A.

Step Potential: Step Potential is the difference in the voltage between two
points which are one meter apart along the earth when ground currents flowing.
B. Touch Potential: Touch Potential is the difference in voltage between the
object touched and the ground point just below the person touching the object when
ground currents are flowing.
C. Ground Potential Rise (GPR): The maximum electrical potential that a
sub-station grounding grid may attain relative to a distant grounding point assumed
to be at the potential of remote earth. This voltage is equal to:

Where, IG = Maximum earth grid current

Rg=Earth Grid resistance (‘Earth grid’ i.e. earthing system)
D. Mesh Potential: The maximum touch potential within a mesh of the grid.
E. Transferred Potential: A special case of touch potential is where a
potential is transferred into or out of the sub-station from or to a remote point
external to the sub-station site.
A person standing in a sub-station coming in contact with say rails/water
pipeline/neutral coming from an adjacent sub-station at the time of occurrence of
earth-fault at that sub-station gets exposed to the transferred potential which equals
difference in GPRs of the two sub-stations.

Step and Touch Voltage Criteria:

The safety of a person depends on preventing the critical amount of shock
energy from being absorbed before the fault is cleared and the system de-energized.
The maximum driving voltage of any accidental circuit should not exceed the limits
defined as follows:
For step voltage the limit is
 The tolerable step voltage criteria is
0.116
𝐸𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 = [1000 + (6 × 𝐶𝑆 × 𝜌𝑆 )] (1)
√𝑡 𝑠
 The tolerable touch voltage criteria is
0.116
𝐸𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ = [1000 + (1.5 × 𝐶𝑆 × 𝜌𝑆 )] (2)
√𝑡 𝑠
Where,
𝐸𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 = the step voltage in Volts
𝐸𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ = the touch voltage in Volts
𝐶𝑆 = 1 for no protective layer
𝜌𝑆 = the resistivity of the surface material in Ω meters
𝑡𝑠 = the duration of shock current in seconds
Sample Calculation:

Weight of a man=70kg
Fault-duration=0.5S
𝜌=100 Ohm-m
𝜌𝑆 =2000Ohm-m
h=10 cm
k=0.09*(1-100/2000) = 0.0855
𝐶𝑆 = 1-(0.0855/(2*0.1+0.09)) = 0.705
Tolerable step potential = 222*10−3 *(1000+1.5*0.705*2000) = 691 V
Tolerable touch potential = 222*10−3 *(1000+6*0.705*2000) = 2100 V

• The earth grid conductor size formula is mentioned below

(𝑇𝐶𝐴𝑃×104 ) 𝑘0 +𝑇𝑚
𝐼 = 𝐴√ ln( ) (3)
𝑡𝑐 ×𝛼𝑟 ×𝜌𝑟 𝑘0 +𝑇𝑎

Where,
I = rms of current value in kA
A = conductor sectional size in mm²
𝑇𝑚 = maximum allowable temperature in ˚C for joints (welded or bolted)
Tr = Ref. temperature for material constant in degrees Celsius(C o) = 20°C
𝑇𝑎 = ambient temperature for material constants in˚C
𝛼0 = thermal coefficient of resistivity at 0˚C
𝛼𝑟 = thermal coefficient of resistivity at reference temperature 20°C
𝜌𝑟 = the resistivity of the earth conductor at reference temperature 20°C in μΩ/cm
𝑘0 = 1/𝛼0 or 1/𝛼0 -Tr
𝑡𝑐 = time of flow of fault current in sec
TCAP = thermal capacity factor

 Spacing factor for mesh voltage (Km)

1 𝐷2 (𝑑+2ℎ)2 ℎ 𝐾 8
𝐾𝑚 =
2𝜋
[ln (
16ℎ𝑑
+
8𝐷𝑑
−
4𝑑
) + 𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑛 𝜋(2𝑛−1) (4)
ℎ

Where,
D = spacing between conductors of the grid in meters
d = diameter of grid conductors in meter
𝐾𝑚 = spacing factor for mesh voltage
𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 1 for grids with rods along perimeter
𝐾ℎ = Corrective weighting factor for grid depth

 Spacing factor of step voltage (Ks)

 1 1 1 1
𝐾𝑆 = [ + + (1 − 0.5𝑛−2 )] (5)
𝜋 2ℎ (𝐷+ℎ) 𝐷

Where,
D = spacing between conductors of the grid in meters
h = depth of burial grid conductor in meters
n = number of parallel conductor in one direction

Earth Mat Design:

Primary requirement of Earthing is to have a low earth resistance. Substation

involves many Earthlings through individual Electrodes, which will have fairly high
resistance. But if these individual electrodes are inter linked inside the soil, it
increases the area in contact with soil and creates number of parallel paths. Hence the
value of the earth resistance in the interlinked state which is called combined earth
value which will be much lower than the individual value.

The inter link is made with flat or

rod conductor which is called as Earth
Mat or Grid. It keeps the surface of
substation equipment as nearly as
absolute earth potential as possible. To
achieve the primary requirement of
earthing system, the Earth Mat should be
design properly by considering the safe
limit of Step Potential, Touch Potential and Transfer Potential.

Factors influencing earth mat design are: Magnitude of fault current, duration
of fault, soil resistivity, resistivity of surface material, shock duration, material of
earth mat conductor, earth mat geometry.

Earth Riser:

Earth riser is the connector between structures, equipment bodies and the
earthing mat. Earth risers shall be of high quality stranded copper conductor, yellow
green PVC insulated.

Earthing Conductors:
The earth mat is made from earthing conductors. The design of cross-section
of earthing conductor depends on:
 Fault current through the earth conductor and duration of fault( for main
protection: 0.5 S and for back up protection: 1 S)
 Permitted final temperature for earth conductor
 Permitted voltage drop in each conductor:
 Type of Conductor Maximum Possible Temperature
Copper 400˚C
Aluminum 200˚C
Steel 500˚C

Calculation of Conductor Cross-section:

𝟏
(𝑰∗𝒕𝟐 )
Formula: 𝑨 = Where: A=cross-section of conductor in mm²
𝑆
t=Duration of fault current
I=Fault current
S=A factor depending on the conductor material
and insulation and initial and maximum insulation temperature

Sample Calculation:
Type of conductor: Copper
Current carrying capacity: 200A/mm²
Final temperature: 300˚C
Ambient temperature: 30˚C
S: 190
Fault Current: 40kA
Duration: 0.5S
Cross-sectional area of conductor = (40*0.51/2 )/190
= 148.86 mm²

Earth Switch:
Earthing switches are mounted on the base of mainly line side isolator. They
are normally vertically break switches and are kept open normally. It is used to
earth the live parts during maintenance and testing. During maintenance although
the circuit is open still there are some voltages on line, due to which capacitance
between line and earth is charged. Before proceeding to maintenance work the
voltage is discharged to earth, by closing the earth switch.
 Reference Data for Typical Earthing System:
 25mm/40mm dia steel bars
Earthing electrodes  2-3cm long

 75*10 mm² mild steel placed 3-4m

apart in mesh form
 Distance between parallel strips=2m
Earthing Mat  Depth below surface=0.5m
 Joints by electric arc welding joints,
covering by 2 mm thick bitumen
paint.
 75*10mm² MS flats connected to
Earth risers equipment structures and welded to
Earth Mat
 Level 30m above ground level with
Overhead shielding wire (Earth wire) adequate clearances
 7/9 SWG steel wire
 Shielding angle=45˚
Protection& Effect of
Transients
 Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is a device that interrupts the abnormal or fault currents and in
addition performs the function of a switch. Its basic function is to detect a fault
condition and interrupt the flow. Unlike a fuse which operates once and then must be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers
are preferred where continuity of service is required or where frequent fuse
replacement may be expected. When circuit breaker disconnects the two contacts an
arc is produced. The arc produces massive heat and the fault current continues to flow
through the arc. So the arc needs to be extinguished as soon as possible. Different types
of mediums are used for arc extinction like oil, air, vacuum, sulphur hexafluoride etc.

For this substation we have decided to use sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker.

SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

In SF6 circuit breakers SF6 or sulfur hexafluoride gas is used for arc quenching
medium. SF6 circuit breakers have better properties in the quick extinction of arc
than other circuit breakers. So in high voltage systems SF6 circuit breakers are used.

ADVANTAGES:
 Excellent insulating, arc extinguishing, physical and chemical properties of
SF6 gas.
 Non flammable and chemically stable SF6 gas reduces the chance of
explosion.
 Electrical clearances are very much reduced because of high dielectric strength
of SF6.
 Minimum maintenance is required.
 Its performance is not affected by variations in atmosphere.
 No overvoltage problem. The arc is extinguished at natural current zero
without current chopping.
TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CIRCUIT
BREAKER:
Sl.no Description 400KV 220KV

01 Service Outdoor Outdoor

SF6 SF6
02 Type
1 Ph./3 Ph. 1 Ph./3Ph.
03 Auto Reclosing
50 50
04 Rated frequency (Hz)

05 i) Nominal system 400 220

voltage (KV)
ii) Rated voltage (KV) 420 245
06 System neutral Earthing Effectively Effectively
Earthed Earthed

07 Insulating level (KVp)

1.2/50 micro- Sec impulse
withstand volt.
a) between line ±1425 ±1050
terminals and
ground (KVP) ±1425 impulse on
b) between terminals one terminal and -
with circuit breaker 240KVp Power
open frequency voltage
of opposite
polarity on other
Terminal

08 i) 1 min power frequency

withstand voltage (KV
rms)(dry & wet)
a) between line
terminals and 520 460
ground
b) between terminals -
with Circuit 610
breaker open
ii) 250/2500 switching
impulse withstand
voltage (dry & wet)
a) between. line
terminal and ±1050
ground (KVP)
b) between terminal 900KVp impulse
with circuit breaker on one terminal
open and 345KVp PF
voltage of
opposite polarity
on other terminal

08 Rated current (Amps.)

(i) Continuous 2000 2000/1600
 ii) Short time rating(KA) 50 for 1 sec. 40
for 3 seconds
Min. Creepage distance (mm)
bet. ph. to ground and 10500 in each case 6125
09 bet. CB terminals (
Heavily polluted
atmosphere).
10 Rated Breaking time (m.sec.) 40 m. sec. Not exceeding
60 mS

Not exceeding 120 mS

11 Total Closing time (m.sec.)
12 Rated line charging breaking 400 125
current (Amps)
13 Rated cable charging 400 250
breaking current (Amps)
14 Rated single capacitive - 250
making /breaking current
(Amps) Within permissible
switching over voltage (As
per Table I)

15 Rated small inductive Eqvt. to magn. Eqvt. to

making/breaking current current of 315 magn.
within permissible MVA,400/220/33 current of
switching over voltage (As KV Tr. and 160 MVA,
per Table I) 80MVAR Shunt 220/132/33
Reactor KV Txf.

16 Rated operating sequence (O O-0.3 sec- CO – 3.0 min-CO

– Operating, C – closing)

17 Operating mechanism Spring/Spring Spring/Spring

18 Mode of operation Individual Individual

Pole Pole
Operated Operated
19 No. of trip coils 2 per pole 2 per pole

20 Trip coil and closing coil

220 220
voltage (DC volt)
21 Phase to phase clearance of
7000 4500
pipe bus(mm)
22 Minimum clearance of live
parts in air and ground (mm) 8000 5500

23 First pole to clear factor 1.3 1.3

24 Altitude above mean sea Not exceeding 1000
level (meter)

25 Terminal connectors suitable

for ACSR Moose/4” Moose/3”
connection/Aluminium pipe
 Isolators
An isolator switch is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-
energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications, where machinery must have its source of
driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches are
used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers, transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. The isolator is usually
not intended for normal control of the circuit, but only for safety isolation. Isolator can
be operated either manually or automatically (motorized isolator).

OPERATING MECHANISM:

 The operating mechanism shall be motor operated as well as manually operated

for 420KV, 245 KV and 145 KV Class isolator and shall ensure quick and
effective operation. 36 KV isolators shall be manually operated. The operating
mechanism shall be housed in a weather proof outdoor mechanism box near
the base of the isolator.
 Each isolator/pole of isolator and earth switch shall be provided with a manual
operating handle at a height of 1000 mm. (approx.) from the base of isolator
support structure so that one man can open or close the isolator with ease in
one movement while standing at ground level.
 All operating linkages carrying mechanical loads shall be designed for
negligible deflection. The isolator and earth switches shall be provided with
‘Over Center’ device in the operating mechanism to prevent accidental opening
due to wind, vibration, short circuit forces or movement of the support
structures.
 All rotating parts shall be provided with grease packed roller or ball bearings
in sealed housings designed to prevent ingress of moisture, dirt or other foreign
material. Bearing pressure shall be kept low to ensure long life and ease of
operation. Locking pins whenever used shall be rustproof.
 Signaling of closed position shall not take place unless it is certain that the
movable contacts have reached a position in which rated normal current, peak
withstand current and short time withstand current can be carried safely.
Signaling of open position shall not take place unless movable contacts have
reached a position such that clearance between contacts is at least 80% of the
isolating distance.
 Technical Requirements For Isolator:

Sl.
DESCRIPTION 400KV 220 KV
No.
1 Nominal System Voltage (KV) 400 220
2 Rated Voltage (KV) 420 245
3 Frequency (Hz) 50
4 No. of Phases 3-phase
5 System Neutral Earthing
Effectively Earthed

6 No of poles 3
7 Location Outdoor
8 Rated Insulation Level
A 1.2/50 micro-sec. lightning Impulse
Withstand Voltage (KVp)
i) Between line terminals and ± 1425 ±1050
ground.
ii) Between line terminals with ± 1425 KVP ±1200
isolator open. impulse on one
terminal and
240 KVP power
frequency
voltage of
opposite
polarity on
other terminal.

B One minute PF withstand

voltage (KVrms)
520 460
i) Between line terminals and
ground.
610 530
ii) Between terminals when
isolator is open.
C 250/2500 micro sec. Switching
surge withstand test voltage (dry &
wet).
i) Between line terminals and ± 1050 -
ground. KVpeak
ii) Between terminals with -
isolator open. 900 KVP
impulse on one
terminal and
345 KVP power
frequency
voltage of
opposite
polarity on
other terminal.

D Corona extinction voltage

(KVrms). 320 (min)
E Max. RIV at 1.1 Ur √3 at 1.0 Less than
MHZ (micro volts) 1000 at
266KVrms.
9 Rated Normal Current(Amps) 3150 / 2000 2000/1600
10 Rated Short Time withstand current i) 50 for 1 i) 40 for 3
of Main Contacts and Earth Switch sec. sec.
(KA) and duration (for 3 sec) and ii) 125 KAP ii) 100 KAP
dynamic current (KAP) of isolator
and Earth Switch.

11 Mounting Condition On
Structure
12 Method of operation Main / Motor / Manua
Earthing Switch as well as local
Motor /
electrical
Manual
operation
having motor
13 Number of auxiliary switches for 20 NO+20NC 10NO+10NC
main isolator (min.) (min.)
14 Number of Make before break and 4 NO + 4 NC 2NO+2NC
break after break auxiliary switches (min.) (min.)

15 Number of auxiliary Switches in

4 NO+
Earth Switch
4NC
16 Rated auxiliary AC Supply (Volt) 400/230
V ±10%
17 Rated auxiliary DC Supply (Volt). 220
±10%
18 Minimum creepage distance of
support insulators (mm) 10500 6125

19 Phase to phase spacing (mm) 7000 4500

20 Operating Time of isolator and Less than 12 seconds
Earth switch.
21 Mechanical terminal load for
horizontal centre break Isolator 1600 1000
i) Straight Load (N) 530 330
ii) Cross Load (N)
22 Mechanical terminal load for
pantograph Isolator 2000
-
iii) Straight Load (N) 800
iv) Cross Load (N)
23 Rated magnetising / capacitive
0.7 Amps at 0.15 PF
current make and break
24 All Contacts Silver –plated , minimum
20 micron
25 Temperature rise above ambient Within limit as per table IV of IS :
temperature of 50 deg C 9921(Pt. II) – 1982
corresponding to maximum
continuous current (ºC)