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Vortex-Induced Air Entrainment Rates at Intakes

Article  in  Journal of Hydraulic Engineering · June 2015

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001036

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 Vortex-Induced Air Entrainment Rates at Intakes
Georg Möller 1; Martin Detert 2; and Robert M. Boes 3

Abstract: This paper presents an intrinsic approach to estimate air entrainment rates due to intake vortices based on large-scale laboratory
measurements. Quasi-continuous measurements of the amount of entrained air were conducted using a sophisticated de-aeration system.
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The data analysis of 34 experimental runs resulted in a parameter fit describing the air entrainment rates at horizontal intakes. Additionally, a
prediction band is given that provides a handle to inspect probability aspects. Furthermore, an approach to determine the critical
intake submergence is presented. These guidelines enable hydraulic design engineers to estimate both the amount of entrained air and
the critical intake submergence at horizontal intakes, so that the efficiency and safety of pressurized waterway systems is further increased.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001036. © 2015 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Air entrainment rate; De-aeration; Hydraulic structure; Intake vortices; Intake submergence; Zero-air-criterion.

Introduction effects caused by unsteady flow behavior of entrapped air. Studies

Air entraining vortices are a typical phenomenon at intakes of hy-
droelectric power plants (HPP) and other pressurized systems. The
entrained air changes the flow properties from a single-phase to a
two-phase flow, characterized by the relative air entrainment rate
Qa
β¼ ð1Þ
Qw
giving the relationship between the volumetric air discharge Qa and
the volumetric water discharge Qw .
Air in pressurized systems may have strong consequences on
the operation and safety of pressure systems and hydraulic machi-
nery. These effects include (1) efficiency reduction of turbines and
pumps, (2) unsteady flow behavior, i.e., pulsations and pressure
surges in the system with corresponding mechanical loads on
the involved components, and (3) stationary effects, e.g., flow re-
duction from the presence of air bubbles and local corrosion dam-
age, respectively. The first group refers to direct effects of air in
hydraulic machinery. Even minute β values may cause a reduction
in efficiency of around 1%. An air entrainment rate of β ¼ 1.5%
leads to an efficiency reduction of up to 16% (Denny and Young
1957; Papillon et al. 2000). For air entrainment rates up to β ¼ 4%
there is a further exponential decrease in efficiency. Depending on
the type of pump (axial pumps are more sensitive than centrifugal),
at air entrainment rates between 7 ≤ β ≤ 20%, a sudden drop of
efficiency down to a total flow interruption may occur (Chang
1977; Poullikkas 2000). The second group includes the destructive
1
Project Manager, IUB Engineering AG, Technoparkstrasse 1, CH-
8005 Zürich, Switzerland; formerly, Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology
and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
(corresponding author). E-mail: georg.moeller@iub-ag.ch
2
Research Engineer, Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and
Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland. E-mail:
detert@vaw.baug.ethz.ch
3
Professor and Director, Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and
Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland. E-mail:
boes@vaw.baug.ethz.ch
Note. This manuscript was submitted on March 23, 2014; approved on
March 12, 2015; published online on June 8, 2015. Discussion period open
until November 8, 2015; separate discussions must be submitted for indi-
vidual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,
© ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429/04015026(8)/$25.00.
by Zhou et al. (2002, 2013a, b) indicate that entrapped air pockets
are able to induce an abnormal pressure surge, which can easily
burst the pipe. The third group refers to negative, quasi-stationary
effects. An accumulation of air reduces the effective cross-sectional
area and, consequently, the flow discharge decreases. Furthermore,
local corrosion damages of steel linings may occur.
A literature review concerning intake vortices indicates that only
a few publications deal with air entrainment as to its quantification,
see Table 1. The first approaches to quantify the relative air entrain-
ment rate β were presented by Iversen (1953) and Denny and
Young (1957). According to their research, the air entrainment rate
at pump sumps is typically β ¼ 5%, but may reach β ¼ 10% in
extreme cases. Investigations of Hattersley (1965) indicate air en-
trainment rates between 0.06 ≤ β ≤ 0.73%, thus one to two mag-
nitudes smaller than the former value. However, up to the 1970s no
valuable information appears to be provided to quantify β as a func-
tion of common flow features such as the intake (pipe) or combined
(submergence) Froude numbers, i.e., FD ¼ vD =ðgDÞ0.5 and
Fco ¼ vD =ðghÞ0.5 , respectively, where vD = average velocity at
the characteristic intake cross section, D = inner intake diameter,
g = gravity acceleration, and h = intake submergence relative to the
pipe axis. Padmanabhan (1984) presents maximum values of air
concentration rates (void fraction) Ca ¼ β=ðβ þ 1Þ versus Fco
(Fig. 1). With Ca;max ¼ 15%, the maximum relative air entrainment
rate amounts to β ¼ Ca =ð1 − Ca Þ ¼ 18%. The majority of all
data are below Ca ¼ 1%. The data scatter is considerable, and
no specific trend becomes obvious. No correlation of air entrain-
ment and flow parameters was performed, but the author provided
an envelope line of maximum air entrainment. Although the studies
of Denny and Young (1957) and Padmanabhan (1984) are compa-
rable, the measured entrainment rates again vary widely over sev-
eral orders of magnitude.
Furthermore, a large number of publications using the term air
entraining vortices provide no detailed information on entrainment
rates or void fractions (e.g., Haindl 1959; Jain et al. 1978; Chang
and Lee 1995), see also Möller et al. (2012). Recently, Suerich-
Gulick et al. (2014a, c) presented a model to estimate the key char-
acteristics of free surface vortices at intakes. However, a linkage to
the amount of entrained air is missing here as well.
To close the knowledge gap concerning vortex-induced air en-
trainment rates at intakes, the goal of the present research is to
quantify β in terms of the hydraulic characteristics of the local flow.

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J. Hydraul. Eng., 2015, 141(11): 04015026

 Table 1. Summary of Investigations Concerning Air Entrainment Rate
Graphical data
Author(s) Air entrainment rate β presentation Regression Experimental setup
Iversen (1953) Normal 1–5%, extreme > 10% h=D No Intake orientated vertically upwards; scale model, prototype
Denny and Young (1957) Normal 1–5%, extreme > 10% n/a n/a Intake orientated vertically upwards and horizontal; scale model
Hattersley (1965) 0.06–0.73% n/a n/a Intake orientated vertically upwards; prototype
Padmanabhan (1984) ≤18% Fco [0.0–2.2] No Two intakes orientated horizontally; scale model
≤23% Fco [0.0–2.0] No Intake orientated vertically downwards; scale model

Experimental Setup
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Fig. 1. Air concentration Ca ¼ β=ðβ þ 1Þ (‘void fraction’) versus
combined Froude number Fco ¼ vD =ðghÞ0.5 at horizontal intakes, with
envelope line giving maximum air entrainment rate Ca ðFco Þ; perturbed
flow tests were conducted while using partially blocked approach flow
[reprinted from Padmanabhan (1984) with permission]
Hydraulic Model
Experiments were conducted at a large-scale experimental tank-
pipe system at VAW, ETH Zurich (Fig. 2), consisting of three main
parts: (1) 50 m3 experimental steel tank, (2) 14 m long pressurized-
pipe system, and (3) 130 m3 underground reservoir. Water dis-
charge was supplied by two frequency-controlled pumps providing
a maximum discharge of Qw ¼ 0.510 m3 =s in a closed loop.
The stilling basin was designed to promote a uniform velocity
distribution in the main tank. In the stilling basin the end fittings
of the feeding pipes were perforated to diffuse the incoming jet
homogeneously.
The flow was guided through a vertically arranged filter fleece
to the main tank. An additional wave absorber raft (not drawn in
Fig. 2) damped surface waves. In a top view the tank was symmet-
rically arranged to the main flow direction containing no other in-
stallations. The unsteady nature of intake vortex generation was
judged to be undisturbed by the boundary conditions of the tank.
The water flow was from the main tank into the pressurized-pipe
system through a horizontal intake pipe, whose sharp-crested open-
ing had an inner diameter of D ¼ 0.389 m (DN400). Visual access

Fig. 2. Cross-sectional view of experimental facility: (a) 50 m3 experimental tank with stilling basin and filter fleece for flow uniformization and
intake pipe; (b) 14 m long pressurized-pipe system with de-aeration device consisting of three riser pipes and two air storages; (c) 130 m3 reservoir
and pumps

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J. Hydraul. Eng., 2015, 141(11): 04015026

 to the tank was secured by three glass windows at the bottom wall,
the right wall, and the head wall. The Froude numbers FD and Fco
varied up to 2 and 2.8, respectively, whereas the relative submer-
gence h=D varied up to 4.
The water discharges were measured by magnetic inductive dis-
charge (MID) meter, the water levels by ultrasonic sensors, the
pressures in the rising pipe system by piezoresistive pressure sen-
sors sensors, the approach flow velocities by acoustic Doppler ve-
locimetry (ADV), and the flow field around the intake vortices by
large-scale particle image velocimetry (PIV) (Keller et al. 2014).
A vortex type box with seven buttons, in relation to the vortex
types VT ¼ 0 − 6 (see below), allowed for a continuous and
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manual documentation of the visually identified vortex types
(Hecker 1987). Furthermore, both the fluid temperature and the
conductivity were measured. A complete list of the instrumentation
and measurement equipment used in the experimental investiga-
tions is presented by Möller (2013). The data acquisition of all
measurement subsystems was continuously performed with a
1 Hz frequency.
Scale Similarity
A dimensional analysis conducted by Möller (2013) showed that,
besides the FD =Fco , the Reynolds number RD ¼ vD D=ν, with ν =
kinematic viscosity, and the Weber number WD ¼ ρv2D D=σ, with
σ = surface tension between air and water, are decisive parameters
for scaling the laboratory model. These findings are in line with the
literature, e.g., Tastan and Yildirim (2014) as well as Suerich-
Gulick et al. (2014b).
The authors’ initial hypothesis was that inertial forces are dom-
inant for air-entraining vortex flow, so that Froude similarity was
chosen for the scale model. To keep the effects of viscosity and
surface tension small, the experimental conditions must be main-
tained above corresponding threshold (critical, subscript cr) values
of RD;cr and WD;cr . Through the compliance of empirical limits,
their influence should be negligible to avoid scale effects. Classical
limits for similitude criteria of intake-vortex investigations are
RD;cr ¼ 3.2 × 104 according to Daggett and Keulegan (1974), and
WD;cr ¼ 121 according to Ranga Raju and Garde (1987). For air-
water flow Pfister and Chanson (2014) proposed RD;cr ¼ 2 − 3 ×
105 to avoid relevant scale effects in terms of air concentrations
within 5 ≤ F ¼ v=ðghÞ0.5 ≤ 15, where v and h are characteristic
air-water flow velocity, and flow depth, respectively. For F < 5,
these limits have to be selected more conservatively. If one limita-
tion is considered, the other is implicitly respected. The difficulty,
however, is to define a meaningful reference velocity and length for
the present investigation. The critical velocity vcr for air entrain-
ment to occur, also termed inception limit, is a function of relative
turbulence intensity. According to Kobus (1984), vcr depends on
the magnitude of the fluid parameter Z ¼ ðgη4w Þ=ðρw σ3 Þ, with
ρw as density, and ηw as dynamic viscosity of water. Z depends
on liquid properties only independent of the boundary scale and
the flow velocity. In experimental two-phase flow investigations
the liquid parameter applies alternatively to W, with the advantage
neither to contain a reference length nor a reference velocity. For
equal water properties in model and prototype, the air inception
limit is given with ν w ¼ ηw =ρw as the kinematic viscosity of water
by Kobus (1984)
v3cr
¼ const: ¼ ð0.5 ÷ 1Þ · 105 ð2Þ
gν w
The order of magnitude indicates air inception at velocities
of 0.8 − 1 m=s. Obviously, some scale uncertainties exist with
© ASCE 04015026-3
J. Hydraul. Eng., 2015, 141(11): 04015026
respect to the data transferability to prototype scale. To check
the validity of our Froude model hypothesis mentioned above, scale
family tests were performed. The goal was also to define RD;cr
and WD;cr .
This study’s scale family tests were performed by Meyer
(unpublished data, 2012; see also Möller 2013) at the same
tank facility as used for the main experiments. Parameter were
varied in the range 0.2 ≤ FD ≤ 1.5, 0.75 ≤ h=D ≤ 3.0, and
for nominal diameters D ¼ ½DN200; DN300; DN400; DN500 ¼
½190; 291; 389; 486 mm, where h=D ¼ 0 refers to a water level
at the pipe axis. Measurements of β (see next section) were only
performed at constant vortex phases. To compare the results of dif-
ferent scales, a measured air entrainment factor
β i ðjÞ
Rf ðjÞ ¼ ð3Þ
β i ðDN500Þ
was defined to analyze possible scale effects, where j denotes the
four different pipe diameters D, and i stands for the flow conditions
at the same FD and h=D, respectively. Rf values are only deter-
mined for measuring points where air entrainment was measurable
in all four scales. Fig. 3 summarizes the findings. The median of
Rf ðDN200Þ is 0.10, i.e., β is about 10 times smaller than for experi-
ments with a DN500. The median of Rf ðDN300Þ is equal to 0.33,
i.e., scale effects are still present, but to a smaller extent. The
median of Rf ðDN400Þ is 1.05 ≈ 1.0, thus the median of β-values
is almost the same for DN400 and DN500. In other words, the air
entrainment rates match well for all the experiments with DN400
and DN500, and, consequently, scale effects are seen to be insig-
nificantly small for diameters ≥ DN400. However, the scatter of
20% for the 25th and 75th percentiles is quite large and has
to be kept in mind for the discussion of the scatter of the measure-
ment results.
The authors conclude that for the current experimental setup
vortex-induced air entrainment based on a Froude model applies
to intake diameters of D ≥ 389 ≈ 400 mm with regard to scale
effects. A further data analysis showed, that viscosity and surface
tension effects turned out to be negligible if RD ≥ 6 × 105
and WD > 3.2 × 103 , respectively, what is in reasonable agree-
ment to the Reynolds limit suggested by Pfister and Chanson
(2014).
Fig. 3. Boxplot of analyzed data Rf of the scale family tests with the
four tested pipe diameters; bold line = median, box = 25th and 75th
percentiles, whiskers = extreme values
J. Hydraul. Eng.
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Fig. 4. Air discharge Qa at h=D ¼ 1.5, FD ¼ 0.8 (images by Dr. Georg Möller): (a) air-entraining vortex; (b) de-aeration at rising pipe #2
Air Entrainment Rate
Experimental Determination
The main experiments were conducted at a constant conduit diam-
eter of D ¼ 389 mm within the parameter matrix 0.4 ≤ FD ≤ 1.2
and 1.25 ≤ h=D ≤ 2.5, corresponding to 0.36 ≤ Fco ≤ 0.80 for a
total of 34 experimental runs. By choosing this range, the experi-
ments were covering the typical range of hydropower intake con-
ditions in terms of submergence and intake velocity (Knauss 1987).
However, at ½FD ; Fco  ¼ ½0.36; 0.50 the air entrainment was far be-
low the measurable limit of β ¼ 10−5 , although an almost stable
vortex was visible during 2 h of measurement, so that finally
the results of 33 runs were analyzed concerning their air entrain-
ment rate.
Fig. 4(a) shows a typical air-entraining intake-vortex at h=D ¼
1.5 and FD ¼ 0.8. The resulting bubbles in the de-aeration (rising)
pipe #2 (Fig. 2) are shown in Fig. 4(b). The water level in the rising
pipes equals the piezometric head at atmospheric ambient pressure.
If the pipes are closed on top, the pressure increases above atmos-
pheric pressure with each accumulated bubble rising in the pipe,
resulting in a water level drop measured by an ultrasonic sensor
and a pressure sensor, respectively. At each further time step the
mass of collected air is determined using the ideal gas law. Sub-
sequently, the difference of the actual pressure and the initial atmos-
pheric pressure allows for the computation of the entrained volume
of air, and thus indirectly the identification of the air discharge Qa .
The air entrainment data were tested for their accuracy within a
broad range of Qa ¼ 1.9 × 10−5 − 3.6 × 10−4 m3 =s at different
h=D and FD values using a forced aeration. Moreover, the system
was optimized by Bühlmann (unpublished data, 2012) toward a
data acquisition that allowed for quasi-continuous Qa recordings
with a frequency of up to 1 Hz, so that the measurement duration
was extended to ensure that the full Qa range was caught. There-
fore, two external air storages, each with a volume of 0.4 m3 , were
added to the rising pipes to enlarge the air volume (Fig. 2).
Fig. 5 shows a typical time series of measured Qa for a test with
h=D ¼ 1.5 and FD ¼ 0.8, highlighting the strong fluctuation of air
entrainment. The plot contains three subplots. Fig. 5(a) illustrates
the occurrence of an air-entraining vortex by bars, color-coded with
white, corresponding to vortex types < VT6, gray denotes VT6,
and black short phases of VT6. Fig. 5(b) gives the actual Qa;i
© ASCE 04015026-4
J. Hydraul. Eng., 2015, 141(11): 04015026
for 0 ≤ ti ≤ 2 h) with the median VT6 phase related to Qa;j marked
by a circle. Fig. 5(c) visualizes the progress of the running
average Q̂a;i .
Characteristic Results
A comprehensive and systematic analysis of all experimental runs
has been conducted (Möller 2013). Two average values were used
to characterize the measured air entrainment, namely, Q̄a giving
a characteristic mean value of air entrainment over the full
v
measurement duration, whereas Qa denotes a characteristic maxi-
mum value as it is related to VT6 phases. Note that the latter does
not equal the absolute maximum of an experimental run, but it is a
two times averaged value, first within a single VT6 phase and sec-
ond over all VT6 phases in a run. This value is related to the vortex
phases in which high air discharge was measured and is therefore
referred to as the characteristic maximum. Fig. 6 shows that β
strongly correlates with Fco . vA regression analysis with β̄ as the
mean air entrainment rate, β as mean air entrainment rate of
VT6 phases, and Fco ¼ vD =ðghÞ0.5 as combined Froude number
results in the exponential functions
β̄ ¼ 1.04 × 10−8 expð16Fco Þ and ð4Þ
v
β ¼ 2.00 × 10−8 expð16Fco Þ ð5Þ
The coefficient of determination R2 ≥ 0.9 is high for both
mean air entrainment rates. The boundaries are given by Fco ¼
½0.36 − 0.8, because the air-entrainment rate at Fco ¼ 0.36 was be-
low thev measurement limit of β ¼ 1 × 10−5 . As a rule of
thumb β ≈ 2β̄.
Comparison with Padmanabhan’s Data
To the authors’ knowledge, Padmanabhan (1984) gives the most
comprehensive data set available so far concerning measured
air entrainment rates (Fig. 1). Although all recorded data were
plotted, no regression analysis was conducted. Fig. 7 shows the
lower section of Padmanabhan’s plot, digitized to an accuracy of
v
Ca ≈β ⪞ 10−3 due to the restrictions of the original data plot.
J. Hydraul. Eng.
 (a)

(b)
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(c)

Fig. 5. (a) Time series of vortex types VT; (b) actual air discharge Qa;i and VT6 phase median Qa;j ; (c) running average Q̂a;i for experimental run with
h=D ¼ 1.5, FD ¼ 0.8

(a) (b)

Fig. 6. Air entrainment rates β versus Fco with 95% prediction band. Subdivision at Fco ¼ 0.66 accounts for varying prediction widths: (a) Mean air
v
entrainment rate β̄ðFco Þ; (b) Mean air entrainment rate of VT6 phases β ðFco Þ

(a) (b)
v
Fig. 7. Mean air entrainment rate according to single vortex phases β compared with Padmanabhan’s data (1984) digitized from Fig. 1 and recast to
β ¼ Ca =ð1 − Ca Þ: (a) linear plot; (b) semi-logarithmic plot to facilitate interpretation

© ASCE 04015026-5 J. Hydraul. Eng.

J. Hydraul. Eng., 2015, 141(11): 04015026

 v
Superimposed is the air entrainment rate β as determined within
this study as characteristic maximum value, as well as Eq. (5).
v any air entrainment measurements. However, the present quantita-
The measured values of β within the parameter range of Fco
lie within the data cloud as determined by Padmanabhan. The
inception point of air entrainment matches well at Fco ≈ 0.3 for
Padmanabhan (1984) and was determined to 0.4 in the present
study. Due to the sophisticated present measurement technique
the measured air entrainment rates are judged to be determined
much more precisely herein. Note that the measurement accuracy
of Padmanabhan’s data amounts to only Ca ¼ 1%. This wide
range of scatter may lead to the conclusion that almost all data
are within this range, rendering both data sets difficult to be com-
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the vortex formation. Thus, up to now both hcr and the critical
situation concerning air entrainment were determined without
tive air entrainment measurements enable a completely new ap-
proach, as hcr is determined in direct correlation with the air
entrainment rate β measured to a minimum air entrainment rate
of β ¼ 1 × 10−5 . The critical submergence corresponds to the in-
ception point for which air is entrained. Therefore, the relative criti-
cal intake submergence was reanalyzed at the point when the
v
smallest air entrainment rate distance between β cr and β compared
with the two classical methods of Knauss (1987) and Gordon
(1970). The two design values Fco;cr ¼ vD =ðghcr Þ0.5 and FD ¼

pared. Note that the maximum air entrainment line (Padmanabhan v

vD =ðgDÞ0.5 are recast to ðh=DÞcr ¼ F2D =F2co;cr , with Fco;cr ðβ ¼
1984, see also Fig. 1) allows for a distinction between the two
data sets. With β ¼ Ca =ð1 − Ca Þ, the line is approximated by 10−5 Þ ¼ 0.39 from Eq. (5) and, as a conservative approach,
v Fco;cr ðβ̄ ¼ 10−5 Þ ¼ 0.43 from Eq. (4), resulting in the
β ¼ 0.117Fco − 0.044. Padmanabhan’s envelope curve is clearly critical submergence for the test range of 1.25 ≤ ðh=DÞcr ≤ 2.5.
v
Statements outside of this range remain uncertain, e.g., for h=D >
above the corresponding values of β as determined within the
2.5 the curve increases over-proportionally as compared with
present research. In particular, air entrainment within the current
Knauss (1987). To include this shortcoming, a further extension
test runs never reached Padmanabhan’s entrainment level. Conse-
to 0.75 ≤ ðh=DÞcr ≤ 3.0 was considered, based on additional data
quently, Padmanabhan (1984) line of maximum air entrainment
from scale family tests of Meyer (unpublished data, 2012; see
gives a conservative overestimation to the incipient point of air
Möller 2013) conducted at the same test setup. These data and
entrainment. As the comparison with Padmanabhan (1984) data
the findings of the present study resulted in an approximation
showed no general disagreement, the current air entrainment rates
for the critical submergence by curve fitting as
are seen to be validated.

New Intake Design Approach Based on
Air-Allowance-Criterion
Eqs. (4) and (5) enable to estimate the air entrainment rates due to
intake vortices. As to the possible variability of these estimations,
Stahel (2008) suggests a prediction band to determine limits for
future observations. His methodology allows for a statement of
a stochastic variable. In general, a prediction band has to be dis-
tinguished from a confidence band. The latter does not contain
the random deviation and is smaller, therefore. Limits for prospec-
tive observations using a probability of 95% are computed. Fig. 6
shows the prediction bands graphically, whereas Table 2 lists the
associated limits as the exponential functions
−0.45
ðh=DÞcr ¼ −2.5FD þ 5.3; for 0.26 ≤ FD ≤ 1.2 ð8Þ
Eq. (8) is also plotted in Fig. 8. It is not in line with the linear
relation as suggested by Gordon (1970) and Knauss (1987). How-
ever, both the latter approaches and all other published criteria for
intake submergence are mainly based on observations of presumed
air entrainment due to occurring vortices. In contrast to this, the
present approach is based on real air entrainment data, where
the occurrence, frequency, and type of vortices are of minor impor-
tance. As the current approach is based on factual measured data it
is considered superior to the classical linear approaches of Knauss
(1987) and Gordon (1970) for estimating the critical submergence.

β̄ ¼ limitðβ̄Þ × 10−8 expð16Fco Þ; and ð6Þ

v v
β ¼ limitðβ Þ × 10−8 expð16Fco Þ ð7Þ

Therefore, the common flow parameters h; D and vD determine

the air entrainment rates.

Critical Intake Submergence

The critical submergence hcr is widely used as parameter to deter-

mine an incipient state for which no air is entrained due to intake
vortices. Typically, this parameter is determined by observation of

Table 2. 95% Prediction Band Limits Based on Eqs. (4) and (5) Fig. 8. Critical relative intake submergence defined at air entrainment
Concerning Air Entrainment Rates β rate of β ¼ 1 × 10−5 and approximation of critical submergence in
v comparison with Knauss (1987) and Gordon (1970) (symmetrical
Fco Limit β̄ β v
<0.66 Upper 2.08 4.09 approach flow). Parameter matrix of measured β , is presented by
Lower 0.52 0.97 the shaded circles, their size being linearly correlated to measured
≥0.66 Upper 4.36 6.80 air entrainment rates. The open squares give additional data measured
Lower 0.25 0.60 by Meyer (unpublished data, 2012)

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J. Hydraul. Eng., 2015, 141(11): 04015026

 An increased submergence is thus necessary to avoid air entrain-
ment in the range of 0.5 ≤ FD ≤ 1.2 (Fig. 8).
Discussion
Based on systematic scale family tests the experimental setup with
a DN400 pipe is scale-invariant, thus findings related to β can be
applied to prototype scale. This conclusion is further supported
by the critical inception velocities of about 0.8–1.0 m=s given
by Kobus (1984), which were reached or exceeded for all 33 test
runs with DN400 considered. This statement is based on the
assumption that the scatter between the entrainment rates measured
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The approach is intrinsic, as it accounts for the basic hydraulic
parameters of the mean pipe flow velocity vD and the submergence
height h. Additionally, an approach to determine the critical intake
submergence hcr based on the air entrainment rate measurements
has been developed [Eq. (8)].
Due to the overall negative consequences of air in pressurized
systems, a zero-air-criterion has evolved as the classical safety
design. However, if the consequences are determined and can be
handled, vortex-induced air entrainment at intakes could be toler-
ated to a certain extent. The new approach to estimate β [Eqs. (4)
and (5)] is a prerequisite to apply this air allowance criterion. The
design of alternative deaeration devices (e.g., Wickenhäuser 2008)
is also improved due to the knowledge of β.

for DN400 and DN500 (Fig. 3) are attributed to uncertainties in air

entrainment measurements, but not in limitations of the scaling
technique itself. The results showed a clear asymptotic trend for Acknowledgments
β to be constant for ≥DN400. However, the extensive character
of these experiments and the boundary conditions of the tank The authors would like to thank swisselectric research and
limited the number of experimental series to only four. Thus, the Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE) for their financial
the appropriateness to scale up the current results to prototype scale support.
is, strictly speaking, only based on four (median) data points.
Consequently, an unbiased error estimation of entrainment rates
for prototype scales is illusory. There is, after all, a considerable Notation
scatter in our findings, and this uncertainty will grow as the domain
The following symbols are used in this paper:
of application is enlarged. This has to be kept in mind when up-
a = air;
scaling the results from the present study.
co = combined;
Furthermore, as the size of the tank could not be changed during
cr = critical value;
the study, the authors were not able to analyze the influence of the
Ca = air concentration (-);
tank walls quantitatively. To minimize possible wall influences on
D = intake diameter (m);
the vortex formation, the tank was designed to have a distance of
Fco = combined Froude number (-);
4D between the side walls to the intake axis, a distance of 2D to the
FD = intake Froude number (-);
front wall, and 1D to the bottom wall, following the results regard-
g = gravity acceleration (m=s2 );
ing the critical submergence due to boundary distances of Denny
h = intake submergence, with h ¼ 0 at pipe axis (m);
and Young (1957). From top view, the vortex core was typically
h=D = relative intake submergence (-);
wandering within 1D to the entry of the intake pipe. With a crude
i, j = indices;
estimation of a vortex radius <2D (compare results of Keller et al.
max = maximum;
2014) it is assumed that the wall effects are negligibly small on the
Q = discharge (m3 =s);
vortex formation process, and, consequently, on the entrainment
RD = intake Reynolds number (-);
rates. However, also various other geometries effecting flow
Rf = measured air entrainment factor (-);
characteristics might result in slightly different air entrainment
t = time (s);
rates. For example, only horizontal-orientated sharp crested intakes
vD = intake velocity (m=s);
were tested herein, but the shape of the intake pipe and the sur-
VT = vortex type (-);
rounding near and far field geometry of walls may also influence
w = water;
the formation and duration of air entraining vortices. Consequently,
WD = intake Weber number (-);
an unbiased transfer to prototype is not appropriate under all
β = relative air entrainment rate (-);
circumstances.
β̄ = mean air entrainment rate (-);
v
β = mean air entrainment rate of VT6 phases (-);
Conclusions ν = kinematic viscosity (m2 =s);
ρ = density (kg=m3 ); and
Entrained air is in general negative as to the operation, safety, and σ = surface tension (N=m).
efficiency of pressurized waterway systems. This study closes a
knowledge gap concerning the amount of vortex-induced air en-
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