉 冊 冊
ho
s + ho
−0.05
, at x/L = 3
共12兲
The measured values of Cb共3L兲 are compared with Eq. 共12兲 in Fig.
7共b兲 with R2 = 0.81. There are few values Cb共3L兲 ⬎ 0.01 as tests
with “large” values of Cb共3L兲 rarely reach the end of zone 共II兲 due
to the limited model chute length.
Far-Field Zone
In the far-field zone 共III兲, i.e., between x / L = 3 and the self-
aeration point 共Kramer 2004兲, continuous deaeration occurs for
all tests with reduced rates as compared to zone 共II兲. Three as-
pects resulted from the data analysis concerning Cb共x / L兲: 共1兲 a
semilogarithmic plot of the data indicates an exponential decrease
of Cb; 共2兲 the detrainment gradients vary with Fo; and 共3兲 the
effects of the other five investigated parameters are small. The
concentration curves were normalized with their initial values
Cb共3L兲 from Eq. 共7兲 for offset aerators, or Eq. 共12兲 for deflectors
and defined as a function of Fo. The following equation results
共R2 = 0.91兲:
冉 冉 冊 冊
x
Cb = Cb共3L兲 exp − 8.5 − 3 F−1.5 , for 3 ⱕ x/L ⱕ 9
L o
共13兲
Eq. 共13兲 may be applied for aerators consisting of deflectors, off-
sets, and combinations. Fig. 8 compares the measured values of
Cb / Cb共3L兲 as a function of ⌽IIICb = 关共x / L兲 − 3兴F−1.5
o with Eq. 共13兲.
Few data with ⌽IIICb ⬎ 0.2 tend to values above those computed
with Eq. 共13兲. These relate to tests with relatively small ho and L,
and were located beyond x / L = 9. Therefore, they could be influ-
enced by incipient self-aeration increasing the air concentrations
slightly.
The Cb共x兲 values derived from Eq. 共13兲 and those provided by
Kramer 共2004兲 are almost identical, given that Kramer’s equation
was applied: 共1兲 in the far-field zone 共III兲 defined in the compan-
ion paper and 共2兲 if the initial value Cb共3L兲 is derived from Eq. 共7兲
 or Eq. 共12兲 of the present investigation instead of using Kramer’s Science Foundation 共SNF兲, Grant Nos. 200021-101548 and
estimation. Again, Fo is the governing parameter regarding the 200020-113448.
bottom air transport, beside a long L and a high initial value of
Cb共3L兲.
Notation
Conclusions
The following symbols are used in this paper:
This hydraulic model research accounts for the two-phase flow C ⫽ air concentration;
pattern and the air concentration distribution downstream of chute Ca ⫽ average air concentration;
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bottom aerators. The efforts were concentrated on a quantification Cai ⫽ incipient air concentration;
of the air entrainment at the aerator and on its detrainment further Ca共3L兲 ⫽ average air concentration at x / L = 3;
downstream. The entrainment process was primarily character- Cb ⫽ bottom air concentration;
ized by the commonly used air entrainment coefficient ␤. Two Cb共3L兲 ⫽ bottom air concentration at x / L = 3;
main parameters were considered for air detrainment: 共1兲 average
Fo ⫽ approach flow Froude number;
air concentration Ca and 共2兲 bottom air concentration Cb. The
f D ⫽ normalization function for deflector aerators;
relations of both air concentrations were described with the gov-
f O ⫽ normalization function for offset aerators;
erning parameters along the reattachment and spray zone 共II兲, and
g ⫽ acceleration due to gravity;
the far-field zone 共III兲. Equations are provided allowing to deter-
ha ⫽ atmospheric pressure head;
mine these two concentrations versus the streamwise coordinate
ho ⫽ approach flow depth;
and the boundary conditions, including the approach flow condi-
h p ⫽ bottom pressure head;
tions, the aerator geometry, and the chute bottom angle.
hs ⫽ cavity subpressure head;
The main parameters influencing the air transport downstream
hv ⫽ vapor pressure head;
of chute aerators are the approach flow Froude number Fo, the
K ⫽ cavitation index;
deflector angle ␣, and the chute bottom angle ␸. These govern the
L ⫽ jet length;
transport process, especially at relatively large values. However,
m ⫽ exponent of ␣;
Fo and ␸ are usually fixed for a spillway, such that primarily ␣
n ⫽ exponent of Fo;
can be selected for a sufficient air transport. Furthermore, the
QA ⫽ air discharge;
following conclusions were drawn concerning aerator design:
QW ⫽ water discharge;
• Aerators with deflectors generate higher air concentrations
R ⫽ coefficient of determination;
than do offsets;
s ⫽ offset height;
• Aerators mainly increase Ca, while Cb is only marginally af-
t ⫽ deflector height;
fected;
V ⫽ chute flow velocity;
• A large deaeration gradient is observed near point P, especially
Vo ⫽ approach flow velocity;
close to the chute bottom;
Wo ⫽ approach flow Weber number;
• Minimum Fo for efficient air entrainment by aerators are Fo
x ⫽ streamwise coordinate;
⬵ 6 for offsets, Fo ⬵ 5 for deflector aerators with ␣ ⬵ 6° and
z ⫽ coordinate perpendicular to chute bottom;
Fo ⬵ 4 for ␣ ⬵ 11°. Offsets are limited therefore to large Fo, as
zu ⫽ upper water surface at C = 0.90;
typically found in bottom outlets or at chute ends;
␣ ⫽ deflector angle;
• Steep deflectors are more efficient than those with small values
␤ ⫽ air entrainment coefficient;
of ␣, especially on steep chutes with ␸ ⬎ 30°; and
␤ M ⫽ maximum air entrainment coefficient for hs
• Aerators on steep chutes ␸ ⬎ 30° operate more efficient than
= 0;
those on flat chutes.
␳ ⫽ density of water;
Chute aerators may be designed based primarily on their bot-
␴ ⫽ surface tension of water;
tom and secondarily on their average air concentration curves, for
␷ ⫽ viscosity of water; and
which equations are proposed herein. The effects of the aerator
␸ ⫽ chute bottom angle.
geometry or the approach flow condition may be derived from the
resulting air concentrations. A general guideline for approach Subscripts
flows with “small” Fo is: on flat chutes with ␸ ⱕ 30°, a deflector
a ⫽ average;
aerator is efficient provided 10° ⱕ ␣ ⱕ 12°, 0.20 m ⱕ t ⱕ 0.30 m,
b ⫽ bottom;
and 0.50 m ⱕ s ⱕ 1.00 m, while these numbers are reduced for
i ⫽ incipient;
“steeper” chutes.
o ⫽ approach flow; and
The present results apply to 5.8ⱕ Fo ⱕ 10.4, 12° ⱕ ␸ ⱕ 50°,
3L ⫽ at x / L = 3.
0.1ⱕ 共t + s兲 / ho ⱕ 2.1, 0 ° ⱕ ␣ ⱕ 11.3°, and hs ⬇ 0, except for Eq.
共1兲 with a larger range. It is recommended that an optimized
aerator should have a sufficiently large air supply system to avoid
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