Experimental Mechanics (2011) 51:1395–1403
DOI 10.1007/s11340-011-9466-3
Characterization of Anisotropic Polymeric Foam
Under Static and Dynamic Loading
I.M. Daniel & J.-M. Cho
Received: 8 September 2010 / Accepted: 13 January 2011 / Published online: 19 February 2011
# Society for Experimental Mechanics 2011
Abstract An orthotropic polymeric foam with transverse
isotropy (Divinycell H250) used in composite sandwich
structures was characterized at various strain rates. Uniaxial
experiments were conducted along principal material
axes as well as along off-axis directions under tension,
compression, and shear to determine engineering con-
stants, such as Young’s and shear moduli. Uniaxial strain
experiments were conducted to determine mathematical
stiffness constants, i. e., Cij. An optimum specimen aspect
ratio for these tests was selected by means of finite
element analysis. Quasi-static and intermediate strain rate
tests were conducted in a servo-hydraulic testing machine.
High strain rate tests were conducted using a split
Hopkinson Pressure Bar system built for the purpose
using polymeric (polycarbonate) bars. The polycarbonate
material has an impedance that is closer to that of foam
than metals and results in lower noise to signal ratios and
longer loading pulses. It was determined by analysis and
verified experimentally that the loading pulses applied,
propagated along the polycarbonate rods at nearly constant
phase velocity with very low attenuation and dispersion.
Material properties of the foam were obtained at three strain
rates, quasi-static (10−4 s−1), intermediate (1 s−1), and high
(103 s−1) strain rates. A simple model proposed for the
I.M. Daniel (*, SEM fellow)
Robert R. McCormick School of Engineering and Applied
Science, Northwestern University,
Evanston, IL 60208, USA
e-mail: imdaniel@northwestern.edu
J.-M. Cho
Hyundai Motor Company,
Seoul, Korea
Young’s modulus of the foam was in very good agreement
with the present and published experimental results.
Keywords Cellular materials . Polymeric foams .
Mechanical characterization . Dynamic testing . Effects
of strain rate
Introduction
In many applications, composite sandwich structures
with polymeric foam cores are exposed to static, impact
and blast loadings producing multi-axial states of stress.
A great deal of work is being reported by investigators
dealing with analysis and simulation of the response of
composite sandwich structures under extreme loading
conditions. The validity of the results obtained depends
on the type of loading and material behavior inputs
used. Loading parameters may be obtained from the
literature. However, no realistic models are available for
the facesheet and core materials under multi-axial static
or dynamic loading, especially models including non-
linear elastoplastic deformations. Characterization and
modeling of facesheet composite materials under static
and dynamic loadings and multi-axial states of stress is
being addressed and reported in many sources. Howev-
er, there is need for more systematic characterization
and constitutive modeling of structural foams used in
sandwich construction. Characterization of the mechan-
ical behavior of cellular foam materials is essential for
their efficient use in sandwich structures and to develop
numerical models capable of capturing the static and
dynamic response of composite sandwich structures
under realistic loadings.
1396
Fig. 1 Cell morphology of Divinycell H250 foam (scale bar is 1 mm)
Cellular materials or foams afford a means of optimizing
the mechanical and thermal properties of structures with a
minimum weight. They are commonly used as core
materials in lightweight sandwich structures with high
strength, stiffness and impact damage tolerance and they
play a critical role in the failure of sandwich structures
[1, 2]. The macroscopic behavior of foams is a function of
the basic cell wall material and the cell microstructure.
Polymeric foams are usually made of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), polyurethane (PUR) or polystyrene. The mechanical
behavior of cellular foams has been investigated and
discussed extensively in the literature over the last two
decades [3–15]. In most cases the emphasis is on the energy
absorption characteristics of foams undergoing large dy-
namic deformations. A thorough discussion of polymeric
foams, including simple models for predicting mechanical
properties, is given in the classical work by Gibson and
Ashby [3]. Models have been proposed for estimating the
modulus and yield strength in terms of the density of the
foam and properties of the bulk material [3–5]. Liu and
Scanlon proposed a model for Young’s modulus in terms of
relative densities and geometrical parameters of the cell [4].
Lim et al. proposed models for open- and closed-cell PVC
foams and related the behavior to the molecular structure of
3
2
3-axis
1-axis
Fig. 2 Principal material axes and off-axis testing of Divinycell H250
foam
Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403
Fig. 3 Uniaxial compressive stress experiments
the PVC polymer [5]. Gdoutos et al. [6] and Deshpande et
al. [7] discussed multi-axial characterization of foams
including failure criteria. Additional quasi-static character-
ization studies including yield and failure criteria have been
discussed by Fiedler et al. [8], Abrate [9], and Flores-
Johnson and Li [10]. Kanny et al. [11] and Zenkert et al.
[12] characterized polymeric foams under static and cyclic
loading and studied the failure mechanisms.
Some foam materials, such as PVC foams (especially
higher density ones), are strain rate dependent, anisotropic,
and elastic/viscoplastic materials. Their deformation history
during dynamic loading affects critically the integrity and
functionality of the sandwich structure. Several studies
have been reported on dynamic characterization of foams
and the effect of strain rate [13–20]. Zhang et al. studied
strain rate and temperature effects under large deformations
[14]. They conducted uniaxial compression, hydrostatic
compression and shear tests and proposed an elastoplastic
constitutive model. Their study was limited to low strain
Fig. 4 Uniaxial and shear strain experiments
Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403
rates (up to 4.45 s−1). Daniel and Rao characterized
isotropic and anisotropic foams at strain rates up to 800
s−1 [15]. They used a Hopkinson bar system with polymeric
(polycarbonate) rods for the high strain rate tests. Avalle et
al. conducted static and dynamic tests to determine the
energy absorption characteristics of structural foams [16].
Ouellet et al. conducted tests over a wider range of strain
rates (0.0087–2,500 s−1) and modeled the strain rate
behavior [18]. More recent studies by Tagarielli et al. [19]
and Lee et al. [20] also covered a wide range of strain rates.
Constitutive modeling over the wide range of strains
experienced by foams has lagged because of the finite
deformations and the anisotropy involved in some foams,
with few works reported in the literature [14, 21, 22].
Gielen [22] developed a constitutive model including
elastic-plastic behavior and damage progression. Consider-
ing the loading-unloading-reloading test results in [10], a
different modeling approach is needed based on an elastic-
plastic-damage formulation in strain space.
This paper describes quasi-static and dynamic character-
ization of an anisotropic PVC foam and generates a set of
properties suitable for implementation in numerical studies
of composite sandwich structures. Uniaxial stress and
uniaxial strain experiments were conducted. Multi-axial
behavior was characterized by means of of-axis tests.
Models for prediction of Young’s modulus are discussed
and a simplified model is proposed.
Experimental Procedures
The material studied was a closed cell PVC foam,
Divinycell H250 (DIAB Inc.). All specimens in this study
were obtained from one 25 mm thick panel having a
uniform density of 248.8 kg/m3, close to the nominal one of
250 kg/m3. The cell microstructure is shown in Fig. 1. On a
macroscopic scale, the material is orthotropic/transversely
isotropic with principal axes as shown in Fig. 2. Macro-
Aspect Ratio ε1 ≅ 0
3
ε 3 = 1%
5 3
1
ε1 ≅ 0
8
ε1 ≅ 0
10
ε1 ≅ 0
20
Fig. 5 Selection of specimen aspect ratio for strain-controlled
compression tests
1397
Fig. 6 Schematic for pure shear
experiments 1
3
scopic characterization of cellular foams is a challenging
problem because of their hyperelastic behavior and tenden-
cy for deformation localization due to local collapse of cells
under compression [23]. Some of the difficulties can be
overcome by using stress-controlled and strain-controlled
experiments and full-field strain measurement methods. A
more complete characterization of this material was
performed by means of static and high rate tests along
principal material axes as well as off-axis directions under
tension, compression, and shear (at orientations of 0, 20,
45, 70, and 90 deg with the 3-axis, Fig. 2). Three to five
tests were conducted in each case to insure reproducibilty.
Uniaxial stress experiments in tension or compression,
require coupons with a high enough aspect ratio and/or
frictionless contact between the specimen ends and the
loading blocks. Because of the difficulties mentioned
before, it is desirable to use full-field optical techniques,
such as Moiré or Digital Image Correlation. In the tests
conducted here, strains were measured by means of Moiré
gratings photoprinted on the specimen surface (Fig. 3).
These tests yield the principal Young’s moduli, E1 = E2,
and E3, and Poisson’s ratios, v12, v31 = v32. However, under
compressive loading, these tests do not yield the stress-
strain behavior faithfully beyond the apparent yield point
because of localized crushing at the ends.
Aspect Ratio γ 13 ≅ 1%
5 γ 13 = 1%
1
γ 13 ≅ 1%
10
γ 13 ≅ 1%
20
stress concentration
Fig. 7 Selection of specimen aspect ratio for shear tests
1398 Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403

Fig. 8 Split Hopkinson pressure specimen

bar with polymeric (polycarbonate)
bars for testing foam materials
striker bar incident bar transmitter bar

The problem of localized end crushing can be alleviated and the strains are
by using thin foam plate specimens constrained between
d
metal blocks as shown in Fig. 4 and loaded under g 13 ¼ sin1 and "3 ¼ 1  cos g 13 ð4Þ
controlled strain. Such experiments were conducted at t
quasi-static and moderate strain rates of 10−4 and 1 s−1. High strain rate properties require testing in a split
The optimum specimen aspect ratio for compressive and Hopkinson (Kolsky) Pressure Bar (SHPB) system. Con-
combined compressive and shear strain loading was ventional Hopkinson bar systems with metallic rods, are not
determined by Finite Element Analysis using previously suitable for testing compliant materials such as foam. The
published properties of a different batch of the same high impedance mismatch results in high noise-to-signal
material [2] (Fig. 5). Since this analysis was of a qualitative ratios and short duration pulses that do not reach high
nature, it was not absolutely necessary to use the exact enough strain levels over a more extended period of time
same properties of the as yet uncharacterized material. The necessary to obtain a complete stress-strain curve of the
higher the aspect ratio the more homogeneous is the state of material. To overcome these problems, polymeric rods have
strain. An aspect ratio of 10 was deemed suitable for been proposed and used by several investigators [15, 18,
compression experiments. For the loading configurations of 20, 24–26]. A SHPB system was built of polymeric
Fig. 4 the stresses are (polycarbonate) rods (Fig. 8). The polycarbonate material
P cos q P sin q has an impedance that is closer to that of foam than metals
s3 ¼ and t 13 ¼ ð1Þ as shown in Table 1 below. The polycarbonate material
A A
selected exhibits a low degree of viscoelastic behavior and
and the engineering strains are consequent dispersion and attenuation of the stress waves
d compared to other polymeric materials used in SHPB
"3 ¼ cos q ; "1 ¼ "2 ¼ 0
t systems. The viscoelastic wave propagation in the polycar-
d sin q "3 tan q ð2Þ bonate rods was analyzed by FFT and the frequency
g 13 ¼ tan1 ¼ tan1 g ¼ g 23 ¼ 0;
t  d cos q 1  "3 12 dependence of the attenuation and phase velocity in the
rods was determined. It was found and verified experimen-
tally that the phase velocity remains nearly constant for the
where P is the applied load, A the area of the foam plate
relevant frequencies of the loading pulse applied and that
specimen, d the applied vertical displacement, and t the
the loading pulse exhibited negligible attenuation and
specimen thickness.
dispersion during its propagation along the polycarbonate
Shear stress tests can be conducted under stress or strain
rod (Fig. 9) [15]. The experimental setup for uniaxial
control to yield shear moduli since there is no interaction
compressive strain tests in the SHPB system is shown in
between shear stresses and normal strains for small to
Fig. 10. The disk-like specimen is 6 mm thick and
moderate deformations (Fig. 6). The optimum aspect ratio
sandwiched between and bonded to metallic shims
for shear specimens was also determined by Finite Element
(0.1 mm thick) which constrained deformation in the radial
Analysis as shown in Fig. 7.
direction. Thus, the specimen was subjected to uniaxial
For the shear test configuration shown in Fig. 6, the
compressive strain only. It was determined that stress
stresses are
equilibrium is reached after approximately 12 traverses of
P the stress wave through the specimen. This occurs in less
t 13 ¼ and s 3 ¼ 0 ð3Þ
2A than 70 μs, which is a very short portion of the pulse

Table 1 Impedances of
Hopkinson bar and foam Material E, MPa ρ,kg/m3 Z(=ρc), kg/m2s
materials
Steel 207,000 7,800 4.0×107
Aluminum 73,000 2,800 1.4×107
Polycarbonate 2,410 1,200 1.7×106
PVC Foam (DIAB H250) 322 (through-thickness) 250 2.8×105
PVC Foam (DIAB H250) 207 (in-plane) 250 2.3×105
Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403 1399

Fig. 9 Incident and transmitted Incident wave

stress wave pulses in SHPB
0.4
apparatus made of polycarbon-
ate rods without a specimen 0.2

0
0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016
-0.2
Time, (s)
-0.4
-0.6

-0.8
Transmitted
-1 wave
-1.2

-1.4

duration (Fig. 9). (A detailed analysis of dynamic testing of
foams in the SHPB system with more extensive results and
discussion will appear in a forthcoming paper).
Engineering Properties
Typical stress-strain curves along principal material direc-
tions for the material studied, obtained under uniaxial stress
loading, are shown in Fig. 11. It is seen that the material
behavior is noticeably anisotropic and different in tension
and compression. The compressive behavior of the foam is
of interest in most applications. A typical compressive
stress-strain curve with its characteristic features is shown
in Fig. 12. The linear elastic behavior is associated with
bending or stretching of the cell walls; yielding is caused by
the formation of plastic hinges at the edges of the cells; the
local peak or “critical point” is related to initiation of cell
collapse; the plateau region is caused by continuing cell
collapse and plastic deformation; the final densification
stage corresponds to complete collapse and touching of cell
walls. Typical ultimate compressive strains are on the order
of 70%.
Compressive stress-strain curves for the off-axis
specimens tested under uniaxial stress are shown in
Fig. 13 at various orientation with respect to the in-plane
direction (1- or 2 -direction). The effect of anisotropy is
reflected in the variation in axial modulus and character-
istic first peak in the stress-strain curve. The latter, as
mentioned before, is the “critical point” of initiation of
local collapse of the cell structure. The variation of the
axial modulus with load orientation is not monotonic and
shows a local minimum although the elastic constants
along the principal material axes satisfy the following
inequality (Fig. 14) [27].
E3
G13 >
  84 MPa ð5Þ
E
2 E1 þ n 31
3
Figure 15 shows the variation of the “critical stress” with
loading orientation. The trend is similar to that of the initial
modulus shown in Fig. 14 with a local minimum occurring
at around 20°. Shear stress-strain curves, obtained from the
test configuration of Fig. 6, are shown in Fig. 16. The
above tests yielded the quasi-static engineering constants,
E1 = E2 , E3 , ν12, ν13 = ν23 , G12, G13 = G23 of the material
shown in Table 2.

Polycarbonate bar specimen

Fig. 10 High strain rate testing in SHPB under uniform normal Fig. 11 Typical stress-strain curves of Divinycell H250 foam loaded
compressive strain along principal directions [2]
1400 Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403

400

350

300

Ex, MPa
250

200

150

100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Off-axis Angle, Degree

Fig. 14 Variation of axial modulus with load orientation from the 1-2
plane

conditions were obtained at three strain rates and are shown in

Fig. 18. These tests yielded the stiffness components C11 =
C22 and C33 shown in Table 3.

Poisson’s Ratio
Fig. 12 Typical stress-strain curve and characteristic features of a
foam under uniaxial compression The uniaxial strain experiments did not yield the Poisson’s
ratios directly. These were calculated by the known
Stiffness Properties interrelations between the engineering and mathematical
stiffness constants. The mathematical constants C11 = C22
Compressive stress-strain curves along the in-plane and and C33 are related to the engineering constants as follows:
through-thickness directions under uniaxial strain are  
E1 E1  v213 E3
shown in Fig. 17. All strain components other than the C11 ¼   ð6Þ
one measured are constrained to be zero. High strain rate E1 ð1  v12 Þ  2v213 E3 ð1 þ v12 Þ
tests up to 103 s−1 were also conducted under nearly
homogeneous uniaxial strain by using thin disk-like speci-
mens in the SHPB system. Stress-strain curves under these E1 E3 ð1  v12 Þ
C33 ¼   ð7Þ
E1 ð1  v12 Þ  2v213 E3
6 90°
75° 6.5
45°
5
0° 6.0
20
4
Max. Stress, MPa

5.5
Stress, MPa

3
5.0

2 4.5

1 4.0

0 3.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0 20 40 60 80 100
Strain Off-axis Angle, Degree

Fig. 13 Compressive stress-strain curves of off-axis specimens for Fig. 15 Variation of “critical stress” of cell structure with load
loading orientations of 0, 20, 45, 70, and 90 deg with the 1-2 plane orientation from the 1-2 plane
Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403 1401

Fig. 16 Shear stress-strain

d
curves on the 1-2 and 1-3 planes ε i ≅ 0 γ 13 = γ 5 ≠ 0 γ 13 =
t
1 d • Strain rate at ~ 5 x 10(-4)/s
t (thickness)
6
τ 13 − γ 13
5

Stress, MPa
3 4
τ 12 − γ 12
3

extensometer 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Strain

From the above, we can obtain the Poisson’s ratios as

follows:

 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi



 ffi
2
 E1 C33
E3 C11 1 E3
C33 þ E1 C33
E3 C11 1  CE333  8 EE13 C33
C11 1 þ CE333 þ 16
v12 ¼ ð8Þ
4

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi where E is the Young’s modulus of the foam, ρ the density, C1
E1 ð1  v12 Þ E3 and C2 are constants, and ϕ is material fraction in the edges of
v13 ¼ 1 ð9Þ
2E3 C33 the cell usually varying between 0.6 and 0.8. Consequently,
(1-ϕ) represents the material fraction in the faces of the cell.
Results from the calculations above are included in
The subscript b denotes bulk material property. The gas
Table 3. The difference noted in the quasi-static Poisson’s
pressure inside the cell is neglected for the small strains
ratio v12 (in Tables 2 and 3) can be attributed to the
considered in determining the Young’s modulus.
different test conditions, measurement techniques and
The relation above can be simplified into the form
deformation localization in the material.
 2  
E r r
¼C þ ð1  CÞ ð11Þ
Eb rb rb
Modeling of Young’s Modulus
which involves only one constant and satisfies the limiting
As mentioned before, several models have been proposed condition
for estimation of the Young’s modulus of the foam in terms
of its density and properties of the bulk material [3–5, 12]. E ¼ Eb when r ¼ rb ð12Þ
Gibson and Ashby assumed a cubic array of cells and by
analyzing the bending and stretching of the cell walls The modulus in the though-thickness direction obtained
proposed the following semi-empirical relation for a closed- in the present characterization and similar values published
cell foam [3] by the manufacturer [28] for the Divinycell H series were
 2   fitted to the relation (11) and plotted versus relative density
E r r r=rb in Fig. 19. The values of Eb = 1,650 MPa and
¼ C1 ϕ þ C2 ð1  ϕÞ ð10Þ
Eb rb rb rb ¼ 1; 030 kg/m3 for the bulk PVC were obtained from

Table 2 Quasi-static engineer-

ing properties of divinycell H250 E1 = E2 MPa E3 MPa ν12 ν13 = ν23 G12 MPa G13 = G23 MPa

201 322 0.33 0.20 85 110

1402 Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403

Fig. 17 Stress-strain curves

under uniaxial compressive
εi ≅ 0 ε3 ε3 0
strain • Strain rate at ~ 5 x 10(-4)/s
14

12
3
10
σ3 −ε3

Stress, MPa
8
1 6
σ 1 − ε1
4
extensometer 2

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Strain
ε3

16

14 ~ 103/s

12

10
Stress, MPa

~ 100/s
8

6 ~ 10-4/s

0 Fig. 19 Variation of through-thickness modulus of Divinycell H

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 foams with density-comparison of model predictions and experimental
Strain results

Fig. 18 Stress-strain curves in the in-plane (1 or 2) direction obtained

under uniaxial compressive strain at three strain rates

Table 3 Mechanical properties

of divinycell H250 at different strain rates

Property Average Strain Rate, s−1

10−4 1 103

Poisson’s Ratio, v12 0.29 0.26 0.26

Poisson’s Ratio, v13 = v23 0.20 0.19 0.19
In-plane Shear Modulus, G12, MPa 85 87 –
Through-thickness Shear 110 111 –
Modulus G13 = G23, MPa
Stiffness, C11 = C22, MPa 250 247 254
Stiffness, C33, MPa 388 378 399
Peak stress (in-plane), MPa 5.0 7.5 9.0 Fig. 20 Prediction of simplified model and experimental results for
through-thickness modulus of Divinycell H foams
Exp Mech (2011) 51:1395–1403
Lim et al. [5]. In view of the low values of ρ/ρb in equation
(11) the model can be further simplified to
 m
E r
¼C ð13Þ
Eb rb
Results from this approximation, which is normally
proposed for open-cell foams, appear in very good
agreement with experimental values as shown in Fig. 20.
As can be seen, extrapolation of the straight line in Fig. 20,
satisfies the limiting value of 1 for the relative modulus and
relative density.
Summary and Conclusions
An anisotropic cellular foam, Divinycell H250, used in
sandwich structures was characterized under quasi-static
and dynamic loading conditions. Two types of tests were
conducted under quasi-static loading, stress-controlled and
strain-controlled tests. Tests were run at various orientations
with respect to the principal material axes. These tests
allowed the determination of the complete set of both
engineering and mathematical stiffness constants. Tests
were also conducted at an intermediate strain rate of 1 s−1
and a high rate of 103 s−1 by means of a Split Hopkinson
Pressure Bar. It was observed that the stiffness, based on
the initial slope of the stress-strain curves, did not change
with strain rate. However, the characteristic peak following
the proportional limit increased noticeably with strain rate.
This peak is the “critical point” corresponding to collapse
initiation of the cells in the foam. This peak is followed by
a “strain hardening” region before densification at very
high strains. Young’s modulus was modeled by a simplified
power law which proved to be in very good agreement with
the experimental result obtained in this investigation and
published values by the manufacturer.
Acknowledgement The work described in this paper was sponsored
by the Office of Naval Research (ONR). We are grateful to Dr. Y. D.
S. Rajapakse of ONR for his encouragement and cooperation; and to
Brian Werner for his assistance with the illustrations.
References
1. Daniel IM (2009) Influence of core properties on failure of
composite sandwich beams. J Mech Mat Struct 4(7–8):1271–1286
2. Daniel IM, Gdoutos EE, Wang KA, Abot JL (2002) Failure modes
of composite sandwich beams. Int J Damage Mech 11:309–334
3. Gibson LJ, Ashby MF (1997) Cellular solids, 2nd edn. Cambridge
University Press, New York
4. Liu Z, Scanlon MG (2003) Scaling Young’s modulus of cellular
solids. J Mat Sci Lett 22:547–548
1403
5. Lim GT, Alstädt V, Ramsteiner F (2009) Understanding the
compressive behavior of linear and cross-linked poly(vinyl
chloride) foams. J Cell Plast 45:419–439
6. Gdoutos EE, Daniel IM, Wang KA (2001) Multiaxial character-
ization and modeling of a PVC cellular foam. J Thermoplast
Compos 14(5):365–373
7. Deshpande VS, Fleck NA (2001) Multi-axial yield behaviour of
polymer foams. Acta Mater 49:1859–1866
8. Fiedler T, Őchsner A, Gracio J (2006) The uniaxial strain test—a
simple method for the characterization structural porous materials.
Eng Mech 22(1):17–32
9. Abrate S (2008) Criteria for yielding or failure of cellular
materials. J Sandwich Struct Mater 10:5–51
10. Flores-Johnson EA, Li QA (2008) Degradation of elastic modulus
of progressively crushable foams in uniaxial compression. J Cell
Plast 44:415–434
11. Kanny K, Mahfuz H, Thomas T, Jeelani S (2004) Static and
dynamic characterization of polymer foams under shear loads. J
Compos Mater 38(8):629–639
12. Zenkert D, Shipsha A, Burman M (2006) Fatigue of closed cell
foams. J Sandwich Struct Mater 8(6):517–538
13. Ramon O, Mintz J (1990) Prediction of dynamic properties of
plastic foams from constant strain rate measurements. J Appl
Polym Sci 40(9–10):1683–1692
14. Zhang J, Lin Z, Wong A, Kikuchi N, Li VC, Yee AF, Nusholtz GS
(1997) Constitutive modeling and material characterization of
polymeric foams. J Eng Mater Technol 119:284–291
15. Daniel IM, Rao S (2000) Dynamic mechanical properties and
failure mechanisms of PVC foams. Dynamic failure in composite
materials and structures, ASME mechanical engineering congress
and exposition. AMD-243:37–48
16. Avalle M, Belingardi G, Montanini R (2001) Characterization of
polymeric structural foams under compressive impact loading by
means of energy-absorption diagram. Int J Impact Eng 25:455–
472
17. Viot P, Beani F, Latallade JL (2005) Polymeric foam behavior
under dynamic compressive loading. J Mater Sci 40:5829–5837
18. Ouellet S, Cronin D, Worswick M (2006) Compressive response
of polymeric foams under quasi-static, medium and high strain
rate conditions. Polym Test 25:731–743
19. Tagarielli VL, Deshpande VS, Fleck NA (2008) The high strain
rate response of PVC foams and end-grain balsa wood. Compos B
39:83–91
20. Lee YS, Park NH, Yoon HS (2010) Dynamic mechanical character-
istics of expanded polypropylene foams. J Cell Plast 46:43–55
21. Tagarielli VL, Deshpande VS, Fleck NA, Chen C (2005) A
constitutive model for transversely isotropic foams, and its
application to the indentation of balsa wood. Int J Mech Sci
47:666–686
22. Gielen AWJ (2008) A PVC-foam material model based on a
thermodynamically elasto-plastic-damage framework exhibiting
failure and crushing. Int J Solids Struct 45:1896–1917
23. Pierron F (2010) Mechanical properties of low density polymeric
foams obtained from full-field measurements. 14th Intl Conf
Exper Mech, EPJ Web of Conferences 6:37006
24. Zhao H (1997) Testing of polymeric foams at high and medium
strain rates. Polym Test 16:507–516
25. Sawas O, Brar NS, Brockman RA (1998) Dynamic characterization
of compliant materials using an all-polymeric Split Hopkinson Bar.
Exp Mech 38(3):204–210
26. Chen W, Zhang B, Forrestal MJ (1999) A Split Hopkinson Bar
technique for low impedance materials. Exp Mech 39:81–85
27. Daniel IM, Ishai O (2006) Engineering mechanics of composite
materials, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York
28. Technical Manual-Divinycell H, DIAB Inc. (2009)