CHAPTER - 18

Safety in Chemical Industry

THEME

1
1. Inevitable Place of Chemical Industry
2. Need of Safety in Chemical Industry
3. Types of Chemical Industry
4. Statutory Provisions
5. Indian Standards
6. Types of Chemical Hazards and Controls
7. Material (Property) Hazards and Controls
7.1 Identification of Chemicals
7.2 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
7.3 Interpretation and use of MSDS
7.4 Safety Precautions, Supervision and
Medical examinations
7.5 Information to Workers and Others
7.6 Hazard Communication System
including Safety and Risk phrases
8. Storage Hazards and Controls
8.1 Material of Construction & Lining
8.2 Storage Vessels & their Safety aspects
8.3 Pressure Vessels & their Safety aspects
8.4 Reaction or Process Vessels
8.5 Flare
8.6 Testing, Types and Certificates
8.7 Corrosion, Erosion, Causes, Inspection
and Prevention
9. Process Hazards and Controls :
9.1 Types of Processes and Operations
including Unit Processes, Unit
Operations & other Processes
9.2 Operational Deviations
9.3 Use of Vessels, Equipments and Control
Room
9.4 Safety in Laboratory
9.5 Specific Safety Measures for certain
Chemical Industries
9.6 Use of Personal Protective Equipment
10. Utility Hazards and Controls
11. Pollution Hazards and Controls
12. Instrumentation for Safe Plant Operations
12.1 Basic Instruments
12.2 Specific Instruments
12.3 Process Control Instruments
12.4 Process and Control System
Characteristics
12.5 Instrument System for Safety
12.6 Safety Features of Instruments
13. Fire, Explosion & Toxicity Index
13.1 Assessment of Fire, Explosion and
Toxicity Index (DOW and MOND
Index
2
13.2 Dispersion, Probit Analysis and
Modelling
14. Toxic Releases
14.1 Some Definitions
14.2 Atmospheric Dispersion, Effects &
Models
14.3 Monitoring & Control of Hazardous
Exposures
15. On-Site and Off-Site Emergency Plans
16. Transporting, Receiving, Storing and
Handling Hazards and Control
16.1 Transportation and Handling of
Chemicals
16.1.1 Modes of Packaging
16.1.2 Modes of Transport
-UN (DOT/ADR)
Classification
- Transportation by Rail, Road,
-Water and Pipelines
16.2 Handling of Flammable Gases
16.3 Handling of Flammable Liquids
16.4 Handling of Flammable Solids
16.5 Handling of Oxidising Agents
16.6 Handling of Corrosive Substances
16.7 Handling and Storage of Chlorine
16.8 Handling and Storage of Ammonia
16.9 Handling and Storage of LPG
16.10Handling and Storage of EO
16.11Handling and Storage of Oleum
16.12Handling of Gas Cylinders
17. Inspection, Testing & Maintenance
17.1 Process Flaw chart & its importance for
Inspection
17.2 Inspection Techniques for Plants,
Vessels & Procedures
17.3 Checklist for Routine Inspection of a
Chemical Factory
17.4 Start-up & Shutdown Procedures
17.5 Maintenance
18. Work Permits for Hazardous work
18.1 General Check-list
18.2 Permit for Vessel Entry
19. Reports of Some Expert Committees
19.1 Garg Committee’s Report (1985)
19.2 Report of the Gujarat Task Force
Committee (1985)
19.3 An Extract of the Inspection by three
ILO Experts on Inspection of 91
MAH Factories.
3
1 INEVITABLE PLACE OF
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
The safest and simplest way to avoid chemical
hazards and their ill-effects is to avoid chemical
industry itself. But is it possible ? A place of
chemical industry can be selected or shifted but it
has to run somewhere on the earth and its place in
our life has become inevitable because of the
following reasons -
 In homes we need cement, plaster, tiles, paint,
plywood, glass, plastic, curtains, TV, tubes etc.
 In kitchen we want gas, fuel, matches, heating
appliances, metal or ceramic dishes etc.
 For health we need drugs, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics, perfumes, talc etc.
 Agriculture needs fertilisers and pesticides.
 Construction requires minerals, metals, lime,
cement, explosives etc.
 Transportation needs petrol, diesel, gas, paints,
rubber etc.
 Clothing requires dyes, colours, soaps,
detergents and a variety of chemicals.
 In offices we want paper, ink, adhesives, photo-
copies, computer etc.
 Basic needs like air, water, food, clothing and
shelter are the product of chemistry.
 Our human body itself is an astounding chemical
industry carrying wonderful chemical processes
within it.
All above materials are made from elements
and their compounds and by direct chemical
processes or indirect chemical treatment. Therefore,
human life is becoming more and more dependent
on chemicals making the place of chemical industry
in society inevitable.
Chemical industry is also useful for national
production and employment for many people.
It is, therefore, not possible to avoid or prevent
chemical industry and the only way remains for us
is to run this industry safely by identifying, avoiding
and controlling its hazards. This, in turn, suggests
the following ten-point safety programme :-
1. Study and identify chemical hazards using
material safety data sheet (MSDS) and a system
of classification, packaging and labelling should
be developed.
2. Select safer technology.
3. Select safer siting of chemical industry for
minimum loss to men, material, environment etc.
4. Design and construct the factory with all safety
precautions from the very beginning.
5. Workplace hazards inside the factory should be
controlled by good engineering controls, safe
work methods or operating procedure and using
personal protective equipment.
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6. All requisite safety devices, fittings, instruments,
equipment, machines etc., must be provided and
well maintained.
7. Workers must be properly trained for safe
operation of the plant and their role in
emergency planning and control.
8. Safe transportation and handling of hazardous
chemicals within and out-side factory premises.
9. Safe disposal of hazardous wastes within and
outside factory premises.
10. Well monitoring and control of hazardous
substances at work places and of occupational
ill-effects and diseases by pre and periodical
medical examinations of the workers.
2 NEED OF SAFETY IN
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Though safety in each field is of equal importance,
safety in chemical field needs more attention
because of its specific nature. Chemical safety seems
more complicated than civil, mechanical or
electrical safety because each chemical has many
properties, many processes, many hazards and
many controls. The state, pressure, temperature,
process parameters etc., are also changeable. Many
hazard data and complete reaction documents are
still not available. Many hazards are known after
the accident only as in case of Bhopal and so many
incidents. Engineering controls may not be possible
or available at many places. Control devices and
personal protections are inadequate many times.
Warning devices may either not be available or not
be functioning well. All these diversified working
conditions and operational situations pose many
dangers which need their proper knowledge and
attention followed by proper safety measures and
proper preventive as well as corrective
maintenance.
Once upon a time textile factories were
dominating in our country, but chemical factories,
small and big, have been extensively increased.
Processwise the highest number of factories in
Gujarat are of chemical and chemical products.
Table 5.16 of Chapter-5 shows 4290 (Total of NIC
Group No. 30 & 31) out of total 19770 i.e. 21.69%
chemical factories in the State in 1998.
Employmentwise it is second (next to textiles) and
employ 188469 workers out of total 870786 i.e.
21.64% in the State. Table 5.21 states that
accidentwise also it is second (next to textile)
contributing 1090 out of 12031 i.e. 8.98% accidents.
The percentage of fatal accidents in chemical
factories was 30.89% in 1997 in Gujarat.
Indian statistics of 1979 states that there were
9485 (Total of NIC Group No. 30 & 31) out 135173
i.e. 7.01% chemical factories and 609000 out of
6797000 i.e. 8.95% workers in these factories. As the
latest all India statistics is not available, it is
estimated that this percentage would have reached
up to 10%. During 1992 there were 4141 out of 64631
i.e. 6.40% accidents in chemical factories which can
also be estimated to rise up to 8% during last 6
years.
Thus it can be concluded that there are about 10%
chemical factories in India, employing 10% of total
manpower and contributing @10% of total accidents.
In Gujarat chemical factories are @21%, employing
@21% of total manpower, contributing @9% of total
accidents and @31% of fatal accidents.
Bhopal accident is remarkable. It caused more
than 2500 deaths, many more injuries and became
world famous attracting everybody’s attention
toward chemical safety. It has opened the eyes and
shaken the governments and all safety people to
wake up. Many expert committees have been
formed and safety reports are published. The
Factories Act is rapidly amended to include many
matters on chemical safety. Many seminars have
been held and the chemical wave is still continued.
This shows the significance of chemical safety.
Before understanding safety aspects of a
chemical industry, it is utmost necessary to study or
refresh basic concepts of chemistry and chemical
technology. For this purpose, please refer Chapter-
32, Tables 1 to 4 before proceeding further.
3 TYPES OF CHEMICAL
INDUSTRY
Before proceeding toward general safety aspects it is
essential to have a look on variety of chemical
industries and to realise a very wide scope of the
subject. Thousands of volumes are available on
chemicals, their processes, effects and control
measures. But it is a fact that out of lacs of
chemicals, published data of their dangerous
properties is available for a few thousand only.
Therefore most of the unknown chemicals must be
handled very carefully. This requires basic
knowledge of chemical safety. General knowledge is
always useful for any type of chemical industry. The
26 dangerous chemical operations, 29 hazardous
industries and 29 notifiable occupational diseases
due to such chemical industries are given in Parts
6.5 to 6.7 of Chapter-4.
National Industrial Classification (NIC-1987)
Major Group No. 30 lists 50 types of chemicals and
chemical products industries and Major Group No.
31 lists 35 types of rubber, plastic, petroleum and
coal product industries. But this is still a broad
classification and types of chemical factories are day
by day increasing.
The chemical industries needing more attention
are petroleum refineries, petroleum product
industries and industries for basic heavy inorganic
and organic chemicals, fertilisers (organic, inorganic
or mixed), pesticides, dye-stuffs, paints, solvents,
LPG, acids, alkalis and dangerous gas, toxic,
flammable and reactive chemicals.
5
4 STATUTORY PROVISIONS
The Factories Act contains specific provisions on
chemical safety. Section 2 (cb) defines ‘hazardous
process’. Section 7A and 7B specify general duties
of occupiers and manufacturers for health and
safety. Sections 11 to 20 regarding cleanliness,
disposal of wastes and effluents, ventilation and
temperature, dust and fume, overcrowding,
lighting, drinking water, latrines, urinals and
spittoons are all useful for chemical factories also.
The whole chapter-IV (Sections 21 to 41) on safety is
also relevant. Provisions of hoists and lifts, lifting
machines, revolving machinery, pressure plant,
floors, stairs and means of access, pits, sumps,
openings in floors, excessive weights, protection of
eyes, precautions against dangerous fumes, use of
portable electric light, explosive or inflammable
dust, gas etc., fire and building safety are also useful
in chemical factories.
Chapter IV A (Sections 41 A to 41 H) regarding
hazardous processes provides for site appraisal
committees, disclosure of information, health and
safety policy, medical examination (pre and post
employment) of workers, health records,
supervision, emergency standards, permissible
limits of toxic exposure (Second Schedule), safety
committee, duty to warn about and remove
imminent danger. Chapter V (Sections 42 to 50) on
welfare provides for washing facilities, cloak room,
first-aid, ambulance room, canteen, rest and lunch
room, crèche and welfare officer. Sections 87 to 91 A
regarding dangerous operations, notice of accidents
and diseases, inquiry, samples and health surveys
are also useful. Section 87A prohibits employment
on account of serious hazard. Section 96A for
penalty for breach of section 41B, 41C or 41H is very
severe. By section 104A burden of proof is shifted on
a person who fails to fulfil the duty under this Act.
Section 111A creates worker’s right to get
information relating to their health and safety and to
get trained for that. The Third Schedule lists 29
occupational diseases most of which are due to
chemicals.
The Gujarat Factories Rules provide many rules
under above sections of the Act. Rule 54, schedule
IV for rubber mills, rule 61 for pressure plant, rule
63 for protection of eyes, rule 66 and 66A for fire
safety, rule 102 and twenty six schedules thereunder
(see Part 3 of Chapter 27), rule 103 and 104 for notice
of accidents, poisoning and diseases are more
important for chemical factories. Rule 61B for
reaction vessels and kettles, rule 68C for
polymerising and curing machines, rule 68D for
thermic fluid heaters, rule 68E for fragile roofs, rule
68G for ovens and dryers, rule 68H for ship
building, repairs and breaking and rule 68J for
hazardous chemicals and processes suggest many
safety measures.
 Rules 68K to N, P & Q provide for disclosure of
information to workers, CIF etc. and MSDS, rule 68R
for health records, rule 68S for supervisors, rule 68T
for medical examination, rule 68U for occupational
health centre, rule 68V for ambulance van and rule
68W for decontamination facilities.
Amendment of 1995 (w.e.f. 15-2-95) in the
Gujarat Factories Rules 1963, has added many
details for chemical factories and for safety, health
and welfare of the workers. Newly added following
schedules, u/r 102, must always be referred for
strict compliance -
Sch. 19 - Chemical Works
Sch. 21 - Solvent Extraction Plant
Sch. 22 - CS2 Plant
Sch. 25 - Pottery, and
Sch. 26 - Foundry.
See Chapter-23 for details of above mentioned
provisions industrywise.
Other Laws on chemical safety include The
Boilers Act 1923, Gujarat Boilers Rules 1966, Indian
Boiler Regulations 1950, The Petroleum Act & Rules,
The Explosive Act & Rules, The Insecticide Act &
Rules, The Poisons Act & Rules, The Electricity Act
& Rules, Gas Cylinder Rules 1981, Static and Mobile
Pressure Vessels Rules 1981, Water and Air
Pollution Control Acts and Rules, Environment
(Protection) Act 1986 and Rules, Hazardous Waste
Management Rules 1989, MSIHC Rules 1989,
Chemical Accidents (EPPR) Rules 1996, Bio-Medical
Waste Rules 1998, Building and Construction
Workers Act 1996 and Central Rules 1998, Atomic
Energy Act, Radiation Protection Rules etc. See
Chapter-28 for all such Acts and Rules.
As the details of all above provisions are
readily available in statute books, they are not
reproduced here. It is recommended to refer them
for details as they are directly applicable and create
legal responsibility also.
5 INDIAN STANDARDS
Sectional lists of Indian Standards on chemical,
Indian Standards on safety and BIS Handbook are
readily available at Bureau of Indian Standards
Offices. Each industry should select applicable
INDIAN STANDARDS booklets from these
sectional lists. They are most useful. A sample list is
given below :
Code of Safety for Acetic acid 5208, acetic
anhydride 5302, acetone 7445, air purifying canisters
8318, ammonia 4544, aniline 7415, benzene, toluene
& xylene 4644, bromine 6953, calcium carbide 6819,
carbon disulphide 5685, caustic soda 4264,
laboratory safety 4209, 4906, glossary of terms,
chemical and radiation hazards 4155, glossary of
terms, respiratory protective devices 8347, glossary
of terms, explosives 10081, chlorine 4263,
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classification of dangerous goods 1446, classification
of hazardous chemicals and chemical products 4607,
ethylene oxide 6269, cryogenic liquids 5931,
hydrochloric acid 6164, lead and its compounds
4312, LPG installation 6044 (Part I & II), mercury
7812, methanol 7444, nitric acid 4560, phenol 6270,
phosgene 8185, sulphuric acid 4262, vinyl chloride
monomer 9786.
Code of safety for Hydrochloric acid 6164,
chlorosulphonic acid 6156, hydrofluoric acid 5184,
aluminium chloride, anhydrous 9052, phosphoric
acid 6818, caustic potash 6954, phthalic anhydride
7420, carbon tetrachloride 5311, nitrobenzene 8388,
9053, ethyl ether 13441, monochlorobenzene 9277,
thionyl chloride 9744, aluminium alkyls 9785,
hexane 10870, phosphorous trichloride 10920,
acrylonitrile 11141, dinitrotoluene 12033, methyl
bromide 12034, MEK 12141, trichloroethane 12142,
tetrachloroethane 12143, asbestos 11451, hydrogen
peroxide 14200, carcinogenic substances 14165.
Acetylene cylinders 8433, agitator equipment
9522, air pollution control - glossary 4167, limits
9005, methods of measurement of air pollution 5182
(Part 1 to 20), air pollution control in petroleum
refineries 10179, gas cylinders 5845, 5903, 8451,
colour code for gas cylinders 3933, for pipe lines
2379, electrical instruments for hazardous
atmosphere 8945, (See Part 8 of Chapter-11 also),
static electricity 7689, electro heat installations 9080,
9021, fluid flow meters 9115, venturi meters 4477,
fire detectors 2189, 2175, fire extinguishers 2190,
5896 (See Part 3 & 4.2 of Chapter-13 also), gas
industry 7062, gas masks 8523, gas oven 7342, 4473,
gas pressure pipes 8329, gas scrubber, cooler or
absorber 9240, gases flammable classification 9570,
gas detection 7577, 10386, gaseous emissions - nitric
acid 9005, sulphuric acid 8635, perchlorates of
ammonium, potassium and sodium 13914, sulphur
dioxide 13910, petroleum refineries 8636, process
control valves 10187, manhole for chemical
equipment 3133, measuring cylinders 878, solid
mineral fuels 3810, testing atmospheric conditions
196, thermal insulating material 7240, 7413,
thermocouple pyrometers 2053, vacuum-filters 6034,
5676, gauge 8276, pump 6849, technology 4110, 8245,
valve-ball 9890 for LPG cylinders 8737, 8776, globe
steel 10605, work environment monitoring code
9679, safety in microbiological laboratories 12035.
Guide for handling cases of pesticide poisoning
4015 (Part 1: First-aid measures, Part 2: Symptoms,
diagnosis and treatment), packing 6604, code of
safety for malathion 10872, zinc phosphide 9278,
aluminium phosphide 9279.
LPG storage installations 6044 (Part 1 & 2), code
of safety in electric and gas welding and cutting
operations 818.
Unfired pressure vessels 2825, steel forging for
fired and unfired pressure vessels 9683, glossary of
terms relating to corrosion of metals 3531, cathodic
protection of steel structures 8062 (Part 1 to 4),
safety in compressed air 4138, steel plates for OISD-125 Inspection and maintenance of
pressure vessels 2041, Non-destructive testing - mechanical seals.
magnetic particle 3415, 3703, 7743, 10724, 10543, OISD-126 Specific maintenance practices for
radiography 2478, 2595, 2598, liquid penetrants rotating equipment.
12889, concrete methods 13311, ultrasonic testing OISD-127 History recording of rotating
2417, 9346, 11630, eddy current 12965. equipment.
Fire safety of buildings 3594, ventilation in OISD-128 Inspection of unfired pressure
petrochemical plants and refineries 12332, vessels.
classification of flammable gases/vapours with air OISD-130 Inspection of pipes, valves and
fittings.
according to their maximum experimental safe gaps
OISD-132 Inspection of pressure relieving
and minimum igniting currents 9570, maintenance
devices.
and operation of petroleum storage tanks 9964 (Part
OISD-137 Inspection of electrical equipment.
1 & 2), safety in electro-heat installations 9080 (Part
OISD-140 Inspection of jetty pipelines.
1 to 4), flash back arrestor (flame arrestor) 11006, OISD-144 LPG bottling plant operations -
purchaser’s data sheet for gas scrubber, cooler or Vol. I Design philosophies.
absorber 9240, safety belt and harnesses 3521, Vol. II Operating practices
breathing apparatus 10245 (Part 1 to 4). Vol. III Inspection and maintenance
Methods of sampling chemicals and chemical practices
products 8883 (Part 1 & 2), methods of sampling and Vol. IV Safety and fire protection
test for industrial effluents 2488 (Part 1 to 5), OISD-146 Preservation of idle electrical
tolerance limits for industrial effluents CHD 12, or equipment.
2490 (Part 1 to 10), treatment and disposal of OISD-147 Inspection and safe practices during
effluents of cotton and synthetic textile industry electrical installations.
9508, liquid sedimentation methods for OISD-148 Inspection and safe practices during
determination of particle size of powders 5282, solid overhauling electrical equipment.
waste analysis 10158. OISD-153 Maintenance & inspection of safety
Plant layout, safe practice 8089, 8091, instrumentation in hydrocarbon
emergency showers and face mountains 10592, industry.
safety colours and signs 9457, accident prevention OISD-154 Safety aspects in functional training.
tags 8095, gas detector tubes 13293. OISD-156 Fire protection facilities for port oil
Code of Practice on Occupational Safety and terminals.
Health Audit 14489. OISD-160 Protection of fittings mounted on
existing LPG tank trucks.
OISD Standards : OISD-161 Rescue and relief operation
involving tank truck accident
carrying LPG.
Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD) has
OISD-162 Safety in installation and
published the safety standards for oil refineries,
maintenance of LPG cylinder
LPG bottling plants, gas terminals, ONGC and
manifold.
GAIL installations etc. Some such standards are OISD-169 Small LPG bottling plants (Design
mentioned below : and fire protection facilities).

OISD Standards : See Chapters 11, 13, 24 and 25 for relevant

Indian Standards on the subjects of electricity, fire
OISD-106 Process design and operating
and explosion, industrial hygiene and health and
philosophies on pressure relief and
personal protective equipment.
disposal system.
OISD-110 Recommended practices on static
electricity. 6 TYPES OF CHEMICAL
OISD-112 Safe handling of air-hydrocarbon HAZARDS AND CONTROLS
mixtures and pyrophoric
substances. People working in chemical factories and dwelling
OISD-117 Fire protection facilities for nearby are exposed to various types of chemical
petroleum depots and terminals. hazards. Inflammable, explosive, toxic, corrosive,
OISD-118 Layouts for oil and gas installations.
reactive, radio active, oxidising, reducing,
OISD-119 Inspection of pumps.
decomposing, compatible and hidden hazardous
OISD-120 Inspection of compressors.
nature of chemicals pose material or property
OISD-121 Inspection of turbines & diesel
hazards. In process, chemical and physical change,
engines.
OISD-123 Inspection of rotating equipment chemical reaction, pressure, temperature, level,
components. flow, quantity and other parameters create process
OISD-124 Predictive maintenance practices. hazards. The vessels and equipment in which the

7
chemicals are stored, handled or processed, pose
vessel hazards. The inadequate, defective,
underdesigned or wrongly modified control devices
or failure thereof cause control hazards. Fire or
explosion cause fire hazards. Effluent disposal and
gaseous emissions bring pollution and toxic
hazards. Leaks, spills and splashes cause handling
hazards. Absence, non-use or failure of fire fighting
equipment, personal protective equipment,
emergency control devices reveal accident and
emergency hazards. All other unsafe working
conditions and unsafe actions pose a variety of
hazards that all need to be prevented and
controlled.
Many safety measures are available to deal
with above hazards. Identification of contents,
properties, hazards and quantity of chemicals, their
content minimisation, proper storing, handling and
packing; auto control, recording and warning
devices for level, pressure, vacuum, temperature,
flow, feed, speed, cooling, heating, stirring,
discharge, contamination; remote control devices,
proper ventilating, exhaust, scrubbing, neutralising,
inactivating and incinerating devices; monitoring,
measuring, recording, tripping, correcting and
controlling system, fire fighting and personal
protective equipment, emergency and disaster
planning, controls and all engineering well designed
process and plant layout and fully safe actions of
work-people are utmost necessary to fight these
hazards and to control over them. The basic steps in
short are as follows :
1 Identification of Health (Toxic) Hazards :
(a) Types of effects are -
Allergy, Irritation, Oxygen deficiency
(asphyxiation), Systemic poisoning (eg damage to
liver, kidney, CNS, reproductive system etc.),
Cancer, Damage to unborne foetus(teratogenesis),
Genetic effects on future generations (mutagenesis),
Dust effect (pneumoniosis).
Some effects are acute (local or short term) and
some are chronic (long term, delayed or after
repeated exposures).
(b) Factors creating effects are -
Type of concentration of chemical, Combined
effects of mixtures, Properties of the material
including its toxicity, Work methods, Nature of
exposure (short term, long term) Routes of entry
(through nose, mouth or skin) and Individual
susceptibility.
2 Identification of other hazards :
(a) Fire and Explosion Hazards :
Heat generation due to chemical reaction,
Open flame, Radiant heat, Fricton, Spontaneous
combustion, Electric current, Static electricity etc.
8
(b) Fuel or Solvents -
Low flashpoint and Low boiling point liquids,
Gases and Solids (dusts, powders, lumps, crystals)
(c) Atomic Radiation -
Radioactive substances and Radiation
processes (X-ray, NDT, Nuclear power plant etc.)
3. Preventive & Control Measures :
(a) Six Basic Principles -
 Elimination of substance or process.
 Substitution of safer alternative.
 Distance, Guard, Enclosure, Isolation, Shielding
or Segregation of hazardous process.
 Ventilation, general & local exhaust.
 Personal Protective Equipment.
 Personal hygiene.
(b) Management Control -
Identification, MSDS, Labelling, Safe storage,
Safe Transfer procedure, Safe handling & use,
Safe processes & operations, Safe disposal
methods, Good housekeeping, Measurement &
assessment (Monitoring), Medical examination,
record and treatment (medical surveillance),
Record-keeping of work exposure monitoring,
environmental or air quality monitoring,
medical and biological monitoring, Training &
education to workers and Supervision
including safety work permits and safe work
methods.
4. Emergency Control Procedures :
 Speedy Leak & Spill Control procedures.
 Emergency shut-down procedure.
 On site emergency plan.
 Off site emergency plan.
 Mutual aid arrangement with neighbouring
industries.
 Retainership for help at the time of emergency.
 Regular rehearsal of emergency procedures
(drill), updating and reviewing of the plan.
7 MATERIAL (PROPERTY)
HAZARDS AND CONTROL
Make a list of all raw materials, products, by-
products and intermediates. Identify them by their
nature of hazard and risk potentials. Classify them
as inflammable, explosive, toxic, corrosive,
radioactive, reactive, oxidising, irritant, unstable,
compressed gases, dust and others. Also note their
hazardous properties viz. boiling point, flash point,
LEL, UEL, LD, LC, TLV, MAC, IDLH, density,
solubility etc., to understand the ill-effects of the
chemical. Reference No. 1 to 4 given at the end of
this chapter explain all such terms and give them for
various chemicals. Reference No. 11 gives such
hazardous properties of some selected chemicals.
The chemicals may cause either physical
hazards or health hazards. The physical hazards are
caused due to dust, corrosive, explosive, flammable
and reactive chemicals, compressed gases and
oxidisers. The health hazards are caused due to
toxic, irritant and carcinogenic chemicals.
Carcinogenic causes cancer. Mutagenic causes
inherited changes and teratogenic causes harm to
unborn. Micro-organisms and radioactive chemicals
also cause health hazards. The hazards are also
classified as first and second degree hazards. The
first degree hazards are caused by corrosive,
flammable, explosive, toxic and oxidising chemicals,
heat or ignition source, human error and failure of
equipment etc. The second degree hazards injure life
and property and include fire, explosion, toxic
exposure, corrosive chemicals, collision, slipping,
falling etc.
7.1 Identification of Chemicals
Identification of chemicals begins with the
knowledge of basic chemistry. Refer Table No. 1 in
Chapter 32 to identify first some commonly used
elements and radicals. This will help to identify the
chemicals.
Chemicals are classified in different ways. For
study (chemistry) point of view, they are broadly
classified as inorganic and organic chemicals.
Inorganic chemicals are subclassified as metals and
non-metals. Out of 104 elements, 80 are metals and
majority of them (except mercury) are solids,
shining, reflecting, good conductor and forming
reducing agents and basic hydroxides. In non-
metals, more than half are gases and remaining are
hard solid, non-shining, less reflective, bad
conductor and forming oxidising agent and acidic
hydroxides. Some examples are given below :
Metals : Aluminium, Arsenic, Beryllium, Calcium,
Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Iron, Lead, Manganese,
Mercury, Nickel, Radium, Sodium, Tin, Uranium,
Zinc etc.
Non-metals : Bromine, Chlorine, Fluorine, Iodine,
Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulphur etc.
Organic chemicals include carbon compounds.
They are subclassified as under -
Aliphatic Compounds (without benzene-rings) :
Hydrocarbons, Halogen derivatives of paraffin,
Alcohol, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic
acids and their derivatives, organic compounds of
Nitrogen and Sulphur, Carbohydrates, Alicyclic
compounds etc.
9
Aromatic Compounds (with benzene-rings) :
Benzene and its derivatives, Aromatic amines,
Diazo compounds, Dyes, Phenols, Aromatic alcohol,
Aromatic aldehydes, Ketones and quinones and
Aromatic carboxylic acids.
Heterocyclic Compounds and Polymers (with
other-rings) : Furan, Pyrrole, Thiophene, Pyridine,
Quinoline, Isoquinoline, Alkaloids-coniine, nicotine,
Drugs, Hormones, Vitamins, Enzymes and
Polymers - Natural and Synthetic Rubber like
neoprene, butadiene; synthetic fibres like nylon,
orlon, vinyon, terylene, Synthetic plastics and resins
like cellulose, formaldehyde, alkyd, vinyl, acrylate
and polystyrene resins and silicones.
Chemicals are also classified as under :
1. According to their Physical State i.e. solid,
liquid or gases. Fine particles of solid like
powder, dust, fumes and smoke are called
particulate matter. Their suspension in air or gas
also exists. Liquids are classified as acid, alkali,
solvent, suspension, liquid mixture, aerosols etc.
Gases are classified as inert (N2, CO2), reactive,
toxic, irritant, corrosive etc.
2. Noxious Gases :
 Irritant gases - Cl2, NH3, SO2, NO2, COCL2,
Aldehydes etc.
 Systemic poisons - C6H6, CS2, PH3, Stibine,
Mn, Nickel carbonyl, Arsine, Halogenated
hydrocarbons etc.
 Simple asphyxiates - N2, CH4, CO2 etc.
 Chemical asphyxiates - CO, H2S, HCN etc.
3. Dust (Particulate Matter) :
 Causing plenumoconioses - Coal, Silica,
Asbestos etc.
 Causing Asthma - Cotton, Flour, TDI etc.
 Causing allergy - fungal spores, bird fanciers,
lung, bagassation etc.
 Causing lung cancer - Chromium, Asbestos,
Benzene etc.
4. Biological Agents and Diseases :
 Virus Rickettisia - Psittacosis, rabbis etc.
 Bacteria - Anthrax, Woolsorter’s disease,
Leptospirosis or Weal’s disease, Brucellosis,
Tetanus etc.
 Fungi - Ringworm, Moniliasis etc.
 Parasites - Hookworm
 Plant products - Dermatitis due to mango tree
and cashew seed processing.
For details see the Schedule given under the
Rules for manufacture, use, import, export and
storage of hazardous micro-organism, genetically
engineered organism or cells (Refer Part 2.34 of
Chapter-28).
 Some physical, chemical or biological agents Dinitrophenol, Ethyldichloroarsine, Hexaethyl
cause skin diseases (dermatitis) and alcoholism, tetraphosphate, Hydrocyanic acid and its fumes,
sickness or accident may also cause health effects. Mercuric acetate, Marcuric ammonium chloride and
The chemicals should be properly identified, benzoate, Mercuric cyanide, bromide, oxide, Iodide,
classified and handled accordingly. Labelling on Methyl bromide, Methyl dichloroarsine, Mustard
packages and containers is a basic requirement. For gas, Nickel cyanide, Nitrobenzol, Nitrogen
this purpose some major divisions are given below : peroxide, Phosgene, Thio phosgene, Zinc arsenate,
MIC (methyl iso-cyanate), Carbon monoxide,
Corrosive Chemicals : Amyl trichlorosilane, Cadmium, DDT, Methanol, Phosphine and
Anisoyl chloride, Antimony pentachloride, dangerous pesticides such as Parathion,
Antimony pentafluoride, Benzoyl chloride, Benzyl Diazeomon, Tetraethyl pyrophosphate, Tetraethyl
bromide, Benzyl chloride, Benzyl chloroformate, phosphate, Demeton, Scheadan, Methyl parathion,
Boron trichloride, Bromine, Bromine pentafluoride, Cryolite, Pentachlorophenol. Dinitro-o-cresol,
Bromine trifluoride, Caustic potash, Caustic soda, Endrin etc.
Chloroacetyl chloride, Chlorine trifluoride, Pesticides - Insecticides :
Chlorosulphonic acid, Chromic acid solution, Pesticides : Aluminium phosphide, aldrin,
Diethyl dichlorosilane, Ethyl chloroformate, Formic acephate, antu, Butachlor, Chlordane, Chlorpyrifos,
acid, Fluorine, Hexafluorophosphoric acid, Cycocel, Cypermethrin, DDT, Dimethoate,
Hydrazine, Hydrobromic acid, Hydrochloric acid, Decamethrin, DDVP, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, EDB,
Hydrofluoric acid, Methyl chloroformate, Nitric Formothion, Fenitrothion, Fenvalerate,
acid, Perchloric acid, Oxybromide, Oxychloride, Hexachlorobenzene (BHC), Heptachlor,
Tribromide, Trichloride of phosphorous, Glyphosphate, Glyphosine, Malathion,
Tetrachloride, Sodium aluminats, Spent sulphuric Monocrotophos, Mercuric acetate, MEMC, 2,4-D
acid, Sulphur chloride (mono and di), Sulphuric Phosphomidone, parathion, Permethrin,
chloride, Thionyl chloride, Titanium tetrachloride, Phenthoate, Phenyl Mercuric acetate, Quinalphos,
Phenol etc. Zinc phosphide etc.
Insecticides : Cupric sulfate, DDT, Leadarsenate,
Oxidising Agent : Aluminium nitrate, Ammonium Liver of sulfur.
nitrate, Ammonium perchlorate, Ammonium Fungicides : Bordeaux mixture, Chlornil,
permanganate, Barium chlorate, Barium nitrate, Chloropicrin, Cyprus oxide, Mercurous chloride,
Barium perchlorate, Barium peroxide, Benzoyl Pentachlorophenol.
peroxide, Nitrate peroxide, Permanganate of Herbicides : Ammonium thiocynate NH4SCN
calcium, Chlorate and Magnesium chloride mixture, Vermicides : Anisole.
Chlorate of potash and soda, Chromic acid,
Dimethyl hexane, Lead nitrate, Lithium peroxide, Explosive Chemicals : Amyl acetate, Carbon dust,
nitrate, perchlorate, Peroxide of magnesium, Potash Aluminium dust, Wood saw dust, Hydrogen,
permanganate, Permanganate of soda, Potassium Sodium metal, Sodium nitrate, Potassium nitrate,
bromate, nitrate, nitrite, perchlorate, permanganate Ammonium nitrate, Benzoyl chloride, Nitro
and peroxide, Silver nitrate, chlorate, chlorite, glycerine, Phosphorous trichloride, Titanium
permanganate, peroxide, and nitrite, Zinc powder, Hexane, Trinitro toluene, Carbon
ammonium nitrite, Zinc chlorate, Zinc disulphide, Ethylene oxide, Cellulose films etc.
permanganate, Zinc peroxide etc.
Solvents : Benzene, Acetone, Methanol, Ethanol,
Carcinogens : Asbestos, Acrolein, Aniline, Toluene, Carbon tetrachloride, Methyl chloride,
Acrylonitrile, Alpha- Naphthylamine, Beta- Methylene chloride, Ethyl acetate, Ethyl ether,
Naphthylamine, Benzidine, Benzene, Benzyl Methyl bromide, Nitro propane, Propyl acetate,
chloride, Carbon tetrachloride, Chloroform, Spirit, Petrol, Carbon disulphide, Ethyl benzene,
Chloropropane, Dioxin, Epichlorohydrin, Ethylene Methyl-propyl, Turpentine, Chloroform, Aniline,
oxide, Formaldehyde, Perchloroethylene, Beta Benzyl chloride, Bromobenzene, Chlorobenzene,
propiolacetone, Styrene, Tetrachloro ethane, Ethyl benzene, Ethylamine, Formic acid, Heptane,
Toluidine (ortho-meta), Toluenediamine, Glycerol, Iso Propyl acetate, Methoxy benzene
Trichloroethane, Trichloroethylene, Vinyl chloride, (anisole), Methyloleat, Naphthalene, Nitrobenzene,
Pyridine, Phenol, 4-aminodiphenyl, N-nitrodiphenyl Oleic acid, Phenol, Styrene, Vinyl acetate, Xylene,
etc. Ether etc.

Poisonous Chemicals : Aldrin mixture, Aniline, Other Flammable Chemicals : Acetonitrile,

Arsenate of lead, Arsenic acid, Bromide, Chloride, Acrylonitrile, Aluminium triethyl, Amyl acetate,
Sulphide of arsenic, Calcium arsenate, Phenol, Amyl chloride, Amyl mercaptan, Amyl nitrate,
Dinitrochlorobenzol, Cyanide of potassium and Benzoyl peroxide, Butadiene, Calcium phosphide,
sodium, Cyanogen gas, Cyclohexane, Carbon disulphide, Carbon monoxide, Coal tar,

10
Naphtha, Lacquer, Paint, Varnish, Diethyl Organic : Acetic, acrylic, adipic, amino or
aluminium chloride, Diethylamine, Dimethylamine, carboxylic, alginic, uric, uncleic, succinic, barbituric,
Ethyl aluminium dichloride, Ethyl chloride, benzenesulphonic, benzoic, capric or decanoic,
Ethylene, Ethylene dichloride, Ethylene oxide, Ethyl hexanoic, caprylic or octanoic, carbolic or phenol,
nitrate, Ethyl nitrite, Heptane, Hexane, Iso octane, carbonic, carboxylic, caro’s or persulphuric,
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Lithium metal, ricinoleic, chloroacetic, cinnamic, citric, crotonic or
Methane, Methyl acetone, Monoethylamine, Nickel butenoic, cyanic, cyanuric or tricyanic, ethylene
carbonyl, Pentane, Petroleum naphtha, diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), fumaric, galic,
Phosphorous, Phosphorous anhydride, gluconic, hexanoic, hydrodic, hydrobromic,
Photographic film, Sodium aluminium hydride, hydrocyanic, hydrofluoric, hydrozy, hypoclorus,
Sodium metal, Sodium methylate dry, Titanium hypophosphorous, isophthalic, lactic, lauric,
metal powder, Vinyl chloride, Vinyl fluoride, X-ray linolegic, meleic, malic, malonic, mandelic,
film scrap etc. methacrylic, molybdic, monobasic, necotinic,
nucleic, octanoic, oleic, oleum, osmic, oxolic,
Reactive Chemicals : Acetic acid, Acetone, oxydiacetic, oxydiethanoic, palmitic, pantothenic,
Acetylene, Sodium, Potassium, Lithium, pelargonic, phosphinic, phthalic, picric,
Magnesium, Calcium, Aluminium powder, pyrophosphoric, pyrosulphuric, pyruvic, racemic,
Anhydrous ammonia, Ammonium nitrate, Aniline, ribonucleic, ricinoleic salicylic, sebacic, selenic,
Bromine, Chlorates, Chromic acid, Chromium silicic, stannic, stearic, suberic, sulphanilic, fannic,
trioxide, Chlorine, Fluorine, Hydrocarbons tartaric, thiocyanic, thiosulphuric, tribasic,
(Benzene, Butane, Propane, Turpentine etc.), trihydroxybenzoic, uric, vanadic etc.
Hydrocyanic acid, Hydrofluoric acid (HF), Following two tables are reproduced from the
Hydrogen peroxide, Hydrogen sulfide, Iodine, Reference No. 13 given at the end of this Chapter :
Mercury, Nitric acid (Conc.), Oxalic acid, Peroxides,
Phosphorous (white), Potassium chlorate, Table-18.1: Partial List of Incompatible
Potassium permanganate, Silver, Sodium, Sodium Chemicals (Reactive Hazards)
nitrite, Sodium peroxide, Sulphuric acid etc.
Substance in the left hand column should be stored
Alcohols : Allyl, ethyl, methyl, emyl, anisyl, benzyl, and handled so that they cannot possibly
butyl, cetyl, citronellol, cyclohexanol, diols or accidentally contact corresponding substance in the
glycols, lauryl, nerol etc. right hand column under uncontrolled condition
because violent reactions may occur.
Refrigerant Gases : Carbon dioxide CO2, Ammonia
NH3, Freon etc. Acetic acid Chromic acid, nitric
acid, hydroxyl-
Esters : Amyl acetate, arsenate, benzoate, borate, containing compound,
citrate, cynate, decanoate, glyceride, isocyanate, ethylene, glycol,
lipids, methacrylate, nitrite, oxalate, salicylate, perchloric acid,
stearate, succinate, sulfate, sulphonate, tertrate, peroxide and
thiocynate, thiosulphate, toluate, xanthates etc. permanganates.
Acetone Concentrated nitric &
Ethers : Anisole (methyl phenyl ether), benzyl sulphuric acid mixtures
cellulose, thio ethers, RSR, vinyl ether etc. Acetylene Chlorine, bromine,
copper, silver, fluorine
Enzymes : Catalase, Deaminase, Dehydrogenase, Alkali and alkaline Carbon dioxide, carbon
Diastrate, Fermerit, hydrolases, lactose, oxidase, earth metals such tetrachloride and other
urease etc. as sodium, chlorinated
potassium, hydrocarbons (also
Resins : Alkyd (glyptal), Allyl, Aminoplastic etc. lithium, prohibit water foam
magnesium, and dry chemical on
Acids : Inorganic : Hydrochloric, hydrobromic, calcium, fires involving these
hydrofluoric, hydroiodic, nitric, sulphuric, nitrous, powdered metals. Dry sand
sulphurous, sulphonic, chlorosulphonic, boracic or aluminium should be available).
boric, phosphoric, phosphorous, perchloric, Ammonia (anhyd.) Mercury, chlorine,
arachidic, arsenic, ascorbic, aspartic, aspirin, calcium hypochlorite,
hydrazoic, behenic or docosanoic, bromic, chloric, iodine, bromine and
chloroplatinic, chlorous, chromic, iodic, manganic, hydrogen fluoride
metaphosphoric, perboric, permanganate, Ammonium Acids, metal powders,
persulphuric etc. nitrate flammable liquids,
chlorites, nitrites,

11
 sulphur, finely divided Hydrocyanic acid,
organics or Hydrogen sulphide,
combustibles. flammable gases and
Aniline Nitric acid, hydrogen nitratable substance
peroxide Nitroparaffins Inorganic bases, amines
Bromine Ammonia, acetylene, Oxalic acid Silver, mercury
butadiene, butane and Oxygen Oils, grease, hydrogen,
other petroleum gases, flammable liquids,
sodium carbide, solids or gases
turpentine, benzene and Perchloric acid Acetic anhydride,
finely divided metals bismuth and its alloys,
Calcium oxide Water alcohol, paper, wood,
Carbon, activated Calcium hypochlorite grease, oils
Chlorates Ammonium salts, acids, Peroxides, organic Acids (organic or
metal powder, sulphur, mineral), avoid friction,
finely divided organic store cold
or combustibles Phosphorous Air, oxygen
Chromic acid Acetic acid, (white)
and naphthalene, champhor, Potassium chlorate Acids
Chromium glycerol, turpentine, Potassium Acids
trioxide alcohol and other perchlorate
flammable, Potassium Glycerol, Ethylene
Chlorine Ammonia, acetylene, permanganate glycol, benzaldehyde,
butadiene, butane and Sulphuric acid
other petroleum gases, Silver Acetylene, Oxalic acid,
hydrogen, Sodium Tartaric acid,
carbide, turpentine, Ammonium
benzene and finely compounds
divided metals. Sodium nitrite Ammonium nitrite and
Chlorine dioxide Ammonia, methane, other Ammonium salts
phosphine and Sodium peroxide Any oxidisable
Hydrogen sulphide substance such as
Copper Acetylene, Hydrogen ethanol, methanol,
peroxide glacial acetic acid,
Fluorine Isolates from Acetic anhydride,
everything Benzaldehyde, Carbon
Hydrazine Hydrogen peroxide, disulphide, Glycerol,
Nitric acid, any other Ethylene glycol, Ethyl
oxidant acetate, Methyl acetate
Hydrocarbons Fluorine, chlorine, Sulphuric acid Chlorate, perchlorates,
(benzene, butane, bromine, Chromic acid, permanganates
propane, gasoline, and peroxide
turpentine) Table-18.2: Partial List of Incompatible
Hydrocyanic acid Nitric acid, alkalis Chemicals (Toxic Hazards)
Hydrofluoric acid Ammonia
Hydrogen Copper, chromium, Substances in the left hand column should be stored
peroxide iron, most metals or and handled so that they cannot possibly
their salts, any accidentally contact corresponding substances in the
inflammable liquid, centre column, because toxic materials (right hand
combustible materials, column) would be produced.
aniline, nitromethane
Hydrogen Fuming Nitric acid, Arsenic Any reducing Arsine
sulphide oxidising gases material agent
Iodine Acetylene, ammonia Azides Acids Hydrogen azide
Mercury Acetylene, ammonia, Cyanides Acids Hydrogen
fulminic acid cyanide
Nitric acid (Conc.) Acetic acid, acetone, Hypochlorite Acids Chlorine or
alcohol, aniline, s hypochlorus
Chromic acid, acids

12
 Nitrates Sulphuric Nitrogen 7. Explosive material
acids dioxide 8. Flammable material
Nitric acids Copper, Nitrogen 9. Combustible and flammable Liquid
brass, any dioxide 10. Pyrophoric material
heavy metal 11. Hazardous Combustion products
Nitrites Acids Nitrous fumes 12. Hazardous Polymerisation
Phosphorous Caustic Phosphine 13. Corrosive material
alkalis 14. Organic Peroxide
Selenides Reducing Hydrogen 15. Oxidiser
agents selenide 16. Others
Sulphides Acid Hydrogen
sulphide 4. Reactivity Data :
Tellurides Reducing Hydrogen
1. Chemical stability
agents telluride
2. Incompatibility (Materials to avoid)
7.2 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) 3. Reactivity
4. Hazardous reaction products
For proper identification of material hazards a
material safety data sheet should be prepared and 5. Health Hazard Data :
supplied with each chemical so that its safety
precautions can be well understood. A specimen 1. TLV (ACGIH)
form is given below : 2. STEL/SET
3. LC50 or LD50
1. Chemical Identity : 4. Odour threshold
5. Carcinogen ? Poison ? Liberates poisonous fume
1. Name of the Chemical ?
2. Formula 6. Routes of entry
3. Synonyms 7. Body parts that may be affected
4. Trade name 8. Effects of exposure and symptoms
5. Chemical Classification 9. Emergency and first aid treatment
6. Regulated identification 10. Engineering controls necessary for safe
7. Shipping Name, Codes/Label handling.
8. CAS No. 11. NFPA Hazard signals
9. UN No. 12. Special Health hazards.
10. ADR No.
11. Hazchem (EAC)No. 6. Preventive Measures :
12. Hazardous Waste ID No.
13. Hazardous Ingredients and CAS No. 1. Ventilation required and type
2. Personal protective equipment required and
2. Physical & Chemical Data : type
3. Handling and storage precautions
1. Appearance, State, Odour etc.
2. Specific gravity (Water = 1) 7. Emergency and First-aid Measure :
3. Vapour density (air = 1)
4. Boiling point 1. Steps to be taken in case material is released or
5. Melting/Freezing point spilled.
6. Vapour pressure 2. Waste disposal method for solid, liquid and
7. Solubility in water gaseous waste.
8. Scrubbing/Neutralising/Inactivating media 3. Fire, extinguishing media, special procedures
9. pH and Unusual hazards.
10. Others 4. Exposure - First-aid measures, Antidotes,
Dosages.
3. Fire & Explosion Hazard Data :
8. Additional Information / References :
1. Flash point
2. Autoignition Temperature 9. Manufacturer / Supplier’s Data :
3. Flammable limits : LEL/UEL
4. TDG Flammability 1. Name of Firm
5. Explosion Sensitivity to Impact 2. Mailing address
6. Explosion Sensitivity to static electricity 3. Telephone/Telex/Fax Nos.

13
4. Telegraphic address should be contained or diluted with water, whether
5. Contact person in emergency the material is reactive and whether evacuation of
6. Local bodies involved the surrounding area necessary. Hazchem No. of
7. Standard packing Sodium cyanide is 4X and that of Vinyl chloride is
8. Tremcard Details / Ref. 2WE.
9. Other
8. ADR No. : It is an Agreement concerning carriage
10. Disclaimer : of Dangerous goods by Road. This European
agreement was arrived at Geneva by 19 European
7.3 Interpretation and use of MSDS countries for the safety of international transport by
road. It deals with the classification of hazardous
substances, their packaging, loading and unloading,
For the better understanding and use of the Material
transportation and its equipment. It gives hazard
Safety Data Sheet, some terms are explained below :
identification numbers like UN hazard class
number. Their comparison is given below.
1. Formula (Chemical) : It is a symbolic
representation of a chemical entity or relationship
between elements, molecule and atoms. e.g. H 2 one
molecule of hydrogen, 2H2SO4 two molecules of Classification of Dangerous Goods by
sulphuric acid, H2O one molecule of water wherein UN Number ADR Number
there are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of 1 Explosives. 2 Emission of gas
oxygen. C6H6 benzene contains six atoms of carbons 2 Gases- Compressed, due to pressure
and six atoms of hydrogen in one molecule, group or
or ion. Thus by formula we can know the hazardous liquefied, dissolved due to chemical
ingredient of a chemical. under pressure or reaction.
deeply refrigerated. 3 Flammability of
2. Synonym : Indicates alternate name of a material. 3 Flammable liquids. liquids (vapours)
e.g. Dimethyl ketone or 2-Propanone for Acetone. 4 Flammable solids. and gases.
5 Oxidising 4 Flammability of
3. Trade Name : Commercial name of the product. substances or gases.
Organic Peroxides. 5 Oxidising (fire
4. Chemical Classification : General classification is 6 Poisonous (Toxic) or intensifying)
organic or inorganic. Hazardwise classification can Infectious effect.
be flammable, explosive, toxic or poisonous, substances. 6 Toxicity.
corrosive, reactive, infectious, oxidising, radioactive 7 Radioactive 8 Corrosivity.
etc. substances. 9 Risk of sponta-
8 Corrosive neous violent
5. CAS No. : It is Chemical Abstracts Service substances. reaction.
number to provide a single unique identifier with 9 Miscellaneous
naming the chemical. e.g. CAS No. for acetic acid is dangerous
64-19-7. It does not indicate the hazards of a substances.
material.
Doubling (repeating) of an ADR digit indicates
6. UN No. : It is United Nations four digit number increase of that particular hazard. Prefix ‘X’
assigned to potentially hazardous material (e.g. indicates that the substance can dangerously react
Ammonia UN No. 1005) or Class of material (e.g. with water. As an example ADR HIN (Hazard
corrosive liquids UN No. 1760). Identification No.) of Benzene is 33 (UN No. is 1114
and Hazchem No. is 3WE).
These numbers are internationally recognised
and used by emergency response personnel 9. Appearance, State, Odour : Appearance includes
(including ire fighters) to identify material during colour. State means physical state - solid, liquid or
transport emergencies. UN, Hazchem, NA and PIN gas. Odour indicates smell. Odour threshold is that
numbers have the same uses. minimum level (ppm) where the odour will start. If
odour threshold is lower than the permissible safe
7. Hazchem (EAC) No. : Hazchem (hazardous limit (e.g. TLV, STEL, IDLH or LC), the odour
chemical) Code or EAC (Emergency Action Code) is indicates the presence of gas and some safety
an emergency code confirmed by the Health & margin is available to run away or to take
Safety Executive, UK. It consists of a number (1 to 4) precautionary step. But if it is higher, the gas
followed by one or two letters and signifies type of a becomes toxic or hazardous before its odour starts
fire extinguisher required, type of personal and this condition is risky. In that event a reliable
protective equipment required, whether the spillage gas detector is useful. Sometimes odour is added to

14
detect the gas leakage e.g. addition of mercaptan in
domestic LPG. Ability to detect odour may vary
from person to person and may mislead if the other
odorous materials are simultaneously present.
10. Specific Gravity (water = 1) : It is the ratio of the
density of a material to the density of water (which
is 1 g/cc). Lighter material (Sp. gr. <1, e.g. benzene
0.88) will float and heavier material (Sp. gr. >1, e.g.
sulphuric acid 1.84) will sink. This information is
useful for spill or fire control.
11. Vapour Density (air = 1) : It is the vapour weight
per unit volume. In MSDS it is given as the ratio of
the density of a gas or vapour to the density of air.
The air density is 1.293 gm/l, but here it is
considered as 1 for easy comparison of gases.
Lighter gases (Vd<1, e.g. ammonia 0.59) will go up
(rise) in the air and heavier gases (Vd>1, e.g.
chlorine 2.49) will come down on the bottom. This
information is useful for ventilation design and
evacuation (emergency) activity.
12. Boiling Point : It is that temperature at which the
material changes from a liquid to a gas. Below this
point the liquid can evaporate to form vapour but at
the BP the change from liquid to vapour is faster.
This increases the vapour concentration and its
pressure. This condition poses higher risk of fire,
explosion or toxicity.
13. Thermal Decomposition Products : If the
material decomposes (breaks down) without
boiling, the temperature at which it decomposes is
given with the word ‘dec’. Some of the
decomposition products are hazardous. The thermal
decomposition products may be quite different from
the chemicals formed by burning the same material
(hazardous combustion products). Information
regarding thermal decomposition is useful to design
ventilation system where a material may be heated.
14. Hazardous Decomposition Products : They are
formed when a material decomposes (without
heating) because it is unstable or reacts with
common material like water or air (oxygen). This
information is useful to design storage and handling
procedures. For example, phosgene decomposes
into corrosive and toxic fumes of HCl and CO
because of heating or coming into contact of water
or steam. Here HCl and CO are hazardous
decomposition products.
15. Hazardous Combustion Products : These are the
chemicals which are formed when a material burns.
They may be toxic, flammable, smoke, carbon
particles or other hazards. Their amount varies
according to temperature and oxygen (air) available.
They may be different from the thermal
15
decomposition products. This information is useful
to decide the fire fighting material and procedure.
16. Melting Point : It is that temperature at which a
solid material melts and becomes a liquid. This
information is useful for storage and handling
purpose. A melted material may distort a container.
17. Freezing Point : It is that temperature at which a
liquid material freezes and becomes solid. This
information is useful for storage and handling
purpose. A frozen material may burst a container.
18. Vapour Pressure : It is the pressure (mm of Hg)
upon atmosphere of the vapour of a material at a
fixed temperature (e.g. 20 0C). Higher vapour
pressure indicates higher concentration and
therefore higher hazard due to fire or inhalation.
19. Solubility : It is the ability of a material to
dissolve in water or another liquid (solvent). It may
be expressed as a ratio or described by words like
insoluble, very soluble, sparingly soluble or
miscible. This information is useful to decide a
scrubbing media, spill control or fire fighting
material and procedure. Such solvent should not be
hazardous.
20. Scrubbing neutralising or inactivating media :
These are those materials (liquids) which dissolve or
react with the hazardous material (gas, liquid or
solid) to diminish its hazardous exposure e.g.
caustic, lime, water etc. If this is not possible, proper
absorbent may be used e.g. sand, sponge rubber etc.
See Part 8.5 and Table 18.6 of this Chapter and
Table-17 of Chapter-32 for scrubbers.
21. pH : It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity
(basicity) of a material when dissolved in water. It is
expressed in a scale from 0 to 14 as under :
pH 0-2 Strong acidic
3-5 Weak acidic
6-8 Neutral
9 - 11 Weak basic
12 - 14 Strong basic
This information is useful to select a
neutralising material for scrubbing or effluent
treatment or spill control.
22. Flash Point : It is the lowest temperature at
which a material gives off enough vapour near its
surface to form a flammable air vapour (gas)
mixture so that it can be ignited if a spark is
available. The lower flesh point indicates higher
hazard as it can cause fire at a lower temperature. It
is expressed as Closed Cup (CC) or Open Cup (OC).
CC value is slightly less than the OC value.
23. Autoignition Temperature : It is the lowest
temperature at which a material begins to burn in
air without any contact of spark or flame. During
heating if the material decomposes, the decomposed
chemical may auto-ignite at some other
temperature. Different test methods give different
auto-ignition temperatures for the same material.
Therefore this value is an estimate. The material
should be stored, processed or handled well below
its auto-ignition temperature to avoid the risk of self
fire or explosion.
Substances liable to spontaneous combustion
are those liable to spontaneous heating under
normal conditions or to heating up on contact with
air and being then liable to catch fire.
24. Flammable or Explosive Limits (LEL/UEL) :
The lowest concentration (percentage in air) of gas
or vapour which will burn or explode if ignited, is
called the Lower Explosive (or Flammable) Limit i.e.
LEL or LFL. The upper concentration (percentage in
air) of gas or vapour which will burn or explode if
ignited, is called the Upper Explosive (or
Flammable) Limit i.e. UEL or UFL. The range
between LEL and UEL is called the Explosive (or
Flammable) Range. The fire or explosion risk lies
within this range but not out of it. Below LEL the
gas-air mixture is too lean to ignite and above UEL
it is too rich to ignite.
However the concentration above UEL should
be considered dangerous as due to entrainment of
fresh air, it may be diluted and enter the explosive
range. Similarly after LEL if gas discharge is
continued in the same air, it can also enter the
explosive range. Thus explosive range can be
reached depending on flow of gas and air affecting
their concentration. Air and gas temperature may
also affect. Therefore the range should be
considered as approximate values. For gas/vapour
it is expressed in % of air (1% = 10,000 ppm) and for
powder in gm/m3 of air.
This information is useful to avoid the
conditions leading to the explosive range and to
ascertain it before allowing any person to enter any
vessel or confined space where such air-gas mixture
is suspected. Explosimeters are available to detect
this range. Detection should be of percentage of LEL
and all safety devices (alarms, controls, trips etc.)
should operate well below the LEL. Fire hazard
should be prevented at pre-determined percentage
of LEL.
25. TDG Flammability : Transport of Dangerous
Goods (TDG) classifies the materials according to
their flammability as under -
2.1 Flammable gas.
3 Flammable liquid (Subclasses 3.1,
3.2 and 3.3 based on flash point).
4.1 Flammable solid.
16
4.2 Spontaneously combustible
material.
4.3 Material which gives off a
flammable gas on contact with
water.
26. Explosion Data (Sensitivity) : It gives explosive
properties of a material e.g. low, moderate or high.
It gives two types of sensitivity :
Explosion Sensitivity to Impact - It indicates whether
or not the material will burn or explode on shock or
friction, and
Explosion Sensitivity to Static Electricity - It indicates
how readily the material can be ignited by an
electric spark or static discharge.
27. Explosive Material : An explosive material is
that material which can explode on impact or by
electric spark. Schedule-1 of Manufacture, Storage
and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989
defines ‘Explosives’ as those chemicals which
explode under the effect of flame, heat or photo-
chemical conditions or which are more sensitive to
shocks or friction than dinitrobenzene (old
definition) or pyrotechnic substance (firework) or
which is capable of producing gas at such
temperature, pressure and speed to cause damage to
surroundings or exothermic reaction by heat, light,
sound, gas, smoke or their combination (new
definition).
28. Combustible and Flammable Material :
Flammable solid, liquid or gas which can catch fire
and burn rapidly or explosively are flammable
materials.
The terms combustible and flammable both
indicates the ability of a material to burn. Any
material that will burn at any temperature is
combustible by definition. Flammable are a special
group of combustible materials that ignite easily
and burn rapidly. For example, NaCl, CCl 4 and CO2
are non-combustible while sugar, cellulose and
ammonia are combustible but non-flammable.
The more readily ignition occurs, the more
flammable the material, less easily ignited materials
are said to be combustible, but the line of
demarcation is difficult to decide.
Normally combustible liquids are classified as
those whose flash point is greater than 37.7 0C (100
0
F).
Flammable or Inflammable liquids are classified
under MSIHC Rules as (1) Extremely flammable –
having FP<230C and BP<350C (2) Very highly
flammable liquids – having FP<23 0C and BP>350C
(3) Highly flammable – having FP between 23 0C and
600C and (4) Flammable - having flash point
between 600C and 900C.
 Thus liquids having flash point between 37.7 0C
to 900C can be called combustible as well as
flammable, while those having flash point greater
than 900C should be called combustible.
Flammable liquids are extremely hazardous, as
they give off vapours at low temperature and these
vapours by travelling to a source of ignition can
cause flash back to the flammable liquid. It is
difficult to extinguish a burning flammable liquid
with water because water may not be able to cool
the liquid below its flash point.
Flammable gases (normally boiling point < 20 0C)
are equally hazardous as flammable vapours as
explained above. Confined flammable gases are
most dangerous. Flammable gases are also defined
as those which at 200C and at standard pressure of
101.3 KPa, have LEL 13% or less or a flammable
range of 12% or more regardless of the LEL.
Flammable solids can be ignited due to external
heat, flame, process heating by interaction with
water or other substances. Flammable solids are of
various types (1) Dusts or fine powders e.g.
cellulose, flour etc. (2) Spontaneously ignitable at
low temperature e.g. yellow phosphorous (3) Those
in which internal heat is built-up by microbial or
other degradation activity e.g. fish meal, wet
cellulosic material (4) Films, fibres and fabrics of
low-ignition point materials.
Flammable solids are readily combustible or
may cause or contribute to fire through friction or
which are liable to undergo a strong exothermic
reaction.
29. Corrosive Material : It can attack (corrode)
metals or human tissues such as skin or eyes.
Structure or metal container may become weak and
eventually collapse or leak. Skin, eyes or other body
parts can be badly affected (burning) by corrosive
materials. Acids, halogen gases, chlorides, caustic,
phenol etc. are corrosive.
30. Hazardous Polymerisation : A polymer is a
natural or man-made material formed by combining
units called monomers, into long chains. e.g. styrene
is the monomer for polystyrene.
Polymerisation is the process of forming a
polymer by combining monomers into long chains.
Uncontrolled polymerisation can be hazardous, as it
can cause heat, pressure or explosion. Some
chemicals can polymerise on their own without
warming, others upon contact with water, air or
common chemicals. Vinyl chloride rapidly
polymerises in presence of light, air or heat.
Therefore polymerising conditions should be
controlled properly. Inhibitors(negative catalysts or
compounds that retard or stop an undesired
chemical reaction such as polymerisation, oxidation,
corrosion etc.) are normally added to products to
reduce or eliminate the possibility of hazardous
polymerisation.
17
31. Pyrophoric Material : Any liquid or solid that
will ignite spontaneously in air at about 54.4 0C (130
0
F). Titanium dichloride and phosphorous are
examples of pyrophoric solids, tributylaluminium
and related compounds are pyrophoric liquids.
Sodium, butyllithium and lithium hydride are
spontaneously flammable in moist air as they react
exothermically with water. Such materials must be
stored in inert gas or under kerosene. Some alloys
(barium, misch metal) are called pyrophoric because
they spark when slight friction is applied.
Pyrotechnic materials mean fireworks.
Catalysts of pyrophoric material which can
burn in normal air, are replaced in the atmosphere
of nitrogen blanketing. The workers have to wear
self-breathing apparatus while doing such job,
because in the atmosphere of about 90% nitrogen,
oxygen is insufficient for breathing.
32. Oxidiser and Peroxide : It is a compound that
spontaneously evolves oxygen either at room
temperature or under slight heating. Oxidisers
include peroxides, chlorates, perchlorates, nitrates
and permanganates. These can react vigorously at
ambient temperatures when stored near or in
contact with reducing materials (that will remove
oxygen or add hydrogen) such as cellulosic and
other organic compounds. Storage areas should be
well ventilated and kept as cool as possible.
Peroxides release atomic (nascent) oxygen
readily. They pose fire hazards in contact with
combustible materials, especially under high
temperature conditions. They are used as oxidising
agents, bleaching agents and initiators of
polymerisation.
Oxidizing substances are not necessarily
combustible in themselves but by giving oxygen
they contribute to combustion of other materials.
Organic Peroxides contain bivalent 0-0-structure,
are thermally unstable and may undergo exothermic
self-accelerating decomposition.
33. Chemical Stability : A stable compound does
not easily decompose or react readily. Chemical
stability is the ability of a material to remain
unchanged in the presence of heat, moisture or air.
An unstable compound may decompose,
polymerise, burn or explode under normal
environmental conditions. Special precautions are
required to store or handle unstable materials. For
examples, CS2 decomposes in light and burns due to
heat, spark, flame or friction and gives off toxic
fumes of SOx. Caprolectum liberates NOx fumes
due to heating. TNT explodes due to heavy shock or
by heating. Thus conditions disturbing stability
must be known.
34. Incompatibility : Compatibility means the
ability of two or more materials to exist in close and
permanent association indefinitely. Liquids and
solids are compatible if the solid is soluble in the
liquid. Water is compatible with alcohol (because it
is miscible) but not with gasoline (e.g. petrol).
Incompatibility means disability to co-exist
permanently. Therefore incompatible materials
should not be stored or kept together. For example,
toluene reacts violently with some acids, plastic or
rubber, therefore, these substances should be kept
away.
Incompatible materials can cause a fire,
explosion, toxic release, violent reaction,
polymerisation or destroy the structure or function
of a product. This information is useful for storage
and handling purposes.
35. Reactivity : Two or more chemicals can react
with each other and give reaction products. e.g. 2H 2
+ O2 = 2H2O. A single chemical can react with air or
water (which are also chemicals) and give the
product. e.g. phosphorous burns in air and gives its
oxides (P2O3, P2O5), sulphur burns and gives SO2 etc.
Reactions are exothermic when they evolve heat
and are endothermic when they need heat to maintain
them. A reversible reaction is one in which the
reaction product is unstable and goes back to the
original substance spontaneously.
In MSDS we are concerned with the hazardous
reaction or reactive material which can cause fire,
explosion, toxic release or violent reaction with air,
water or common chemicals or under
environmental conditions. Phosphorous, CS 2,
Sodium metal, acids (reactive with metals) etc. are
known for their reactivity. This information is
useful for storage, handling and process safety
purposes.
36. Hazardous Reaction Products : These must be
known for the safety of process, workers and
environment. Here products are more important
than the reaction because of their hazardous nature.
e.g. Chlorine reacts with alcohol and forms
explosive alkyl hypochlorite. If toxic fumes are to be
generated, scrubbers are required, if flammable
vapours are generated, inert gas blanketing is
required and earthing of the vessel also becomes
necessary. If reaction products are highly poisonous
like NaCN, HCN etc., they are to be handled in a
closed system.
37. Health Hazard Data : For TLV, STEL, IDLH,
LD/LC etc. see Part 6.8, for routes of entry see Part
6.6, for effects of exposure see Part 6.7, for
engineering controls see Part 6.12.2 and for health
hazards see Part 6.1, all of Chapter-24.
For emergency and first aid treatment and
antidotes see Chapter-26, for fire and NFPA
(National Fire Protection Association of USA) Code
see Part 4.4 of Chapter-13, for ventilation see
18
Chapter 10 and for personal protective equipment
see Chapter-25.
TLV and STEL are given in 2 nd Schedule of the
Factories Act. LD50 and LC50 are given in 1st Schedule
of the MSIHC Rules for the purpose of major
accident hazard. LD50 for insecticides are given in
Rule 19 of the Insecticide Rules for labelling
purpose. Lower these values, higher the toxicity.
LD50 up to 200 mg/kg and LC50 up to 10 mg/l can
cause major hazard. By local exhaust ventilation
toxic gas, dust or vapour must be captured and
effective PPE must be worn by the workers. Above
STEL, SBA is desirable.
38. Tremcard : Transport Emergency Cards are to be
given to the drivers carrying dangerous goods for
emergency information which may be needed at any
time during journey. The cards contain short
information on nature of chemical, hazards
involved, protective devices, emergency action for
fire, spillage, leakage, first-aid etc.
See Part 2.39 of Chapter-28.
7.4 Safety Precautions, Supervision and
Medical Examinations
A sample guideline is as under : The dangers of
working with chemical substances can be reduced to
a minimum by observing certain simple basic rules :
7.4.1General Safety Precautions:
1. Gaseous, liquid or solid chemical substances
whose properties are not fully known should be
treated as dangerous and handled very carefully.
2. Avoid contact with chemical substances.
Chemicals should always be handled
mechanically or with protective equipment.
Containers and implements which can be
contaminated with chemicals should be handled
wearing gloves. In special cases, additional
protective measures will be utilised.
3. Cleanliness is a basic requirement for safe
working with chemicals. Emission of dust,
vapours and gases, and the spillage of liquids
and solids can be largely eliminated by careful
working. Local ventilation installations must be
used. Implements should be cleaned
immediately after use.
4. Chemical substances should always be used
exactly according to the written procedure.
Anyone deviating from the procedure on his
own responsibility is a danger to himself and
others.
5. Chemicals should only be used when the drums,
sacks, containers or pipelines containing them
are clearly labelled. Ensure that the product
name and delivery number on the drums and on
the delivery note coincide. Though appearance
alone is no guarantee of correct identity, a visual
check should be made. In case of doubt, or when
a mix-up has actually occurred, a report must be
made immediately.
6. Many highly reactive chemicals may only be
used under strictly controlled conditions. For
substances which react violently with water, the
water contact should be avoided.
7. Substances which decompose dangerously under
the influence of air, elevated temperature, impact
or pressure, or contact with catalysts,
appropriate safety measures contained in the
written procedure should be followed. Dry at
low temperature. Release the vacuum in vacuum
dryers with an inert gas instead of air. Do not
open the drier before room temperature has been
attained. Release the vacuum in vacuum
distillations with an inert gas. Expose distillation
residues to the air only when cold. Handle and
store catalysts only under the specially defined
conditions. Prevent compounds which are
particularly prone to decomposition (e.g. certain
diazo-compounds) from drying out (leaks,
splashes).
8. Substances which ignite spontaneously e.g.
white phosphorous, pyrophoric catalysts etc.
should be handled under an inert gas or liquid.
Where necessary wear special protective
clothing. Keep the prescribed means of
extinguishing on hand.
9. Prevent the possibility of dangerous
combinations. Follow the written procedure
precisely. When preparing work, ensure
complete separation of compounds which are
dangerous when mixed.
10. Not only actual explosives, but also numerous
widely used chemicals can explode when
exposed to catalysts, heat or impact. Examples :
acetylene and derivatives, acetyl nitrate, acrylic
acid and its esters, ethylene oxide, azides,
azomethane, peroxides, chlorates, perchlorates,
cyanogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, hydrazine
derivatives, ozonides, propargyl alcohol and
other propargyl compounds, hydrogen azide etc.
The handling of such compounds is governed by
special safety measures, which are to be found in
the written procedures.
11. Chemicals which are spilled or contaminated
should not be simply discarded in the refuse bin,
but disposed of according to instruction from the
supervisor.
12. The quantities of chemicals stored in a chemical
plant at any time should be kept to the minimum
required for normal working.
13. Before starting any process, its raw materials,
their properties (MSDS), chemical equation, its
working temperature and pressure, flow or
addition rate, type of vessel and its safety
fittings, emergency controls, planning and
procedure, evolution of any gas, complete
reaction document, how it can go wrong and
what could be its consequence, type of
ventilation, electric fitting, personal protective
equipment required, trips and alarms, safe close
19
down procedure etc. must be known and
studied.
7.4.2 Supervision by Qualified Supervisors
7.4.3 Medical Examinations and Health Records
7.5 Information to workers and others :
Such information u/r 68K requires:
A] Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) as per
R68Q, in respect of every hazardous substance
handled in the manufacture, transportation
and storage in the factory. Their location and
availability to the workers.
B] List of hazardous processes carried on in the
factory.
C] Physical and health hazards arising from the
exposure to or handling of substances.
D] Safety and control measures taken for above
hazards.
E] Measures to be taken by the workers to ensure
safe handling, storage and transportation of
hazardous substances.
F] PPE to be used by the workers.
G] Meaning of lables and markings on the
containers.
H] Signs and symptoms likely to be manifested on
exposure to hazardous substances and to
whom to report.
I] Measures to remove spillage or leakage of
hazardous substances.
J] Role of the workers in the emergency plan
and evacuation procedures.
K] Any other information necessary to ensure
safety and health of workers.
4. Quantity of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes
generated per day, their characteristics and
methods of their treatment and disposal [S.41-
B(3) & R.68P].
1. On-site Emergency Plan and safety measures
required to be taken [S.41-B(4)]. This requires a
separate document.
2. Health Records should be made available to the
workers [R.68R].
Such information shall be reviewed and revised by the
occupiers to make them up-to-date [S.7A(3) &
R.68M].
Above provisions create a need of SAFETY
MANUAL so that such useful information for
workers are properly documented and given to them
for their daily use, emergency use and training. It is
legally required to be furnished to the workers u/r
68K and to the Chief Inspector u/r 68L with any
modification if necessary u/r 68M.
Thus Safety Manual becomes a basic (statutory) need and teflon
for a hazardous factory. 11 Urea autoclave SS
12 Oleum Steel tower
Prepare your Manual to include all above 13 HCl Teflon,
information in details. Also include other Steel rubber lined
information depending on the specific nature of - concentrated at PTEE and porcelin
your factory and necessary according to the expert’s 30 0C
advice.
14 HNO 3 – aqueous SS
7.6 Hazard communication system - concentrated Aluminium or
including Safety & Risk Phrases Chromium alloys
(Cr>18% for cold
acid)
- concentrated at High silicon iron,
8 STORAGE HAZARDS AND 100 0C Kel-F
CONTROLS 15 H2SO4 – to absorb Packed steel tower
SO3 lined with acid-
Mainly three types of vessels are used in industry. proof bricks
Storage vessels, Reaction vessels and Pressure - pipes for 95% Cast Iron
vessels. Their safety aspect is discussed in brief - pipe for dilute Lead
below : - upto 60 0C Lead lined vessel,
-- Teflon, polythene
16 HCl absorber made Karbate
8.1 Material of Construction and Lining: of
17 SO3 absorber Chemical stoneware
The first step toward controlling vessel hazards is 18 Ammonia
the proper selection of construction of material for - anhydrous MS
the vessel depending on the type of chemical to be - liquid, Steel container
stored or processed, chemistry of that chemical in shipment
relation to the material of vessel, type of use, 19 Fruit juices, milk Nickel
durability required etc. Some information is given in and milk products
Table 18.4 & 18.5. 20 CCl4 SS, tin, high silicon
iron (14% Si)
Table 18.4 : Suitability of Materials 21 Alkaline solution Nickel
No. Storage or Process Suitable Material 22 Pressure vessel Molybdenum SS
1 Caustic soda Monel (alloy of operating at 500
solution 50% nickel and copper) atm and 500 0C
2 Brine (15% -do- 23 To pump caustic Rubber lined pumps
concentration) soda, chlorinated
3 Brine, saturated Concrete tank brine or
4 Chlorination of Lead or glass hypochlorous acid
Benzene 24 Rotary dryers MS
5 Polymerisation Stainless steel or 25 Gobar gas plant
reactor to produce glasslined vessel - digester Masonry well
styrene butadiene - gas holder MS
rubber (SBR) 26 Coke oven
6 Evaporator tubes Nickel - wall lining Silica bricks
for concentrating - regenerators Fire clay bricks
NaOH solution to 27 Fermentor to Copper bearing steel
70% produce ethyl
7 Caustic Soda Steel, Nickel alcohol from
(NaOH) molasses
8 Lining of rotary High alumina and 28 Reactor to produce Nickel or glass lined
kiln in cement high magnesia bricks PVC steel
industry 29 Tubes for multiple Copper
9 Digestor of kraft SS effect evaporator
paper mill for concentration of
10 Chlorine sugarcane juice
– Dry Iron or steel, copper 30 Ceramic Silicon carbide
– Dry or wet High silicon iron, recuperators
silicon rubber, Kel-F 31 Protection from GI sheet

20
 rusting 8.2 Storage Vessels and their Safety
32 Fluorine, dry Copper vessel Aspects:
Storage vessels are used to contain chemicals in
bulk. Storage tanks to contain 10 tonnes to 10000
Table 18.5 : Non Suitability of Materials tonnes material are constructed. Oil refineries,
No. Storage or Process Non Suitable petrochemical plants or fertiliser plants have even
Material bigger tanks also. If such tank leaks, breaks or
1 H2SO4 caught in fire, a great hazard is possible. Bhopal
- 50 % Aluminium, MS, SS, tragedy was also arose from a storage tank of
concentration tin, concrete methyl isocyanate. When a fire, explosion or gas
- 100% at 30 0C Aluminium, tin, leak takes place from a bulk quantity, tremendous
rubber efforts are required to control the situation and save
2 HCl 10%, Ferrous Aluminium loss to people, property and environment.
Sulphate,
Therefore safety of storage tanks needs highest
Aquaregia
attention. Some main points are mentioned below –
3 HCl – concentrated High Silicon cast
iron (Si 14%)
The main types of storage are :
4 Wet SO2 CI vessel
5 H2SO4 – 95% or Silicon rubber
1. Liquid at atmospheric pressure and temperature
Ether
(i.e. ambient condition).
6 Fluorine, dry or Glass
2. Liquefied gas under pressure and atmospheric
wet
temperature.
7 HCl, SO2, Cl2 Wood
3. Gas under pressure and
8 Alkaline solutions Centrifugal pump of
4. Refrigerated storage of liquids at low
pyrex or glass
temperature (e.g. ammonia).
9 HF aqueous at 100 SS
0
C
8.2.1 Safe Design and Maintenance :
10 Acetic acid 40 0C Brass, CI, MS, Tin
After studying the properties of the material to
11 Atmospheric Iron
be stored, proper selection of the material of
corrosion (slow
construction, metal thickness, design, nozzles,
oxidation)
connections, pipe lines, fittings, valves, pumps,
Section 28 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers’
lining, coating, jacketing, insulation, cladding etc.
Handbook (7th ed., 1997) is also useful for
and colour coding are necessary. Table 18.6 gives
materials of construction.
some of such information :

Table 18.6 : Safety of Storage Tanks

No. Chemical Metal of Dyke Level Pressure Safety Vent, Transfer
the Tank / gauge & Valve, Scrubber, Pump
bund Temper Ruptu Flare etc.
ature re
gauge Disc
1 Sulphuric MS Yes Float No No Simple vent Centri-fugal
acid
2 Hydro- MSRL or “ “ “ “ Vent with “
chloric acid FRP water scrubber
3 Nitric acid “ “ “ “ Vent with “
54% MS, low caustic
carbon scrubber
98% Aluminiu
m
4 Alkali MS “ “ “ “ Simple vent “
5 Oleum MS “ Dial “ “ Vent in Submersi-ble
23% 65% meter sulphuric acid or centrifugal
tank
6 Formaldehy MS “ Float or Yes Yes Vent with Centri-fugal
de 37% Dial water scrubber
7 Ammonia (P Steel “ Magnetic " Yes, Vent at height Pressure
7 to 12 bar) (double float, double or water
wall for differenti Safety scrubber

21
 refrigerate al Valve
d storage) pressure,
with
alarm
8 Chlorine (P MS “ “ Yes, “ Vent with Dry air
7 to 11 bar) double, caustic or lime pressure
with scrubber or
high, low flare
alarm
9 LPG (P 2 to High No. Dial Yes Yes Vent with flare Pressure
7 bar) tensile Slope gauge
steel and
fence
10 Flammable MS Yes Close Yes if Yes if Vent with Centri-fugal
liquid/ (SS for float or stored inert flame arrester
solvent Methanol) Dial or cold blanke or breather
DP ting valve

Outlet valve should be kept on side wall
instead under the bottom to facilitate repairing and
maintenance. Emergency bypass system should be
kept ready.
To prevent escape of bulk storage remote
operated isolation valve should be provided near
outlet valve, drain point, filling point, pumps
suction etc.
Non return valves (NRV) are useful to prevent
reverse flow and excess flow valve (EFV) to prevent
excess flow. If they are not fully reliable, shut off
valves should be provided at critical service.
Tendency of purchasing second hand or old-
repaired (fabricated with patchwork and welding)
tank or vessel and to fit it to new requirement is an
unsafe practice.
For corrosion prevention, tanks and pipelines
should be coloured with anti-corrosive paints.
Before painting, corroded portion should be tested
and replaced. See Part 9.6 for details.
See Part 7.3.2 of Chapter-9 for colour coding of
pipelines.
8.2.2 Notice of Identification :
A notice indicating the name of the chemical
stored, tank capacity (tonnes or litres) and some
important properties (e.g. Sp. gravity, Vapour
density, Boiling point, Flesh point, LEL-UEL, TLV
and Solubility) should be displayed on or near the
tank. It should be clearly and easily visible and in
the language understood by the workers.
8.2.3 Dyke or Bund :
This is required to restrict the spread of the
leaking material, to safely contain within its
periphery and to restrict the surface area of the
leaking material in order to reduce its evaporation
and for ease of fire fighting or other emergency
control activity. The contained material can be
safely disposed off or if it is burning, it can be
extinguished easily by reaching upto dyke wall. If
there is no dyke (or bund) the leaking material can
come on the road or go in the plant and make more
damage.
By partition walls in dyke, reactive chemicals
or chemicals of different flash points can be kept
segregated.
Dyke wall should be safe, sound and leakproof.
Its floor should have a slope with a pit in corner to
provide a discharge valve which should be opened
only when the rain water or the stored (leaked)
chemical is to be safely discharged. The volume of
the dyke should be slightly more than the biggest
tank inside. Wall height should be less than 2 mt
(mostly 1 mt) for ease of fire fighting and
maintenance work. Steps should be provided to go
inside. Acidproof lining should be provided where
required.
Dyke is always required if the liquid is stored
at the atmospheric or low pressure and temperature.
Refrigerated chemical when leaks, it remains liquid
till it reaches its boiling point. Therefore dyke is
required for it. e.g. refrigerated ammonia.
For highly volatile gases or gases at high
pressure, dyke is not much useful and wire fencing
is provided at a safe distance. For example, LPG,
NGL, butane, butadiene, propane, ethane, methane,
ethylene, ethylene oxide, hydrogen, acetaldehyde
etc. are kept under vapour pressure where at the
time of leakage, they spread rapidly and therefore
their tanks are kept in open at a safe distance with
fencing on four sides. The floor under such tank is
given a slope so that dripping liquid may run away
to avoid fire just underneath the tank.
While opening dyke discharge valve of a
flammable material, spark should be avoided
otherwise fire can travel inside the dyke and catch
the tank.
Where possibility of explosion is there, impact
or blast wall (thick, sound) should be provided near
the tank.
8.2.4 Separation Distances :
Some recommen-dations are available to keep
minimum safe distance, known as ‘separation

22
distance’, between two tanks or between two groups
of tanks or between a tank and a building or
between a tank and a source of ignition. Based on
radiant heat from the burning liquid or fire spread
by vapour (VCE or BLEVE) such distances are
prescribed. Normally a 15 m and 30 m distances are
suggested. But based on the tank capacity this
distance is variable. In a congested area, it is
difficult to maintain such distance.
See Part 5 of Chapter-7 for separation distances.
8.2.5 Tests :
Tanks should be erected after considering its
static load (as if fully filled), wind load, factor of
safety and other allowances and testing the soil for
its bearing capacity and making the foundation
accordingly.
The underground tanks should be erected in
underground RCC sump so that their leakage
cannot pollute the soil or underground water.
The tanks which are not pressure vessels
should be tested for its water load (static) test by
filling it fully with water and observing any
subsidence or damage.
The tanks which are pressure vessels, should be
tested as per statutory provisions, its design Code
and Standards or recommended by the
manufacturer. See Part 9.4.4 following.
Periodicity of test should be decided after
considering material to be filled, its properties,
storing parameters (pressure, temperature, flow,
vibration etc.), heating/cooling, method of use, rate
of corrosion and type and thickness of metal. Its
condition monitoring is most essential. See IS:2825
also.
When tanks are tested, its fittings should also
be tested and replaced if necessary.
Major causes of material or equipment failure
are as under which need to be periodically tested :
1. Suitability (compatibility) of the material of
construction (e.g. metal, plastic, lining etc.) with
chemical. It can be checked by a metascope. See
Table 18.4 & 18.5.
2. Mechanical failure due to excessive stress.
3. Mechanical fatigue and shock.
4. Thermal fatigue and shock.
5. Brittle failure due to cold liquid.
6. Creep due to plastic deformation and rupture.
7. Hydrogen attack due to atomic or molecular
hydrogen generated by corrosion. Alloyed steels
(with Cr, Mo etc.) are useful to mitigate
hydrogen attack.
8. Corrosion by water or corrosive chemicals. See
Part 9.6 for details.
Before testing or allowing welding, cutting or
repairing, the tanks should be thoroughly cleaned
and purged by inert gas if it was containing any
23
flammable material. It should be made gas free if it
was containing any toxic or flammable gas. Testing
equipment should be safely utilised and a safety
work permit should be followed. Oxygen content
should also be measured. Top, bottom and side
nozzles should be opened and free ventilation
should be allowed. First it should be externally
examined for manual checks and then it may be
hydraulically or pressure tested. Test record should
be maintained.
8.2.6 Pump-transfer :
Liquid should be transferred by pump and not
by any air pressure or truck-engine exhaust.
Submersible pump at the top is more safe as it
avoids the bottom valves and joints. Pressurised
gases are transferred by their own pressure.
Earthing of the tank, pump-motor and the truck-
body are essential. Bonding on pipe-flanges are
necessary. Flange-guards divert leakage downward.
8.2.7 Vent Pipe :
While filling a tank air has to come out. A vent
pipe at the top is required for this purpose. It is also
useful to depressurise the vessel before opening it.
Its diameter should be sufficient for easy escape of
the air. Vent pipe may have a bend or roof to
prevent outside thing (rain, bird etc.) going inside.
Vent pipe should have wire mesh, flame arrester or
breather valve if any flammable content is in the
tank. They should be kept clean to avoid choking.
Normally flame arrester is suggested when the
flash point of the content is below 23 0C. When
explosive air mixture with vapour pressure is inside
the tank, breather valve and flame arrester both are
required. Flame arrester will disallow any spark to
enter inside. The breather valve will inhale air when
inside pressure will drop (due to vapour cooling)
and exhale vapour when inside pressure will exceed
the set pressure (due to pressure rising). Thus
breather valve prevents continuous vapour
discharge (evaporation) and loss of the content.
Vent with breather valve or safety valve is
required when the boiling point of the content is
below atmospheric temperature. When the content
is flammable, nitrogen blanketing is necessary
otherwise inhalation of the breather valve will take
air inside which may form explosive air mixture. To
avoid such situation, large diameter tank has a
floating roof just floating on the surface of the liquid
(flammable), thus disallowing any airgap.
Vent cooler (condenser cools the vent content
and sends the liquid back to the vessel or receiver
(e.g. methylene chloride).
Vent heater or pipe tracing (i.e. small diameter
limpet steam pipe or coil is required to heat the
content which can freeze on cooling (at ambient
temperature) e.g. phthalic anhydride.
 If the gas or vapour is toxic or corrosive, vent is
connected with an appropriate scrubber, flare or
incinerator.
If a flammable material is to be filled in a tank
an inert gas (e.g. N2) purging is required before
filling the material and inert gas blanketing after
filling the material.
Where there is a possibility of vent choking due
to sublimation or polymerisation of the content
inside, instead of vent pipe, safety valve or other
device is necessary.
Where vacuum is required in the vessel,
ventpipe is connected with a vacuum pump, ejector
or a ventury system to provide suction. Such vapour
being sucked is if toxic, it should be connected to a
scrubber, if organic solvent, it should be connected
with condenser and receiver and if flammable
or/and toxic, it should be connected with flare or
incinerator.
In transferring pressurised gases like chlorine,
ammonia, LPG, open vent is not possible and it is
connected as a return line in a closed circuit and the
vent valve is closed after filling up the tank.
8.2.8 Overflow Pipe :
For the overfilling safety a safe overflow pipe is
required. Its diameter should be slightly more than
the inlet pipe diameter so that the overflow will be
maintained if inlet flow is continued. If the diameter
of the overflow pipe is smaller than that of the inlet
pipe, continuing overflow may reach upto the top
(may enter the vent) and damage the tank if the
pressure is excessive. Connection of the overflow
pipe should be 2 to 3 inch below the roof joint so
that the material will come out (overflow) leaving
some air space under the roof and the tank will
never be subjected to the filling pressure. The
overflow pipe should be extended upto bottom to
disallow any free fall of the material and to
discharge it in the dyke or any container safely.
If the liquid is fuming or contains less toxic or
less flammable vapour it should have a valve or a
bend with water sealing arrangement (if water is
permissible) so that during normal condition
vapour will not come out from the overflow pipe.
The valve will be open only at the time of filling and
closed when the filling is over. HCl vapour should
be passed (scrubbed) in water and oleum vapour
(SO3) in sulphuric acid.
In process area, an overflow pipe of a
measuring tank or day tank should be connected
with a return line to the storage tank or some other
container for safe discharge.
Tanks of pressurised gases or highly toxic or
highly flammable material in bulk may not have
overflow pipe. Instead, they will have high (safe)
level alarm and feed pump trip device to stop the
feed pump automatically at that level. Huge tanks
(more than 1000 tonnes) have H (high) and HH
(high-high) level alarms i.e. double alarms for
24
double warning before reaching the highest level.
Low level alarm is necessary where minimum level
must be maintained. At that level the feed pump
should automatically start.
The level alarm and feed-trip device (interlock)
is a substitute of overflow pipe but if this device
fails, an accident is possible. A simple overflow pipe
is a safer engineering control. However the
judgement depends on many other factors (e.g. type
and quantity of material, storing parameters, flow,
hazard, other safety, instrumentation and control
etc.) and technical requirements.
8.2.9 Filling Ratio :
A tank should not be filled beyond its filling ratio
(Rf) given as under -
D15 - Dr 95
C= Rf =
Dr (Tm - 15) 1 + C (Tm- Tf)
Where
C = Coefficient of cubical expansion of liquid
D15 = Density of liquid at 15 0C
Dr = Density of liquid at Tm
Tm = Maximum bulk temperature 0C
Tf = Filling temperature (mean) 0C
Filling ratio or filling density is legally defined
as the ratio of the weight of the material (liquid or
gas) to the weight of the water that the tank will
hold at 15 0C (See part 2.12 of Chapter-28).
8.2.10 Level Indicator :
The quantity (measure) of the material in the
tank should be externally visible so that its excessive
(unsafe) filling can be avoided, minimum low level
can be maintained and an order for next
requirement can be placed.
An old manual method is to measure the level
by a dip-rod (calibrated yardstick) inserting it from
the top of the tank. This may be allowed for small or
medium size tanks (upto 10 or 20 tonnes as in case
of rail or road tankers). If the content is flammable,
the rod should be non-metallic or it should pass
through non-sparking lining of the hole (nozzle) to
avoid spark while moving the rod. Dip rod system
requires a worker to climb on the top of a tank and
that is its disadvantage. But it gives correct
measurement, not subjected to any instrumental
error and that is its advantage. The Excise and
Prohibition Department insists this dip-rod
measurement probably due to this reason (they are
more concerned with the excise duty i.e. money,
connected with the quantity of a prohibited
material).
From safety point of view, presence of a person
on the top of a hazardous tank should be avoided.
Now a days many types of level indicators are
available. Simple glass tube (like water level
gauges), float, magnetic, differential pressure,
displacer, oscillator, electric, electronic and
computerised control (from a control room) type
direct reading level indicators are available in
variety and they can be interlocked with other
requirements also. They should be selected as per
need depending on the type of content to be
measured (e.g. sp. gravity, viscosity, colour,
pressure, temperature, flow, fluctuations etc.)
Like pressure and temperature indicator,
reliability (quality) of a level indicator is equally
important, otherwise it may lead to an error and
accident. Therefore it should be ensured while
purchasing.
8.2.11 Pressure Relief Devices :
If pressure inside a tank rises due to any
reason, it may burst the tank from its weakest part
or cause leakage from where it is possible. The
content thus coming out is a material loss and in
addition, it may create fire, explosion or toxic
hazard. Therefore to avoid such situation a pressure
relief device is necessary.
A safety valve is a common pressure relief
device. It can be set to a predetermined (desired)
pressure and when pressure exerted on it exceeds
that pre-set value, it automatically opens and allows
the pressure to release in the atmosphere or in a
catch-pot or drowning tank if the content coming
out is hot or hazardous. It automatically closes
down also, after release of the excess pressure.
Safety valves are of four types - spring loaded,
weight lever, solenoid and pilot. Safety valves are
used to release gas or vapour but not the liquid.
A Rupture Disc is required for the fast release
or more flow from a bigger size hole or if internal
pressure is too high or too rapid or the material is
sticky and chokes the safety valve. This disc is
selected based on many parameters (e.g. type of
chemical, working pressure, temperature, reaction,
material of the tank, viscosity, corrosivity, toxicity
and flammability of the content etc.) One disc can be
used for one pressure i.e. its set-pressure cannot be
changed like safety valve, and after rupture the
same disc cannot be reused. Once opened, it cannot
reset at the lowered pressure like safety valve, and
will allow the whole mass to come out till the hole is
closed or the disc is replaced. This is its
disadvantage. Therefore, it is inadvisable on tanks
containing flammable gases or liquids. Rupture disc
can be used in conjunction with a safety or relief
valve. Then the disc will burst first without affecting
the valve. If pressure is further built up, then the
valve will open. Pressure gauge is provided
between the disc and the valve to indicate that the
disc has opened and what is the bursting pressure.
Imperfections in manufacture, installation or caused
by corrosion can result in premature failure of the
disc. The rupture discs are used to release gas,
vapour or liquid.
Relief valves do not full open at set pressure like
safety valve, but open slightly and then open further
25
as the pressure increases. They are of two types -
spring loaded or power actuated by electric, air,
steam or hydraulic power activated by a pressure
sensor in upstream of the valve. Manually operated
relief valves (like vent valve) are also possible but
they are to be operated after seeing the pressure in
the pressure gauge or after hearing an alarm. Relief
valves are used for liquid discharge and not for gas
or vapour.
Safety-relief valves can be used either as a safety
valve or a relief valve, depending on the
application. They are used for gas, vapour and
liquids.
Fusible plug is a fitting filled with an alloy that
melts at a predetermined temperature (not pressure)
and gives way to the material to come out. Fusible
plugs are used in boilers, domestic pressure cookers
and compressed gas cylinders to prevent violent
bursting. They are used for gas, vapour and liquids
of high temperature.
Fire or Explosion Relief is provided by making
the seam between the shell and the roof of the tank
deliberately weak so that it may rupture first and
the shell stays intact.
Vacuum breaker is also a type of pressure relief
device and works like a spring loaded safety or
relief valve but in the reversed direction. The
outside atmospheric air pressure being higher than
that inside the vessel, opens it to break the vacuum.
This is required when the vacuum may increase to
collapse the vessel. This device is used for air only.
Thus a relevant pressure relief device can be
selected from above discussion. Double Safety
Valves are required for bulk storage tanks of
chlorine, ammonia, LPG, ethylene oxide etc., for the
purpose of double safety. In that case there should
be slight difference in their pressure settings so that
functioning of both the valves can be verified by
their one by one opening or no need arising to
functioning by the second valve as the first opened
safety valve works efficiently.
Where two or more safety valves are provided,
their isolation valves are also provided to replace
them while keeping at least one on the line. In such
case, isolation valves on the line should be kept
‘locked open’ so that they cannot be closed
unknowingly or without authority.
If addition is controlled, pressure can also be
controlled. In nitration process addition of nitric
acid should be at a slow or controlled rate,
otherwise rapid pressure rise can burst the vessel.
Safety valve may not be useful in that event. An
efficient flow controller (automatic regulator) or an
excess flow valve with a niddle valve (for fine
control) should be utilised in such condition, along
with the pressure relief device.
It is better and safer to keep the pressure under
control by controlling heat source, temperature or
the rate of reaction.
1.2.12. Flameproof Fittings :
Electric fittings like motors, starters, switches,
lamps, tubes etc., near the storage tanks containing
flammable materials (see foregoing Part 7.3 for
definition) should be of approved flameproof types
and conforming to Indian Standards like 2148, 4691,
5571, 5780, 7693, 8239, 8240 etc.
Flameproof electric fitting is most essential if
the material is having flash point less than 23 0C or if
it is to be heated upto or above its boiling point, and
also in case of solvent distillation. See Part 8 of
Chapter 11 and Part 6.4 of Chapter 13. Other sources
of ignition from welding, cutting, open flame,
smoking, sparking, friction etc. should also be
avoided.
8.2.13 Earthing & Bonding :
Tanks and piping containing flammable
substance should have double earthings of
appropriate type. Earthing pit should be recharged
periodically for easy flow of the current. Resistance
should be measured (below 10 K-ohm) and
recorded. IS:3043 is useful for earthing code. Filling
(inlet) pipe should be extended upto bottom or an
inner limpet coil should be provided to avoid free
fall and static charge due to material flow.
Pipe joints/flanges should have copper
bonding to maintain electric continuity. Flange-
guard is useful to divert the leakage downwards.
While loading or unloading flammable liquids
or gases, the vehicle (road or rail tanker) should also
be earthed during such operation.
8.2.14 Protective Media :
Low-boiling chemicals (e.g. Methyl bromide,
ethylene oxide, ethylamine), toxic gases (e.g.
chlorine, phosgene, HCN, NH3) or polymerising
materials (e.g. MIC, styrene, acrylonitrile) should be
kept below their boiling point/flash point. For this
purpose either underground tank or insulation, or
jacket and brine circulation, or refrigeration, or
water showering etc. are employed. Brine and
refrigerant gases are protective cooling media.
Chemicals of higher melting point (e.g. phthalic
anhydride, dinitro benzene, naphthalene) are to be
kept hot above their melting point for their easy
flow in liquid state. For this purpose steam jacket,
limpet coil or tracings are used. Here steam is a
protective heating medium.
Flammable chemicals or solvents of low boiling
or flash points need inert gas blanketing (e.g. N 2,
CO2). For examples, acetaldehyde, acrylonitrile,
benzene, EO, H2S etc. need such inert gas
blanketing to prevent spark contact and fire. When a
safety or breather valve opens, first inert gas comes
out and not the flammable vapour. Here inert gas is
a protective medium.
Chemicals which catch fire in air (e.g.
phosphorous, CS2) are to be kept in water and
chemicals which explode in water (e.g. sodium
26
metal) are to be kept in kerosene and protected.
Here water and kerosene are protective media.
Water curtains, sprinklers (spray nozzles) and
remote operating valve are provided for chemicals
like acetaldehyde, ammonia, HCN, where water can
dissolve their vapour and keep the tank cool in case
of fire. Water can also be used as a scrubbing
medium for such water soluble gases.
Water sprinklers should work at a rate of 10
Lit/m2/min. Foam injection system (in atmospheric
tanks) should work at a rate of 4.5 Lit/m 2/min to
extinguish the fire.
Thermal insulation (e.g. vermiculite cement of 2
inch thickness) for pressure storage and PUF
insulation for refrigerated storage are also useful.
Thus selection and application of appropriate
protective media for chemicals are always desired
for safety of their storage or processes.
8.2.15. Personal Protective and Fire Fighting
Equipment :
While working at storage, process, handling, use or
transfer of chemicals, appropriate personal
protective equipment (helmet, goggles, faceshield,
gloves, boots, apron, respirator etc.) should be worn
by workers to protect themselves in case of any
accidental discharge or exposure. Similarly a trained
fire fighting team is also required to use appropriate
fire fighting equipment. Training for use and
maintenance of such equipment is most essential.
See Chapters 25 and 13 for PPE and FFE.
8.2.16 Gauges, Valves, Remote and Auto
Controls
8.2.17. Miscellaneous :
Storage safety is a wide subject and includes so
many things. Despite above discussion a few things
are to be mentioned. There should be minimum
connections to a tank. Pipe joints should be safe and
sound. Stiffeners and other supports should be
properly provided. Staircase with handrail and
working platform should be provided on the tank.
For hazardous chemicals in bulk, the main outlet
valve should be remotely controlled. Unloading bay
should have ready connections with tankfarm
piping and fixed location for truck/tanker parking.
Tanker carrying flammable material should have
spark-arrester (muffler) over his exhaust pipe.
Dump vessel (one empty tank of the identical
design to the storage tank) should be installed with
ready connections to transfer the content in case of
emergency. If possible, design should be to transfer
by gravity.
Pump should be of proper design and capacity.
Double mechanical seals should be provided to
avoid gland leakage. Flange cap on flange-joint can
divert the leakage downwards. Necessary drain and
sample points should be provided.
In acids and alkali tankfarm, acidproof
lining/flooring, water showers, cautionary notice,
mechanical lifting device (e.g. trolley) and necessary See para 11 of foregoing Part 9.2 for various
PPE should be available. For spill control lime, sand, types of pressure relief devices. Other components
soda ash and ample water should be readily are explained at their respective places.
available. Pressure reducing valve (PRV) is a statutory
Near tanks of toxic or flammable material, gas requirement u/r 61 of the Gujarat Factories Rules. It
and flame detector with alarm, high is to be provided between a source of supply of
pressure/temperature alarm, auto controllers, pressure (e.g. boiler or higher pressure side of any
necessary scrubber or flare connections, FFE, PPE, header) and the user point or a vessel receiving the
good lighting and ventilation, safety showers, dyke, pressure. It is to be set at a desired safe pressure. It
connections to ETP (Effluent Treatment Plant), will reduce the pressure on delivery side
emergency (alternate) power and water supply, accordingly. This is the main safety function. A
emergency kit and tools, lightening conductor, wind safety valve and a pressure gauge should be
sock, etc. should be provided as per requirement. provided on low pressure side and a pressure
Modern sophisticated plants are run by latest gauge on high pressure side to see the pressure
control rooms where all process parameters are reduction. It shall not be bypassed at any time. It
controlled and recorded from this control room. The should be tested periodically.
latest instrumentation and computer control Spring loaded safety valves with oil seals are
technology (e.g. DCS) is utilised. desirable. For high pressures, rupture or bursting
disc or rupture diaphragm should also be provided.
8.3 Pressure Vessels and their Safety Pressure reducing or pressure control valves are
Aspects : necessary. Safety valve and pressure gauge should
be connected on low-pressure side of the reducing
valve. Safety valve should be connected nearest
Pressure vessels are of two types : (1) Fired Pressure
(close) to the vessel. It should not be connected
Vessels which include Boilers, Economisers, Steam
where pulsating pressure fluctuates.
Pipes, Fittings etc., as per section 2, 2A, 2D of the
Rupture or bursting disc should be provided in
Indian Boilers Act 1923, and (2) Unfired Pressure
upstream of the safety valve and if toxic or
Vessels which include reaction vessels, autoclaves,
inflammable mixture/gas is pressed, ducting should
digestors, heat-exchangers, receivers, containers,
be provided covering fully the outlet of the rupture
compressors, vulcanisers, agers, kiers, dyeing
disc so that in case of rupturing of the disc, the
vessels, jacketed kettles etc. operating above the
mixture/gas coming out from it will be collected in
atmospheric pressure.
duct or blow down tank and not in environment.
The portable gas cylinders, metal bottles used
Rupture disc and safety valve can be provided
for storage or transport of compressed gases or
in series (in vertical line of the same outflow) with a
liquefied or dissolved gases under pressure, gas-
pressure gauge in between. Two such sets can be
tankers, vessels for nuclear energy, refrigeration
provided side by side, parallel, on two different
plant of less than 3 TPD capacity, vessels operating
outflows, to handle much volume at a time. RD and
below 1 kg/cm2 etc., are not covered under the
SV can be provided in parallel also. In any case,
purview of the pressure vessels.
their setting should be slight different to allow time
lag.
8.3.1 Pressure System Components
Fusible plugs, pressure gauges, temperature
and Safety Devices indicator, stop valve, drain valve, air vent, auto
controls and recorders are also necessary.
Pressure system components are : Routine inspection schedules should be devised
for maintenance of pressure safety devices in good
Pressure vessels Pressure relief devices working order. A sample schedule regarding
Pumps, Compressors, Pressure gauges rupture disc inspection is given below as a
Fans, Control valves, Pressure reducing guidance.
Piping system, valve (PRV)
Tracing Routine inspection of rupture discs
Dump vessels, Non-return valve
Steam traps, (NRV) Procedure:
Insulation Pressure controllers
Vent for pressure or regulators 1. Obtain Permit to Work Certificate from Plant in-
relief Utilities like steam, charge.
Pressure recorders water, air, thermic 2. Obtain Rupture Disc Inspection Record sheet.
fluid, inert gas etc. 3. Ensure system to be worked on is isolated, free
from pressure and vented/drained down.
4. Check that vent line drain hole is clear.

27
 Note : If no drain hole exists raise modification
work order to make one.
5. Carefully remove rupture disc and holder
ensuring no debris enters vessel, and clean
thoroughly.
6. Check that all bursting disc specifications are
correct.
7. Inspect rupture disc holder for pits, hairline
cracks or other damage and renew if necessary.
Ensure inspection is carried out using adequate
light.
8. Ensure rupture disc inlet and outlet vents are
clear and free from obstruction.
9. Check mounting flanges are clean and parallel.
Note : The Team Manager must assess the
significance of the conditions found and
arrange, if necessary, to review the future
maintenance periodically.
10. Renew gaskets and refit rupture disc and
holder, ensuring disc is correctly orientated.
11. Carefully tighten diagonally opposite bolts to
achieve a gas tight seal, using torque wrench if
necessary.
12. Ensure plant is safe for use, complete permit to
work and hand over to Plant in-charge.
Rupture Disc Inspection Record
Rupture Disc Details
Equipment no.
Burst pressure
M.O.C.
Type & size
Examination
Disc defects
Contamination
Blockage
Disc holder
Vent pipe
Comments / Actions
Checked by : …………………. Date : …………
(Name & Designation)
Frequency : 2 years.
Courtesy : GLAXO India Ltd., Ankleshwar.
8.3.2 Standards & Codes
Section 31(1) of the Factories Act 1948, Rule 61 of the
Gujarat Factories Rules 1963 and Section 1.2.1 of the
Indian Standard - Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels
IS:2825 give definition of the pressure plant/vessels.
The operating pressure should be above the
atmospheric pressure.
28
The IS:2825 provides more details on the
subject of construction and other requirements for
the design, fabrication, welding, inspection, testing,
marking and certification of fusion welded unfired
pressure vessels in ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Terminology of maximum working pressure, design
pressure, minimum thickness and allowances to add
into it, weld joint efficiency factor, ligament
efficiency, post-weld heat treatment and allowable
stress value are also explained in this Code.
Pressure relief devices and corrosion, erosion and
protection details are also given. It has considered
BS 1500, 1515, ASME and the Swedish Code.
Rule 61 of The Gujarat Factories Rules :
The terms design pressure, maximum
permissible working pressure (MPWP), plant and
pressure vessel are defined.
Design Pressure means the maximum pressure
that a pressure vessel or plant is designed to
withstand safely when operating normally.
Maximum Permissible Working Pressure (MPWP)
means the maximum pressure at which a pressure
vessel or plant is permitted to be operated or used
under this rule and is determined by the technical
requirement of the process.
Scope : This rule applies to a pressure vessel or
plant operating above the atmospheric pressure and
includes piping system.
The rule does not apply to -
1. Vessels operating at a pressure below 1 Kg/cm 2.
2. Where Indian Boilers Act 1923 is applicable.
3. Where Gas Cylinders Rules 1981 are applicable.
4. Where pressure is solely due to static head of
liquid.
5. Vessels with nominal water capacity less than
500 litres connected to a water pumping system.
6. Vessels subjected to nuclear energy.
7. Refrigeration Plant of capacity less than 3 tonnes
per day.
8. Working cylinders, steam traps, turbine casing,
steam separators, dryers, strainers de-
superheaters, oil separators, air receivers with
MWP below 1.33 Kg/cm 2 and volume 85 litres,
and other air vessels.
Design & Construction : Every pressure vessel or
plant should be -
1. Properly designed on sound engineering
practice.
2. Of good construction, sound material, adequate
strength and free from patent defects.
3. Properly maintained in a safe condition.
 When Indian Standard or any other Code is For the details the Code (IS:2825) itself should be
applicable, a certificate from the manufacturer or referred. Basic formulae from the Code are given
competent person shall be obtained and produced below.
before an Inspector.
Design Formulae : The following formulae shall
Safety Devices : apply in the case of cylindrical and spherical vessels
subject to internal pressure.
1. Suitable safety valve or pressure relieving device
of adequate capacity to ensure that MPWP shall For Cylindrical Shells
not be exceeded. If more safety valves are pDi pDo 200fjt 200fjt
provided, one will be set at MPWP and others at t  or p  
200fj - p 200fj  p Di  t Do - t
not more than 5% in excess of the MPWP.
For Spherical Shells
2. Suitable pressure gauge with dial range 1.5 times
pDi pDo 400fjt 400fjt
the MPWP and red mark indicating MPWP. t  or p  
3. Stop or isolation valve to shutoff the pressure 400fj - p 400fj  p Di  t Do - t
source.
4. Drain cock (valve) to drain the vessel. where
5. Suitable pressure reducing valve (PRV) or t = Minimum thickness of shell plates exclusive
automatic pressure regulator to disallow the of corrosion allowance in mm
pressure greater than the MPWP. A safety valve p = design pressure in kg/cm2
shall be fitted on low pressure side of such Di= inside diameter of the shell in mm.
device. Do= outside diameter of the shell in mm.
f = allowable stress value in kg/mm 2 (see
8.3.3 Fundamentals of Pressure Vessel Appendix A IS:2825)
Design j = Joint factor or efficiency (see Table 1.1
IS:2825)
IS:2825, Section I includes in its Design section,
General Provisions, Corrosion, erosion and Depending upon the material of the shell and
protection, Cylindrical and spherical shells, Domed the design temperature, the factor ‘f’ should be
ends, Conical ends, Unstayed flat heads and covers, selected from the tables given in Appendix A of the
Stayed and braced plates, Openings branches and IS:2825. This ‘f’ is from 9.5 to 9.8 for some carbon
compensation, Access and inspection openings, and low alloy steel plates to be used upto 250 0C
Bolted flange connections, Ligament efficiency, design temperature.
jacketed vessels, Supports and Internal structures. J = 1.00 to 0.90 for Class 1 vessels i.e. normally
The Code also explains materials of used. J = 0.85 for Class 2 and J = 0.7 to 0.5 for Class 3
construction, allowable stress, materials for low vessels.
temperature service and materials for welding. For example, for a cylindrical shell of 5 kg/cm2
It also explains flange calculations for non- design pressure (p), internal diameter 1000 mm (Di),
standard flanges. f = 9.6, J = 0.9, the thickness t is given by
Design, marking, capacity, setting, installation 5  1000 5000 5000
T    2.90 mm
and discharge lines of pressure relieving devices are 200  9.6  0.9 - 5 1728  5 1723
also specified.
In its Section II manufacture and workmanship Similarly if thickness and diameter are known,
are explained in the headings of Approval of design, pressure can be calculated. For example for the t =
General considerations and Design of welded joints, 2.9 mm and internal diameter 1000 mm, design
Preparation of parent metal, Assembly of plates and pressure p is given by
fit-up, Alignment and tolerances, Welding
procedure, Welding of non-ferrous metals, 200  9.6  0.9  2.9 1728  2.9
Rectification of welds, Repair of drilled holes, P   4.9967  5kg/cm2
Repair of cracks and Post weld heat treatment. The 1000  2.9 1002.9
Section also prescribes Welding procedure,
qualifications and Welder’s performance Thus the formulae are cross-checked.
qualifications. The safe working pressure (p in lb/in 2) of a
Section III of the Code gives Inspection and sizing cylinder shall be calculated on the basis of the
Test methods, Marking and Records. minimum thickness actually measured (t in inch),
Then Appendices A to N give various values of the diameter actually measured (D in inch) by the
stress, temperature, recommended practice, typical formula p = 2ts/D where s = stress of the material in
design of welded connections and proformas. lbs/in2 say 5000 for copper.
These are the fundamental subjects of pressure For example, for a copper cylinder of t = 1/8
vessel design, construction, inspection and testing. inch and D = 50 inch, safe working pressure will be

29
 1 5000 100
P  2    25 psi.
8 50 4
8.4.3 Over-pressure Protection and
Pressure Relief Devices :
Pressure exceeding the maximum permissible
working pressure (MPWP) of a pressure vessel
poses high hazard and needs pressure relief devices.
See para-11 of foregoing Part 9.2 where such
devices on storage vessels are discussed.
Rule 61 of the Gujarat Factories Rules (see
foregoing Part 9.4.2) requires safety valve or
pressure relieving device, suitable pressure gauge,
stop or isolation valve to shut off pressure source,
drain valve, pressure reducing valve or automatic
pressure regulator. In Chapter 28, other safety laws
requiring such provisions are also discussed.
IS:2825, Section I, Part 5 gives much details on
this subject. It requires as under -
1. Fully liquid filled vessels should have liquid
relief valve.
2. If a vessel is fitted with a heating coil or element,
pressure increase due to its sudden failure,
should be considered while designing relieving
capacity of the protective device.
3. Vessels operating under vacuum should have a
vacuum break relief device.
4. Vessels operating under pressure and vacuum
(due to cooling of content) both, should have a
combined pressure-vacuum relief device.
5. Pilot or other indirect control valve alone are not
permitted. Main valve opening at a set pressure
automatically must be provided. The relief valve
shall be so designed that they cannot be
inadvertently loaded beyond the set pressure.
6. Bursting (Rupture) Discs are preferred where
pressure rise is fast like explosion, or where
choking may make the safety valve inoperative
and where even minute leakage of fluid cannot
be tolerated (because of high toxicity or
flammability). The disc may be mounted
independently or in series with a relief valve
provided that the bursting pressure of the disc
shall not exceed MPWP of the vessel and its
opening (diameter) should be sufficient to
prevent interference with the proper functioning
of the relief valve. If the disc is fitted on the
discharge (outlet) side of the valve, back
pressure cannot be built-up to reduce the lifting
pressure of the valve. The disc shall be marked
with bursting pressure at a specified temperature
and shall burst within  5% of that bursting
pressure.
7. The relief valve shall be of sufficient capacity to
discharge the maximum quantity of the fluid and
when it is discharging, pressure in the vessel
should not rise of more than 10% above the set
pressure.
30
The capacity of a relief valve to discharge gas or
vapour (other than steam) is given by -
M
W  CKAP
T
where W = rated capacity in kg/h, C = constant
(given in Table 5.1, IS:2825), K = coefficient of
discharge depending on shape and specific to
any particular valve, A = discharge area in mm 2,
P = accumulation pressure (1.10 x set pressure)
in kgf/cm2 abs, M = molecular weight and T =
inlet temperature in 0K.
8. Set pressure of the pressure relieving device
(valve or disc) shall not exceed MPWP. This
setting pressure will include the effect of static
head and constant back pressure. If more than
one protective device is provided, only one be
set at MPWP and other devices at pressure not
more than 5% in excess of the MPWP.
9. Vapour relief valve shall be provided in vapour
space and liquid relief valve in below the liquid
level.
10. Discharge line (after relief device) diameter shall
not be less than that of the relief device outlet.
Size of drainage or blowdown tank should be
such that it will not reduce the relieving capacity
of the relief device. Discharge lines shall be
properly anchored, particularly at their open
ends, not to allow any displacement.
See Part 9.4.1 also.
Let us see some practical examples which can
cause accidents. Where a pump feeds a receiver, the
safety valve should pass the volume being pumped
if it has to open. In distillation column where
normally there is no pressure, overpressure may be
created due to increased heat input because of
cooling failure or loss of reflux or loss of subcooled
feed and increase in temperature difference in
reboiler. Therefore safety valve becomes necessary
on distillation vessel or column. Low pressure
storage tanks can withstand a very low pressure.
Safety valve should be provided on it to tackle any
accidental pressure rise. Safety valve of low
pressure side of a heat exchanger should be sized to
handle the flow from twice the cross sectional area
of the high pressure tube in the exchanger to relieve
its sudden bursting pressure.
To check whether safety valves operate
reliably, they should be daily opened by hand.
The number of safety valves on any vessel
depends on the volume of working fluid and
discharge capacity of the valves.
High noise is created by blowdown of safety
valves. Engineering control to reduce this noise are
necessary. Workers in safety valves testing area
should wear ear, eye and hand protections.
Water Seal is used on pressure vessels that
operate at low pressure or slight vacuum such as
alcohol stills and gas holders. A U-pipe filled with
water with one end connected to the pressure side
and other end open works as a low pressure safety
valve.
Depressurising devices or pressure interlocks are
required on autoclaves, vulcanisers, digesters, jet
dyeing vessels, retorts etc. where charging doors are
to be opened. The device or interlock will prevent
the door opening till all pressure inside is relieved
or prevent the pressure build-up till the door is
closed.
High pressure alarms give audio visual alarm
that the pressure is being increased. They are useful
when pressure relief device may not work. In that
event a vent valve or discharge valve should be
manually or remotely opened and the reason of non-
functioning of the relief device at its set pressure
should be investigated.
Pressure/Temperature recorders or printouts are
useful to study the process behaviour or investigate
an accident happened on the system.
8.4 Reaction or Process Vessels :
Based on requirement discussed above in foregoing
Part 8 and 9.2, provide all necessary safety fittings
on the reaction or process vessel to control the
reaction in that vessel. Safety valves, rupture disc,
pressure gauge, temperature gauge, pressure
reducing valve (PRV), non-return valve (NRV),
excess flow valve (EFV) or flow controller, flow
meter, level indicator, safe vent, scrubber, exhaust,
cooling, heating and purging media, their control
devices and circulation, stirrer stoppage alarm,
vacuum failure alarm, flow stoppage alarm, other
alarms, indicators, actuating controls, remote
controls, pumps, compressors, pipes, valves etc.,
drowning tank, explosion relief connection, bypass
or safe transfer connection, earthing, bonding,
lagging etc., must be provided and maintained as
per design requirement and in safe conditions.
Pressure tests, thickness tests etc., should be
carried out by a competent person for the safety of
vessels. Vessels of pressure, refrigeration,
distillation, storage and dangerous process need
more attention.
Use of sophisticated instruments should be
made to periodically check the condition of various
vessels and equipment. A thorough and careful
visual inspection reveals details about localised
corrosion, pitting, thickness reduction etc., based on
which approximate inferences can be drawn about
the condition of the vessel. Regular history of each
tool, vessel and equipment should be recorded
which will be useful in avoiding vessel failure and
also in running the vessel safely. Record keeping
helps in predicting future plant break-down and
failure rates of different equipment based on past
records is also helpful in running the plant safely.
Various fittings on vessels are provided in
order to operate the vessel efficiently and safely. A
reaction vessel must have arrangement for knowing
temperature, pressure/vacuum, sampling point,
efficient means of agitation and provision for
emptying the vessel in case of emergency. It must
have independent nozzles for charging various
chemicals. A safety valve and/or rupture disc, will
be required in case of pressure vessels. A recorder
depicting graphically temperature , pressure etc.,
should be provided to follow a course of reaction if
necessary. Controllers should be provided if
necessary to control various operating conditions. A
distillation column should have provision for
measuring pressure drop across the column at
various points. Temperature and pressure
indicators at various heights should be installed.
There should be provision of emergency cooling
water at condenser so that uninterrupted cooling is
assured for low boiling solvents. Vent cooler is also
useful. Provision for avoiding column flooding
should be provided. All operating parameters
should be within easy reach of the operation.
An equipment is designed to do a specific duty
as calculated in the original design. It may happen
that the equipment may fail. Let us take an example
of a jacketed vessel. If the shell of a vessel develops
leak, chemical stored in the shell will mix with
cooling medium in the jacket with which it can give
rise to dangerous reactions. To avoid this, the
design should be such that instead of a plain jacket,
cooling coils should be provided surrounding the
shell so that direct contact between chemical in the
shell and cooling medium in coils is avoided. This
makes the design fail-safe i.e. it fails in a safe way.
About 25 years back, ammonia synthesis was
carried out at much higher pressure than used in
plants designed today. This is achieved by
improvements in plant design, process design,
instrumentation, gas purity etc. Thus we have
reduced the element of hazard inherent in the
process. Present day reactors are designed with
minimum volume to reduce danger zone.
Small size storage tanks and process vessels
reduce the risk quantity. Low temperature cryogenic
processes (below 200 0C) need vessels of carbon steel
construction and temperature control and heating
device to stop further reduction in temperature.
Endothermic process vessels need heat supply
and maintenance devices.
Reaction Vessels & Kettles : Abstract of Rule 61B of
the Gujarat Factories Rules is as under :
Applicability : This rule applies to reaction vessels
and kettles which normally work below the
atmospheric pressure, but where there is a
possibility of pressure rising above the atmospheric
pressure due to uncontrolled reaction.
Safety Measures :

31
1. Temperature control device in case of electrical
heating.
2. Pressure control device in case of steam heating.
3. Safety valve or rupture disc of adequate size and
capacity to release the pressure above the safe
limit.
4. Suitable vent pipe for safe discharge of reaction
mass.
5. Flame arrester on vent end if the material is
flammable.
6. Pressure gauge of appropriate range.
7. Automatic feed-stop-device to prevent deviation
from normal limit to dangerous one.
8. If necessary, effective system for cooling,
flooding or blanketing to control temperature
and pressure.
9. Audio visual warning devices to indicate process
deviation. It should be integrated with automatic
process correction system (computer control) if
possible.
10. A notice near the vessel, pointing out pressure
rising conditions and dangers involved and
precautions to be taken by the operators
8.5 Flare :
In plants where highly toxic or flammable gases are
generated in bulk or continuously, a flare system
becomes necessary for their collection and safe
discharge by burning at height. The flare should be
designed to vent the gases during normal operations
and emergency conditions. Maximum possible
discharge at a time should be considered for safer
venting and preventing pollution of the
environment.
A flare system consists of a flare stack and
piping to collect the gases to be vented. At the flare
tip, steam nozzles are provided for air entrainment
and seals to prevent flashback of the flame. At the
base a knockout drum is provided to collect the
liquid from the gases passing to the flare.
Wet gases and dry, cold gases are collected
through separate lines. A low level and a high level
flare can be combined together so that normal
operating and start-up loads are handled by the low
level flare, while both flares are used to handle
occasional high volume emergency loads. Thus an
environmental impact of flaring can be kept to a
minimum.
An intense heat radiation occurs from a flare.
Therefore it should have sufficient height and no
population in surrounding area. The discharge heat
rate may be of the order of 10 7 BTU/h.
Hazards associated with flaring are -
1. Obstruction in the flare system.
2. Explosion in the flare system.
3. Low temperature embrittlement of the pipework.
4. Emission of toxic materials from the flare.
32
5. Heat radiation from the flare.
6. Liquid carryover from the flare.
The last three are environmentally
objectionable. Smoke, glare and noise of the flare
may also cause problems.
Efficient combustion in the flame is necessary
otherwise a smoky flame will result. Liquid
carryover can also result in smoky flame. By good
mixing of fuel gas, steam supply and air
entrainment good combustion is achieved. For this,
the operator relies on visual observation. An
automatic system operates based on flame root
temperature.
Because of the air entering down in the stack
when the flame may not be working or when any
valves are open or due to corrosion this air and
flammable gas may enter in explosive range and
may explode. To avoid such air explosion, measures
taken are purge gas, leak elimination, monitoring
oxygen concentration, water seals, molecular seals
and flame arresters.
A fuel gas is used as a purge gas to maintain
positive pressure in the system to disallow air
inside. This can be confirmed (no air inleak) by
monitoring oxygen content.
Heat radiated from a flare is given by-
FQ
I
4 r 2
where I = intensity of heat radiation, Q = heat
release rate, r = radius from centre of the flame and
factor F = 0.16, 0.33. 0.30 and 0.38 for methane,
propane, butane and ethylene respectively.
Acceptable heat radiation level at ground level
is 1000 BTU/ft2h so that men can reach in the
vicinity of the flare without harm.
If chlorine and sulphur are burned in flares,
they will emit HCl and SO2. This requires more
height of the stack so that ground level
concentrations of these toxic gases may come down
to permissible level.
8.6 Testing, Types and Certificates
Storage and pressure vessels are to be tested and
checked for the assessment of their reliability.
Testing of pressure vessels and their parts is most
essential. Mainly two types of tests are in practice,
pressure test and non-destructive tests (NDT).
Pressure tests include hydraulic, pneumatic and
combined. NDT includes radiography, dye
penetrant, magnetic particle and ultrasonic. NDT
methods can be used before or after pressure test
methods. Mechanical tests are also employed for
fusion welded seams and test plates. Main tests
methods are explained below.
8.6.1 Pressure Tests :

They are of three types as under -
(1) Hydraulic (Proof Hydrostatic) Test :
Water is used to pressurise the vessel for hydraulic
test. By a hand pump, the pressure is gradually
increased, stopped, observed any leakage if any and
again increased. Test pressure is 1.3 to 1.5 times the
design pressure. A standard pressure gauge should
be used to watch the pressure. Slight higher test
pressure is required for an old or repaired vessel
than for a new vessel.
Testing by air, steam or gas pressure is more
hazardous as air, steam or gas are more
compressible than water and contains more energy
at equal pressure. Therefore air-pressurised vessel
can burst with great explosive force and can make
great damage. The water-pressurised vessel, if
bursts at the same pressure, will release less energy,
no shock wave will be generated and make less
damage. Therefore hydraulic test is a safer test. It
provides easy detection of leak also.
After the test pressure is attained, it is held up
for some time (15 to 20 minutes). If no leakage or no
deformation, the positive test certificate can be
issued.
Examinations & Tests u/r 61, Gujarat Factories
Rules :
They are prescribed as under -
1. New vessel to be used for the first time -
Hydraulic test at 1.3 x design pressure.
2. Old vessel, unused vessel for more than 2
months or where repair/alteration is made -
Hydraulic Test at 1.5 x MPWP, i.e. maximum
permissible working pressure.
3. Where water is not suitable for test - Pneumatic
(air) test at
- Design Pressure for new vessel
- MPWP for old vessel.
4. Glass lined vessel - Hydraulic or Pneumatic test
at
- Design Pressure for new vessel.
- MPWP for old vessel.
5. Test certificate from the manufacturer or
competent person should be obtained before
using any vessel for the first time. Inspector may
demand it.
6. No vessel can be operated at a pressure higher
than that mentioned in the certificate.
7. Inservice test/examination as under -
 External test at 6 months.
 Internal test at 1 year.
 Hydraulic test at 2 years.
 Internal or Hydro test a 4 years for vessel in
continuous process.
33
 If external, internal or hydro test is not
possible as above, then - NDT for metal
thickness and other defects.
8. Thin - walled vessels of non-ferrous metal -
 Maximum life 20 years.
 5% reduction in MPWP every year.
 New, second hand or repaired vessel shall be
tested at 1.5 x MPWP before its use.
Report by a Competent Person :
1. It should be in Form 11.
2. Condition stated in report must be fulfilled
before using the vessel.
3. Where pressure reduction on repair is suggested,
the competent person shall send a copy of such
report to the Inspector within 7 days of the
completion of the test.
See Part 9.4.2 for remaining part of Rule 61, GFR.
To determine the ultimate bursting pressure, the
vessel is subjected to five or more times the design
pressure. Burst pressure tests are used only to test a
sample of a large number produced to verify the
adequacy of calculations and manufacture.
Precautions necessary while hydro-testing are
as under -
1. Use of standard and correct pressure gauge.
2. Removal of air from the vessel before testing.
3. Visual inspection for clearly visible defects if
any.
4. Use of a rupture disc to test at a high pressure.
5. Protected area away from public. A pit or
steelbox is preferable.
6. Limiting the liquid volume in the test vessel to
reduce the energy stored at the time of testing.
To achieve this, bigger size solid pieces should
be inserted in the vessel to take up as much of its
volume as possible.
After hydraulic testing if more than 0.2%
increase (elongation or deformation) in volume is
noticed, the vessel should not be recommended to
use as a pressure vessel.
(2) Pneumatic Test :
This test is useful where even traces of water cannot
be tolerated in its service or where a vessel is so
designed and/or supported that it cannot be safely
filled with the water or testing fluid.
Such test shall be carried out under close
supervision by the inspecting authority. Adequate
precautions like blast wall or pit and means for
remote observation are essential.
The pneumatic test pressure should be more
than the design pressure but less than the hydraulic
test pressure. In the beginning, the pressure should
be gradually increased upto 50% of the test
pressure. Thereafter it should be increased in steps
of 10% of the test pressure till the required test
pressure is achieved. Then the pressure will be
reduced upto design pressure and held at that
pressure for a sufficient time to permit inspection of
the vessel.
(3) Combined Hydraulic and Pressure
Test :
Here a test vessel is partially filled with water and
then air pressure is applied to the space above the
liquid level. The test pressure (not exceeding
hydraulic test pressure, but more than the design
pressure) shall be deducted by the pressure due to
the static head of the water in the vessel.
8.6.2 Non Destructive Tests (NDT) :
See Part 4.4 of Chapter-19.
8.6.3 Test by Competent Persons :
8.6.4 Records in prescribed Forms :
8.7 Corrosion, Erosion, Causes, Inspection
and Prevention
Reasons of Pressure Vessel Failure are many.
Wrong selection of material of construction,
mechanical failure due to overpressure,
overheating, external loading (e.g. platform, stairs,
ladders, supports, brackets etc.), excessive stress
(uneven or over tightening), brittle fracture, creep
(due to fire or maloperation), mechanical fatigue
and shock (due to pressure or flow variations,
vibrations, expansion effects), thermal fatigue and
shock (due to temperature difference and rate of
change of temperature), hydrogen attack (blistering
or embrittlement) and corrosion failure are some of
the reasons.
Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction
between a metal and its environment. It results in a
loss of metal or weakening of it. Corrosion reaches
deeply, creates maintenance problems and incurs
cost of loss in lacs of rupees over the years.
Corrosion failure has also many reasons to
occur. General, local and external corrosion,
galvanic, crevice, knife-line, intergranular and
stress-related corrosion, scaling, exfoliation,
corrosion pitting and erosion are some common
types of corrosion in process plants including
pressure vessels.
Corrosion due to oxidation at high temperature
is called scaling. e.g. steam boilers. Exfoliation is a
type of scaling caused by oxidation in steam
atmosphere e.g. feedwater heaters. General
corrosion takes place due to a corrosive chemical or
impurity over the exposed surface.
34
Intergranular corrosion occurs in stainless
steels heated upto 500-800 0C and then exposed to
corrosive conditions.
Galvanic corrosion happens due to current
flowing between tow dissimilar metals which form
a galvanic cell. It occurs when two such metals are
joined together at a weld. A typical pair is iron and
copper.
Corrosion pitting results from electrochemical
potential set up by differences of oxygen
concentration inside and outside the pit. The
oxygen-lean part acts as anode and the metal surface
as cathode.
Knife-line corrosion takes place between parent
and weld metals. e.g. austenitic stainless steels.
Crevice or contact corrosion occurs at the point
of contact of a metal and non-metallic material. e.g.
threaded joints.
Erosion is a type of corrosion and is caused by
flow restriction or change of direction. e.g. elbows,
tees, baffles, nozzles and valves and point opposite
to inlet nozzle. It is increased if the flow contains
solid particles or by bubbles in liquids and by two
phase flow. Wet steam flow, air jet flashing flow and
pump cavitation can cause severe erosion.
External corrosion occurs by material of
insulation. Leaching of chloride salts from
insulation can corrode pipework.
Underground piping can be corroded by soil
due to electrochemical action and cathodic
protection is used to control it.
Stress corrosion cracking is the result of
corrosion and static tensile stresses. Corrosion
fatigue is caused by corrosion and by alternating
fatigue stresses. Chlorides are a common cause of
stress corrosion cracking. Stress may be internal or
external. Stress corrosion cracking caused by an
alkaline solution is known as caustic embrittlement,
which has been a frequent cause of failure in boilers.
Therefore treatment to boiler feedwater (removal of
caustic and chloride content) is necessary. Control
measures are - elimination of corrodants, reduction
of residual stresses and vibrations etc.
In plants handling nitric acid and nitrates,
‘nitrate stress corrosion cracking’ of mild steel is
possible. This was the reason of crack in the reactor
at Flixborough resulting in removal of the reactor
and temporary installation of the 20” pipe which
gave way and the disaster took place.
At high stresses and temperatures, traces of
other metals like zinc can cause rapid and severe
zinc embrittlement of some types of steels. Wetting
of the steel by molten zinc is a favourable condition
to zinc embrittlement. This may cause local fire and
catastrophic failure. To avoid this, zinc-coated items
should not be placed in direct contact with stainless
steel or in positions where they can drip molten zinc
on it. For example galvanised wire netting used in
insulation should not be in direct contact with
stainless steel pipe. During welding and fabrication,
zinc contamination of stainless steel should be
prevented. Special metallurgical examination will
reveal zinc embrittlement.
Corrosion Prevention is of high importance as
it prevents accidents and reduces cost of corroded
materials. Substitution of non-corrosive or less
corrosive material (e.g. SS instead of MS) tolerated
by the process technology and economy and
selection of such material from the design and
erection stage avoids most of the corrosion
problems. Then selection of powder coated metal
parts (sheets, structural members, machine parts,
guards, covers etc.) instead of painted, give long life.
Mild steel parts of tanks structures piping, machines
and vessels must be regularly painted by anti-
corrosive paints. Protection from rain and plant
water, dripping and leaking of corrosive chemicals,
oxidation and contact of zinc and copper is
necessary. Rapid cleaning of spillage, good
housekeeping, cathodic protection, control of flow,
fluctuations and vibrations, water softening and
removal of salts, checking of scale formation on
plates and tubes, thickness measurement and defect
monitoring by NDT methods stated in foregoing
Part 9.5.2 and latest instruments and equipment,
scanning by computer methods, descaling,
dechoking, scrapping, timely repairing and
preventive maintenance are also useful to avoid
corrosion and erosion.
Other methods to stop corrosion and erosion
are as under :
1. Two compatible metal prevent or slow down the
rate of corrosion.
2. A strategically placed gasket i.e. to provide
insulating material between the two metals.
3. Cathodic protection and conversion coating.
4. Crevice corrosion can be avoided by choosing
materials having corrosion resistance. Stainless
steels are prone to crevice corrosion and not
recommended for such use.
5. Dezincificaiton (removal of zinc from brass) can
be prevented by using alloys of brass containing
Sn, As, P or Sb.
6. Use of non-metallic material like plastic.
7. Applying monomolecular film (inhibitor) of
grease, paint, synthetic organic coating or a
plastic sheet (liner) over the surface.
8. Use of oxygen scavengers (e.g. Sodium sulphite
and hydrazine) to add into boiler water to
remove oxygen.
9. Inhibitors like phosphonates are used in cooling
water for corrosion control.
10. Use of acid pickling as corrosion inhibitors.
11. Use of heavy oils or greases, waxes dissolved in
solvents or sulphonate salts dissolved in
petroleum as a barrier between the environment
and the metal surface.
However it should be verified that chemicals
being selected as inhibitors should not be
35
carcinogenic as they can cause cancer. For
example p-t-butyl benzoic acid, sodium nitrite,
nitrosamines, thiourea etc. are carcinogenic and
should not be used.
12. Non-metallic materials like plastic, rubber and
synthetic elastomers can also be attached by
corrosion or cracking due to solvent,
environmental stress or thermal effect. Corrosion
process in plastic takes place because of
swelling, softening or loss of physical properties.
Polyurethane, polyethylene, polystyrene, ABS,
acetal homopolymers and polyethersulfone are
the plastics having good resistance against
corrosion.
Rubber lining (e.g. chloroprene, nitrile and
butyl rubber) on steel tank prohibits attack of strong
acids.
9 PROCESS HAZARDS AND
CONTROLS
9.1 Types of Processes and Operations
including Unit Processes, Unit
Operations and Other Processes
Generally in a chemical plant processes are
classified as batch processes or continuous
processes or their combination. In a batch process
relatively more man-power is required, the workers
are exposed to hazards more frequently and process
automation and instrumentation are possible only to
a limited extent. A continuous process is carried out
in a closed vessel or circuit and good automation
and instrumentation are possible. Many processes
are operated at high pressure and high temperature
(as in case of petroleum and petrochemical industry)
for which automatic warning, monitoring and
controlling devices are desired. Pressure and
temperature should be properly controlled by
cooling and safety devices. Flammable, explosives
and solvent distillation processes should be carried
out under inert atmosphere or vacuum and toxic
processes should be connected with appropriate
scrubbers and neutralisers.
Study all unit processes and unit operations with
complete reaction documents i.e. all reaction data of
intermittent behaviour as well as escaping
behaviour out of the controlled parameters. This
requires precise laboratory study and much details
of side reactions, unwanted runaway reaction,
generation of any flammable or toxic vapour, fumes,
gas etc. or generation of abnormal pressure,
temperature, expansion, contraction etc. at any stage
of the process in control or out of control and
adversely affecting the people or environment.
Based on this, all necessary safety measures must be
kept ready and provided to keep the reaction in
control and to control again in the event of their
going out of control also. Processes of exothermic
and high pressure reaction, solvent distillation,
distillation of toxic substance, polymerisation/chain
reaction, , gas generation, filling etc., petroleum
processing, autocatalytic reaction, decomposition,
undesired reaction with other media, operating in or
near explosive range, process of combustible
material, process of toxic material , dust/fume/gas
process and process difficult to control need much
attention.
Reaction Rate must also be controlled. The
reaction rate is determined by the rates of the
forward, reverse, and side reactions and by the rate
of diffusion of the reactants. Intensity of heat
supply, mass transfer coefficient, rate constant of a
process, driving force of a process, pressure,
temperature, catalysis, mixing or addition, stirring,
time etc. are some important parameters to be
controlled. Heat, material and energy balances must
be understood properly. In practical terms 10 0C
temperature rise may double the reaction rate. The
reaction heat tends to accelerate the reaction and
leads to runaway if cooling system is inadequate or
fails suddenly. Many accidents have been noticed in
such cases. Oxidation of hydrocarbons, nitration
and polymerisation are some typical examples.
If quantity (mass) of chemical, its concentration
or addition rate are changed (knowingly or
unknowingly), violent or explosive reaction may
take place. Therefore it is safer to keep quantity,
concentration and temperature as low as possible.
Reaction inhibitors and negative catalysts are used
to reduce the activation energy.
The processes are also classified as unit
processes and unit operations. They are explained
below briefly :
9.1.1 Unit Processes
Table 18.3 : Unit Processes with examples
Unit Processes Process Hazard
1 Alkylation Exothermic, side reactions
Ex - Butylene + isobutane  iso-octane
2 Amination by Aminolysis Gas phase pressure reaction,
Exothermic
Ex - EDC + Ammonia  Ethylene diamine
3 Ammoxidation Exothermic, toxic effect
Ex – Propylene + ammonia + air  acrylonitrile
4 Carbonilation Exothermic, toxic effect
Ex – Methanol + CO  acetic acid
5 Condensation Exothermic
Ex – Phthalic anhydride + benzene  anthraquinone
6 Diazotisation & coupling Exothermic
Ex – Amine + HCl + O2  Diazonium chloride
7 Halogenation Highly exothermic
Ex – Ethylene + chlorine  Ethylene dichloride
8 Hydrogenation Exothermic
Ex – Olefin + H2  Paraffin
9 Hydrolysis Exothermic
36
In such processes, by combination (chemical
reaction) of two or more chemicals, a new product
(compound) is formed. It indicates a chemical
change.
Alcoholic caustic fusion : Reaction carried out at lower
temperature (105-1300C) using caustic soda or
potash and alcohol (like ethanol, methanol,
cellosolve, isobutanol).
Amination : Introduction of amino group in the
molecule using liquid ammonia or any other
aminating agent.
Caustic fusion : Reaction carried out in molten
caustic potash/caustic soda at temperature above
1500C.
Condensation : Reaction in which two or more
molecules combine with the separation of water or
simple substance.
Halogenation : Introduction of chlorine or
bromine in the molecule using calcium hydroxide
etc.
Hydroxylation : Introduction of hydroxyl group
in the molecule using calcium hydroxide etc.
Nitration : Introduction of nitro group in the
molecule using nitric acid or mixed acid.
Oxidation : Introduction of oxygen or removal
of hydrogen from the molecule using oxygen
liberated by the action of acid and substance rich in
oxygen.
Reduction : Introduction of hydrogen or
removal of oxygen from the molecule using
hydrogen liberated by the action of acid and metal.
Sulphonation : Introduction of sulpha group in
the molecule using sulphuric acid or oleum or
chlorosulphonic acid.
Some hazardous unit processes are given in
Table 18.3.
Application
Petro and organic chemicals
Dyes, organic chemicals,
synthetic fibres
Plastics, synthetic fibres
Organic chemicals
Dye intermediates
Dyes
Organic chemicals
Fats, waxes, coal processing,
petrochemicals
Organic chemicals
 Ex – Chlorobenzene + water  Phenol
10 Nitration Highly exothermic, Explosives, dyes, organic
Explosive chemicals
Ex – Benzene + Nitric acid  Nitrobenzene
11 Oxidation Highly exothermic, Organic chemicals
Explosive
Ex – Alcohol + O2  aldehyde + carboxylic acid
12 Polymerisation Exothermic Petrochemicals, estomers,
synthetic fibres
Ex – Ethylene monomer + dimer  polyethylene
13 Sulphonation Exothermic, Highly corrosive Dyes, surface active agents
Ex - Benzene + H2SO4  Benzene sulphonic acid

Some other unit processes are Acylation,
alcoholysis, aromatisation or cyclization,
calcination, carboxylation, causticization,
combustion, dehydration, dehydrogenation, double
decomposition, electrolysis, esterification,
fermentation, Fischer-Tropsch reaction, Friedel-
Crafts reaction, hydroformylation (oxo), hydration,
ion-exchange, isomerisation, neutralisation,
pyrolysis or cracking, reduction, saponification etc.
Hazards associated with unit processes/
operations are :
1. Mechanical hazards e.g. pressure release, leaks,
burns, noise, equipment or utility failure.
2. Reaction hazards due to failure to control
exotherms, incompatible materials, side
reactions, feed ratio or rate variation etc.
3. Environmental hazards such as air pollution,
odour problems, spills etc.
4. Toxicity and health effects
5. Flammability hazards due to explosive mixture,
static charge, autoignition etc.
9.1.2 Unit Operations
In such operations, there is no chemical reaction to
form a new product. It indicates no chemical change
but mechanical or physical change like distillation,
cutting, heating, cooling, drying, mixing, grinding,
washing, packing, transferring, filtering, handling,
radiation etc.
Some general operations in a sequence are as
follows -
Steam distillation : Live steam is passed in the
still to recover the solvent. Vapours of solvent and
water are passed in a shell-tube type condenser and
cooler. Then the cooled distillate are taken in a
separator where solvent and water separate out and
are diverted to respective storage.
Heating : Heating operation can be done either
directly or indirectly. In direct heating, steam is
passed in the material directly to heat the material.
In indirect heating, heating media (e.g. steam, hot
oil, hot flue gases etc.) are passed in jacket / coil of
the vessel.
Cooling : It can be done directly or indirectly. In
direct cooling, ice or cooled water is added to the
material directly. In indirect cooling, cooling media
(raw water, chilled brine, cold oil etc.) are passed in
jacket / coil of the vessel.
Drowning means transferring reaction mass
from the reaction vessel to a tank which is
containing water or other medium (e.g. dilute acid,
dilute alkali etc.)
Filtration : This operation is for separating
solids and liquids. The conventional items used for
this operation are press, nutch, centrifuge. The
filtration can be done either under vacuum or
pressure or at atmospheric pressure.
Pulverisation : This operation is done to reduce
size of the material. Usually crushers, pulverises, ST
mill are used.
Blending : This operation is done in a blender to
mix thoroughly two or more dried products.
Washing : This operation is done in presses,
nutches or centrifuge to remove soluble impurities
and acid/alkali from the product.
Packing is filling up of finished product in the
containers.
Storing of liquid raw materials : Bulk liquid raw
materials which are received in tanker loads are
emptied out in storage provided for this purpose.
Unit operations are classified as under :
1. Mechanical unit operations - (1) Size reduction (2)
Size enlargement, mixing, agitation, blending
and kneading and (3) Separations e.g. gravity
settling, filtration, centrifugal, impingement,
screening, jigging, magnetic, electrostatic, hydro
and flotation.
2. Mass transfer operations - evaporation,
distillation, absorption, humidification,
extraction, leaching, crystallisation, ion
exchange, adsorption, drying.
3. Heat transfer operations - conduction, convection,
radiation.
4. Material handling, transportation & conveyance -
pumping, compression, fluidisation and
containerisation (solid filling).
Controls : Distillation operation needs trip and
alarm device to stop heating as soon as cooling
stops. In addition, the vessel should have a safety
valve to discharge any accidental pressure. In

37
centrifuging, blending, grinding, crushing,
pulverising or sieving of any flammable or
explosive substance, inert blanketing, earthing and
avoidance of sources of ignition are essential. Where
stirring and heating both are going on, stirrer failure
alarm and a device to cut heat source, are necessary.
9.1.3 Other Processes and Operations
It is utmost important to understand chemical
processes before understanding their safety aspects.
Therefore some such processes are explained below
in brief.
Absorption of gases : The solution of gases in
liquids or absorption of gases by solids through the
whole body. It is penetration or consumption of one
substance by another e.g. scrubbing.
Adsorption : The adherence of a substance on a
surface, the substance that adsorbs is adsorbent and
that is adsorbed is adsorbate. It is relatively a slow
penetration or consumption of gas or liquid
particles through the surface of another substance
mostly solid or liquid. It is used to remove colours,
odours and water vapours through activated
carbon, activated alumina, silica gel etc.
Acetylation : Introduction of an acetyl group
into an organic compound.
Aerosol : A dispersion of solid or liquid
particles in a gas or smoke.
Alkanization the process of converting an
unsaturated hydrocarbon into an alkane.
Alkylation : The introduction of an alkyl group
into a molecule e.g. the addition of alkanes to
alkenes.
Azo coupling : The formation of an azo
compound by the reaction of an aromatic diazo
compound with a suitable nucleophilic reagent,
such as an amine or a phenol.
Bromination : A reaction in which one or more
bromine atoms are substituted for hydrogen atoms
in an organic molecule.
Calcination : Strong heating, conversion of
metals into their oxides by heating in air.
Carbonation : Treatment with carbon dioxide.
Usually for formation of carbonates.
Catalysis and Catalyst : The alteration of the rate
of chemical reaction, by the introduction of a
substance (catalyst) that remains unchanged at the
end of the reaction. Small quantities of the catalyst
are usually sufficient to bring the action about or to
increase its rate substantially.
Chain reaction : Any self-sustaining molecular or
nuclear reaction, the products of which contribute to
the propagation of the reaction, viz. nuclear fission.
Chromatography : A method of chemical analysis
in which a mobile phase carrying the mixture to be
analysed, is caused to move in contact with a
selectively adsorbent stationary phase. This
laboratory separation technique identifies
38
components of complex mixtures (vapours, liquids,
solutions) by a series of bonds (chromatographs). It
is of various types e.g. GC, GLC, VPC etc.
Condensation : A chemical change in which two
or more molecules react with the elimination of
water or some other simple substance.
Deamination : The removal of amino groups
from a compound.
Decomposition : The breaking up of chemical
compounds under various influences e.g. by
chemical action, by heat (pyrolysis), by an electric
current (electrolysis), by biological agents
(biodegradation) etc.
Distillation : The process of converting liquid
into vapour, condensing the vapour and collecting
liquid or distillate. Used for separating mixtures of
liquids of different boiling points or for separating a
pure liquid from a non-volatile constituent.
Electrolysis : The chemical decomposition of
certain substances (electrolytes) by an electric
current passed through the substance in a dissolved
or molten state.
Electroplating : Depositing a layer of metal by
electrolysis, the object to be plated forming the
cathode in an electrolytic tank or bath containing a
solution of a salt of the metal that is to be deposited.
Electrostatic precipitation : A widely used
method of controlling the pollution of air (or other
gases). The gas, containing solid or liquid particles
suspended in it, so that the particles are attracted to
and deposited upon, the positive electrode.
Endothermic process : A process accompanied by
the absorption of heat.
Esterification : The formation of an ester by the
chemical reaction of an acid with an alcohol. Esters
are organic compounds corresponding to inorganic
salts, derived by replacing hydrogen of an acid by
an organic radical r group, e.g. ethyl acetate.
Evaporation : The conversion of a liquid into
vapour, without necessarily reaching the boiling
point, used in concentrating solutions by
evaporating off the solvent.
Exothermic process : A process in which energy
in the form of heat is released.
Extraction : The process of separating a desired
constituent from a mixture by means of selective
solubility in an appropriate solvent. Also used to
describe any process by which a pure metal is
obtained from ore.
Fermentation : A chemical change, brought
about in organic substances by living organism
(yeast, bacteria, etc.) as a result of their enzyme
action.
Fractionating column : A long vertical column,
containing rings, plates or bubble caps, that is
attached to a still. As a result of internal reflux a
gradual separation takes place between high and
low boiling ‘fractions’ of a liquid mixture.
Freezing : Change of state from liquid to solid, it
takes place at a constant temperature (freezing
point) for any given substance under a given Schedule 4, Rule 68J, Gujarat Factories Rules and
pressure (normally standard atmospheric pressure). Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Fumigation : The destruction of bacteria, insects Chemicals Rules 1989 gives a list of Hazardous
and other pests by exposure to poisonous gas or processes and operations as under. These
smoke. processes/operations are hazardous only if they
Gasification : Production of hydrocarbon fuels involve hazardous chemical(s) as defined u/s 2(e).
from coal by direct addition of H 2 to form methane
or by reacting steam with hot coal to form CO and 1.
H2 (synthesis gas) followed by a methanation  alkylation
reaction or by underground aeration.  amination by aminolysis
Hydrogenation : Subjecting to the chemical  carbonylation
action of or causing to combine with hydrogen.  condensation
Leaching : Washing out a soluble constituent.  dehydrogenation
Neutralisation : The addition of acid to alkali, or  esterification
vice versa, till neither is in excess and the solution is
 halogenation and manufacture of halogens
neutral.
 hydrogenation
Photochemical reactions : Chemical reactions
 hydrolysis
initiated, assisted or accelerated by exposure to
light.  oxidation
Pyrolysis : Chemical decomposition by the  polymerisation
action of heat.  sulphonation
Radiation hazard : The potential danger to health  desulphurisation, manufacture and
resulting from exposure to ionising radiation or the transformation of sulphur-containing
consumption of radioactive substance. compounds
Rectification : The purification of a liquid by  nitration and manufacture of nitrogen-
distillation. containing compounds
Reduction : The removal of oxygen from a  manufacture of phosphorous-containing
substance or the addition of hydrogen to it. The compounds
term is also used more generally to include any  formulation of pesticides and pharmaceutical
reaction in which an atom gains electrons. products
Saponification : The hydrolysis of an ester, thus  distillation
forming a salt (soap) and the free alcohol.  extraction
Seeding : The addition of fine particles to a  solvation
solution to induce crystallisation.  mixing
Solvation : The combination of solvent
molecules with molecules or ions of the solute. The 2. Distillation, refining or other processing of
compound so formed is called a ‘solvate’. petroleum or petroleum products.
Stabilisation : The prevention of chemical 3. Total or partial disposal of solid or liquid
decomposition of a substance by the addition of a substances by incineration or chemical
‘stabiliser’ or negative catalyst. ‘Stable’ means which decomposition.
cannot readily decompose. 4. Production, processing or treatment of energy
Sublimation : The conversion of a solid direct gases, for example, LPG, LNG, SNG.
into vapour, and subsequent condensation without 5. Dry distillation of coal or lignite.
melting. 6. Production of metals or non-metals by a wet
Tanning : The conversion of raw animal hide process or by means of electrical energy.
into leather by the action of substances containing
tannin, tannic acid, or other agents. 9.1.5 Exothermic Reactions
Vacuum distillation : The process of distillation
carried out at a reduced pressure and boiling point.
In exothermic reactions, heat is given out as reaction
Vacuum lowers boiling point. It is useful for
proceeds. This release of heat raises the temperature
distilling high boiling and heat sensitive materials
of reaction mass. Approximately for every 10 0C rise
such as heavy distillates in petroleum, fatty acids,
in temperature, reaction rate doubles. Thus with
vitamins etc.
increase in temperature, reaction proceeds faster
Vacuum evaporation : A technique for converting
and still more heat is given out. This chain of
a solid surface with a thin layer of a substance ,
operations makes the reaction uncontrollable unless
which is heated in a vacuum.
adequate arrangement for removing heat or
pressure are provided in the reaction vessel. The
9.1.4 Statutory Hazardous Processes and reaction rate has to be gradually increased so that
Operations : reaction does not reach runaway stage.

39
 Examples of exothermic reactions are nitration,
halogenation, amination, alkylation, oxidation,
condensation, polymerisation, neutralisation,
sulphonation, hydrogenation, hydrolysis,
aromatisation and isomerisation.
Vessels of such reactions should be regularly
tested by a competent person.
For highly exothermic reactions since
temperature has to be increased very gradually,
automatic programmes are provided which
maintain a predetermined rate of rise in
temperature and thus prevent the reaction from
reaching runaway stage. In addition to safety valve,
a rupture disc with drowining i.e. dump or surge
vessel is provided to receive the entire reaction mass
in case of overpressure and bursting of the rupture
disc. The pressure gauge, temperature gauge, high
pressure/temperature alarm and heat source cut off
device, quenching or process-killing device, safety
valve, rupture disc, drowning tank, cooling device,
agitator, feed control, pressure controller, drain
valve etc., should be regularly checked and properly
maintained. Alternate water, power and pumps are
required to maintain the necessary cooling system.
9.1.6 Pressure and Vacuum Reactions
Any vessel maintained at a pressure above 1
atmosphere is a pressure vessel. Suitable means of
pressure release such as safety valve and/or rupture
disc should be provided. Gases released from safety
valve, if poisonous, should be scrubbed before
venting to atmosphere. Flammable gases should be
safely contained and cooled. Emphasis should be
laid on proper design, maintenance and testing of
pressure vessels. Their thickness should be
periodically checked for corrosion, pitting etc., as
laid down in Rule 61 of the Gujarat Factories Rules,
1963. Pressure gauge, temperature gauge,
temperature regulator, safety valve, rupture disc,
pressure reducing valve or regulator, drowning
tank, drain valve, feed control, temperature control
(heating, cooling control), agitator control and
stoppage alarm, high pressure alarm, gas leakage
alarm, safe vent after safety valve, flame trap, non
return valve, excess flow valve or flow controller,
quenching or reaction killing device, purging valve,
drain pipe, by-pass pipe with valve, manhole,
inspection window, level indicator, earthing, flame
arrester, safe and sound jacket, water cooling of
gland packing, cooling interruption alarm,
automatic heat or feed cut off and regulating
devices, remote control etc. should be provided as
per requirement.
Pressure vessels should be designed as per
standard code (e.g. IS:2825) and periodically tested
by a competent person. In a solvent vacuum
distillation, if vacuum breaks, outside air can enter
and make explosive air mixture in the vessel. This
may cause fire or explosion. To avoid this a vacuum
40
failure alarm and at that time inert gas purging
(device) is necessary.
On distillation vessel also, an alarm and safety
valve are required to indicate any choking and
release of any pressure.
For more details see Part 9.4 and 9.5 of this
Chapter.
9.1.7 Flammable/Explosive Reactions
and Distillations :
Utmost care should be taken during storage,
transport, handling and reaction of explosive and
flammable materials. Bulk storage of these
chemicals come under purview of Chief Controller
of Explosives. Free fall of flammable liquids should
be avoided. Suitable dip pipes should be provided.
All lines carrying flammable materials must be
bonded by copper clamps and earthed. Continuity
should be periodically checked and resistance to
earth should be less than 1 Ohm. Pumps handling
these chemicals should have brass or non-metal
impeller to avoid sparks due to friction. Flow
velocity should not exceed 6 m/sec in pipeline to
avoid static charge accumulation. Reaction of
flammable chemicals including solvent distillation
should be carried out at low pressure or under
vacuum or inert blanketing. Even on distillation
vessel, a safety valve or explosion vent should be
provided to take care of any accidental pressure.
Flare, condenser, vent gas condenser or incinerator
should be provided if required.
Another danger to flammable solvents come
from smoking and electric sparks. All electric fitting
should be flameproof including lighting. During
maintenance, use of ferrous tools should be avoided
as it can give rise to sparks. Flame arrester and
smoke detector should be provided. Fire
extinguishers should be kept ready.
As far as possible flammable substances should
be processed at low temperature (below flash point)
and pressure. Dip feed pipe, slow and controlled
addition (e.g. niddle valve), inert blanketing,
vacuum, spark/flame avoidance, spark/flame
detectors with alarm, no-smoking habit, good
ventilation and training to workers are necessary.
9.1.8 Toxic Reactions
For handling acid, alkali and other toxic chemicals,
workers must be provided with suitable protective
appliances such as rubber or PVC hand gloves,
gum-boots, safety goggles, apron etc. Suitable
posters showing dangerous properties of these
chemicals and safe working procedure should be
prominently displayed. Arrangement for combating
spills of these chemicals such as water shower or
pipe for covering up should be available nearby.
The workers should be trained in the use of these
chemicals and safety equipment before giving
responsible job independently. Suitable scrubbers,
absorbers or neutralisers for inorganic gas or
vapour and condenser for organic vapour should be
provided and well maintained.
See Table-18.6 of this Chapter and Table-17 of
Chapter-32 for scrubbers.
Scrubber line should be always open. If it is
provided with a valve, the reactor should have
safety valve to take care of any pressure built-up
due to closer of the scrubber line valve or any
choking in that line. Interlocking of a scrubber line
valve with the addition valve is necessary so that no
addition of any hazardous chemical can be started
in the reactor unless the scrubber line valve is open.
Concentration of scrubbing media should be
checked and always maintained. If scrubber stops,
alarm should be available and the process should
also be stopped. Leak detector with alarm,
ventilation according to the vapour density of the
material, open working space, local exhaust
ventilation on toxic (e.g. pesticide) fumes and dusts,
wind velocity and speed indicators, safety showers
and eye washers, cautionary notices and medical
examinations of workers are necessary.
The modern instrumentation and control
devices, interlocks, trips and alarms, auto
controllers, automatic process correction device,
computer controls, DCS system, direct reading,
display and correction system etc. should be
provided as per process requirement.
For handling poisonous gases such as chlorine,
ammonia, sulphur dioxide, phosgene, phosphine
etc., workers must be trained before assigning them
responsible jobs. They should be provided with
suitable respiratory protection. Arrangement for
good ventilation such as suction hood with
scrubbing arrangement should be provided in the
plant.
A chemical can enter our body through
injection, inhalation or skin contact. Lead, mercury,
aromatic solvents, nitro and amino aromatic
compounds, benzene, toluene, chlorine, chromium
etc., are a few examples which can find entry into
human body through various routes. The workers
must be suitably protected from exposure to such
chemicals. Efficient exhaust system, scrubbers and
suitable protective appliances to avoid body contact
should be provided. Skin absorption is the most
important route and least understood by the
average worker. Worker education plays an
important role in the proper use of PPE. Workers
should be trained to wear proper PPE. After
handling of dangerous chemicals, workers must
change their clothing followed by bath with soap
and water. Provision of safety shower within easy
reach is essential.
Periodic medical examination of workers
exposed to hazardous chemicals should be carried
out. If worker shows any indication of poisoning
due to chemical, suitable preventive measures
should be taken.
41
9.2 Operational Deviations :
Working parameters of process materials or utilities
should not be deviated. Sudden changes in pressure,
temperature, flow, control system etc. or exceeding
safe operating limit (e.g. pressure vessel) or
permissible exposure limit (e.g. toxic release, noise,
radiation etc.) can result in accidents. Sometimes
low level (e.g. water level in boilers, oil level in
heaters) is also hazardous. Sudden opening of
valves cause surges, fluctuations and vibrations.
Increased addition rate of nitric acid has caused
many accidents.
If pump or compressor stops, temperature
increases or decreases, cooling or scrubbing stops,
material expands or contracts or runaway reaction
takes place, then because of change in pressure;
temperature, flow and level are also changing.
If heating or cooling stops, heat exchanger
stops, charging system changes, stirring delays in
starting or restarts after closure, it errs in adding
material or catalyst is overheated, then because of
change in temperature; pressure, flow and reaction
rate are affected.
If feed material stops, vapour affects, pump
stops, impurities settle, material freezes or
polymerises, ambient temperature goes down or
control valve blocks, then because of change in flow;
pressure, temperature and level are also changing. If
flow stops, reduces or leaks, accident can occur.
Therefore pipelines and valves should be kept clean
and without choking. Steam tracing (indirect
heating) lines should be provided on pipelines
carrying material which can freeze and result in no
flow.
If flow changes, pump stops, vapour or
blockage takes place, vacuum fails or by surging,
foaming, heat expansion, siphoning, stirring or
vibration level changes and because of change in
level; pressure, weight and measure also change.
Measuring tank, day-tank, flow control meter, feed
control valve, level indicator and level alarm are
useful in controlling level.
Because of errors, faults or lags in
measurement, design, operating valve or seeing or
recording process parameters or in instruments
indicating pressure, temperature, level, flow etc. or
in their settings or by stoppage of utilities, control
systems change resulting in change in parameters.
Testing and monitoring of instruments/equipment
and training of workers can reduce such errors.
Failure of vessel, jacket, pipe, joint, pump,
gasket, blower, compressor, stirrer, controllers,
computers, pressure relief devices, flare, scrubber,
welding etc., can cause major or minor accidents.
These can be reduced by good design and
maintenance.
To prevent operational deviations as stated
above, it is most important to pay attention on
safety and control devices such as pressure relief
devices, level and flow controllers, temperature
controls, alarms, trips and interlocks, leak detectors,
spark or flame arresters, flameproof fittings where
necessary, slow and safe charging and stirring, slow
heating and monitoring, dumping or emergency by
pass system, fire detection and control system,
preventive and rapid corrective maintenance,
education and training etc.
Emergency Shutdown : Because of operational
deviations as discussed above or any other reason
or failure of safety and control device when
emergency arises and the situation seems to be out
of control or aggravating, it becomes necessary to
shutdown the plant or part thereof. Following
procedures are adopted for this purpose :
2. Cutting of heat source or starting of cooling.
3. Stoppage of adding new material.
4. Stoppage of mixing.
5. Dilution of internal substance or reaction mass.
6. Flooding by water if it is effective.
7. Inert gas (N2) purging.
8. Emergency by pass (transferring the material).
9. Inactivating the catalyst.
The most suitable, effective and safe procedure
should be selected depending on process.
9.3 Use of Vessels, Equipments & Control
Room
9.4 Safety in Laboratory
9.5 Specific Safety Measures for certain
Chemical Industries
Some general safety measures for control,
precautions and prevention of hazards in general
unit processes and unit operations are discussed
above. Now specific safety measures for some
specific chemical industries are discussed in
Chapter-23.
9.6 Use of Personal Protective
Equipment
It should be the aim of plant designer to have
minimum contact of worker with the hazardous
chemicals. This can be achieved by handling the
chemicals through pipeline, measuring vessel,
engineering controls etc., and avoiding handling it
manually through carboys, drums etc. Yet,
sometimes it becomes unavoidable and a worker
may be exposed to these chemicals. In such cases
PPE must be used and utmost care should be taken
to have minimum contact with the worker. PPE
should conform the IS quality and most suitable to
the workers. Worker education and training plays a
very important role in ensuring that they use the
42
protective appliances provided to them. Better and
more effective appliances are being designed which
are more comfortable to use and afford better
protection to workers against chemicals. For details
see Chapter-25.
10 UTILITY HAZARDS AND
CONTROLS
Water, air, power, thermic fluid, fuel, steam/heating
media, brine/cooling media, inert gas/purging
media, also need attention from safety point of view.
Their failure creates immediate danger which
requires similar immediate controls. Therefore
compressors, condensers, emergency services,
stand-by equipment etc., should be kept ready for
immediate use.
Hazards of such utilities are not only because of
their sudden failure, but also due to their working
parameters like pressure, temperature, flow,
leakage, dripping, toxicity, flammability and
hazards of the vessels, piping, equipment and
instruments through which they pass. Uncontrolled
process or fire water may corrode the things, air
pressure can burst a vessel or throw dust, thermic
fluid leakage can cause fire or explosion, inert gas
diminishes oxygen level for breathing and electric
power and steam has, already caused many
accidents. Refrigerant gas freon causes ozone
depletion and thousands of tonnes of hydrocarbons
and carbon dioxide emitted by fuel combustion,
pollute the environment. Noise and vibration due to
high flow of steam or air and other health hazards
due to misuse of air, water, steam, electricity and
nitrogen are also not uncommon.
In distillation column-condenser when cooling
water stops, due to heat rise, pressure increases and
bursts the condenser or sometimes causes back
pressure in distillation vessel itself and bursts it.
Pressure relief devices on such vessels, condensers
and even on receivers are therefore necessary. High
pressure/ temperature alarms interlocked with heat
source to cut off the heat supply at predetermined
pressure or temperature can work as safety devices.
For quick cooling water supply, stand-by pump-
motor set, DG set or overhead water tank to get
water by static head only, are also necessary.
If there is a common water reservoir for process
and fire water both, the suction pipe of the fire
water pump should be deeper than that of the
process water pump to allow a reserved stock of fire
water for emergency.
Kettles, stills, jacketed vessels, evaporating
pans and steam heaters where normally steam is
utilised in jacket or heating coil, should be treated
as pressure vessels for the purpose of safety. Their
pressure parts should be provided with safety
valve, pressure gauge and PRV. They should be
tested by NDT and hydraulic testing and its records
be maintained.
When a steam-jacketed vessel is completely
valved off (vented), it should be protected with a
vacuum breaker to stop collapsing. Where air is not
desirable, N2 injection device should be provided.
Before opening the vessel, first the jacket should be
completely drained to make its pressure zero, and
then the whole vessel should be allowed to cool. The
jacket should be thoroughly drained before
admitting steam into it because water in steam space
may cause serious damage.
Autoclaves, vulcanisers, retorts, digesters etc.
should not be opened before depressurising them.
Their door should therefore be interlocked with the
pressure.
In cold vessels, steam should be admitted
slowly for slow and uniform heating and expansion
of all parts. Steam valves should be opened slowly.
Where heating coils are used to heat water, oil
or material, they should be kept submerged, the
minimum liquid level should be maintained (by
level gauge or low level alarm and automatic
addition of the liquid) and the coil should be kept
open at other end or be provided with a safety valve
and steam-trap and should be checked for any
choking.
Steam pipes should be insulated and claded.
Steam leak can also cause static charge because of its
jet action, therefore where steam is used to heat
flammable material, steam pipes should be properly
earthed and bonded.
For air cooling, heat exchangers and
compressors and for brine cooling and refrigeration,
chilling plant and insulation should be properly
provided.
Air being supplied to pneumatic equipment
and respirators should be clean, dry, without dust,
water or oil and at bearable pressure. Therefore air
filter, pressure cut off switch, safety valve, pressure
gauge and pressure regulator are necessary. Air
receiver tanks should be tested hydraulically and
their safety devices (SV, PG & PR) should be
maintained properly.
Thermic Fluid Heaters : They are used to heat
thermic fluid which is circulated in a closed loop
through textile machines or chemical vessels
requiring heat. Instead of steam, this oil is used
because it can be heated to higher temperature and
circulated at less pressure. It is less compressed and
therefore stores less energy at the same temperature.
Its main hazard is fire or explosion and can also
cause hot burns if splashed.
Rule 61D of the Gujarat Factories Rules,
provides for thermic fluid heaters as under :
1. Heater coils should be removable for cleaning,
inspection and hydro-test.
2. In case of power failure, arrangements to cool
the furnace.
43
3. Purging before restarting.
4. While heating, fluid flow velocity should not fall
below the minimum recommended by the
manufacturer.
5. Thermic fluid should be in a closed circuit with
an expansion cum deaerator tank located outside
the shed of the heater.
6. Heater should be equipped with a photoregister
actuated audio visual alarm to indicate flame
failure and automatic burner cut-off.
7. Stack temperature monitor or controller with
audio-visual alarm to warn the operator that the
outlet temperature is exceeding the minimum
specified.
8. Inspection doors on furnace should be
interlocked with burner so that they cannot be
opened till the burner is shutoff and furnace is
cooled.
9. Heater safety devices :
 Level control (safe overflow) in expansion
tank.
 Temperature control of the thermic fluid.
 Differential pressure switch on outlet line of
the heater tubes.
 Temperature controller for fuel oil supply to
the burner.
Above devices should be interlocked with
burner to cut-off the supply of fuel and air to
burner in case of predetermined limits being
crossed.
10. Interlock operation should be indicated on
control panel by audio-visual alarm.
11. Heater should be provided with a device to
supply low pressure steam or nitrogen to put
out the fire.
12. Heater should be housed in a segregated shed.
Control panel should be near the heater.
13. Explosion vent should have safe discharge.
14. Heater coil shall be tested by a competent person
every year. Test pressure should be more than
double the operating pressure. Test is required
after each repair.
15. The thermic fluid should conform to the
specifications prescribed by the manufacturer. It
shall be tested by competent person once in three
months for acidity, suspended matter, ash
content, viscosity and flash point.
16. Internal surface of heater, soot and refractory
shall be checked every month or as often as
required. The coils be removed and cleaned
thoroughly at least in a period of six months. The
burner, nozzles, oil filters and pumps shall be
cleaned once in a week.
17. Register shall be maintained to record weekly
checks of interlocks and accessories and
recording fuel oil temperature and pressure,
thermic fluid inlet and outlet temperature and
 pressure, and fuel gas temperature at four hourly
interval.
18. A trained operator shall be in charge of the
heater.
Rule 61D ends here.
Coal, lignite, wood, furnace oil, diesel oil, LSHS,
LPG, natural gas (LNG) etc. are used as
conventional fuels. After combustion coal, lignite
and wood (solid material) result in ashes and fly ash
and dust particles cause health hazards and air
pollution. They need costly control measures. To
suppress coal dust and fly ash, water should be
sprayed over them.
Some people burn rubber, plastic, paper and
similar solid wastes (non conventional fuels) in
boilers or furnaces. This is highly objectionable as it
emits black smoke and carbon particles in
surrounding, affecting neighbouring industries and
public. In addition, it pollutes the environment. LPG
or natural gas are clean fuels, give good thermal
energy and less pollute the environment. Therefore
their use should be preferred. LSHS, furnace oil and
diesel oil stand in-between. Economy and
availability of fuel may have influence on selection,
but however looking to the increasing air pollution,
only eco-friendly fuels should be preferred. Storage
tanks of fuels should be protected by safety devices
discussed in foregoing Part 9.2.
Pipelines for steam, oil, water, air, fuel and
chemicals should be arranged and protected
properly. They should not cause any obstruction.
Their supporting structure position and height
should be safe and without risk. They should be
painted with colours for protection and
identification of hazards. Direction of flow should
be indicated. Earthing, bonding, insulation, fittings
(valves, regulators, gauges etc.) and joints should be
as per requirement.
Electrical cables should be laid in trenches and
in safe position i.e. away from furnaces, molten
metal, chemicals, steam, water, hot oil or their
splashes. Loose or hanging wiring must be avoided,
joints if any, should be safe and sound so that they
cannot be pulled out. Three pin top in plug, double
earthing, charging of earthing pit, ELCB in power
lines of portable tools, fuses of safe amperage and
all electrical materials and fittings conforming IS
mark are the basic requirements. For details see
Chapter 11.
Mixing of Utilities can cause hazards. Wrong
operation of electric switch has caused fatal
accidents. Mixing of steam or water in the jacket
with reaction mass in the vessel, mixing of air with
flammable material or mixing of toxic material with
air or water are all hazardous. Mixing of water in
molten metal (e.g. induction furnace) or in reaction
mass above 100 0C has caused serious accidents.
Splashes of molten metal on electric cables has
caused great fire resulting in damage of lacs of
44
rupees. At very low temperatures (near 0C or
below), water can freeze in pipelines and block it.
Cyanides or pesticides mixed and drained with
water can kill animals. Inert gas nitrogen has caused
accidents. Playing with pressurised air, exposure to
sudden splashes of steam, hot water or oil can also
cause accidents. Therefore pipelines of utilities need
sometimes double isolation or double block and
bleed valves.
11 POLLUTION HAZARDS AND
CONTROLS
Chemical industry discharges solid, liquid or
gaseous wastes as a result of manufacturing process.
Such wastes may be toxic, flammable, corrosive,
radioactive, non-biodegradable or hazardous in
nature and if it is not properly treated, it pollutes
land, water, air and overall environment.
Water, soil/land, and air pollution create many
problems and need efficient control. Effluent
treatment plants and appropriate scrubbers,
exhausts, flare tower, incineration and other
neutralising or inactivating devices are most
desirable. They must work for all working hours
and in effective manner. For details see Part 6.12.2 of
Chapter-24 and Part 2.23 to 2.37 of Chapter-28.
Subsequent Part 13 and 14 may be referred
for fire, explosion and toxic release effects.
12 INSTRUMENTATION FOR
SAFE PLANT OPERATIONS
After understanding various types of chemical
hazards in foregoing parts, we should proceed to
know the instruments, equipment and other control
measures.
To maintain, control, measure, alarm and
record process parameters, various industrial
instruments and safety devices are used. Their
proper selection, application and maintenance are
most important. Some basic instruments are
mentioned below :
12.1 Basic Instruments
Anemometer : Instrument for measuring
the speed of wind or any
other moving gas.
Atmometer : Evaporimeter. An
instrument for measuring
the rate of evaporation of
water.
Barometer : For measuring
atmospheric pressure.
Barograph : Used in meteorology for
recording on paper the
variations in atmospheric
pressure over a period of
time. Bolometer : An extremely sensitive
instrument for measuring
heat radiation.

45
Bomb : A strong metal vessel
calorimeter used for measuring heats
of reaction, especially
heats of combustion, e.g.
for determining the
calorific value of a fuel.
Bourdon Gauge : A pressure gauge for
steam boilers etc.
Calorimeter : For determining
quantities of heat
evolved, absorbed or
transferred.
Chronograph : An accurate time-
recording instrument.
“Chronometer’ is an
accurate clock, especially
used on a ship in
navigation.
Colorimeter : Apparatus used in
colorimetric analysis for
comparing intensities of
colour.
Cryometer : A thermometer
especially designed for
measuring low
temperatures.
Cryophorous : An apparatus used to
demonstrate the cooling
effect of evaporation.
Dasymeter : An instrument for
determining the density
of a gas.
Dilatometer : An apparatus used for
measuring volume
changes of substances.
Dynamometer : Instrument for the
measurement of power.
Ediometer : A glass tube for
measuring volume
changes in chemical
reactions between gases.
Hydrometer : For measuring the
density or relative
density of liquids.
Hygrometer : For measuring the
relative humidity of the
atmosphere.
Hygroscope : An instrument for
showing variations of
relative humidity of the
air.
Hypsometer : An apparatus for
determination of the
boiling point of a liquid.
It is also used to
determine altitude above
sea level, and therefore
known as Height
measurer.
Manometer : For measuring gaseous
46
pressure.
Nephelometer : For measuring turbidity
of liquids, or scattering of
light by particles in
suspensions.
Nephoscope : A grid-like instrument
for determining the speed
of celestial objects
(including clouds) by
observation of time of
transit.
Osmometer : For measuring osmotic
pressures.
Pyknometer : An apparatus for
determining the density
and co-efficient of
expansion of a liquid.
Pyrometer : For measuring high
temperatures.
Rotameter : A device to measure the
rate of flow of fluids.
Salinometer : A type of hydrometer
used for determining the
concentration of salt
solutions by measuring
their density.
Seismograph : For recording
earthquakes and
phenomena associated
with them.
Spectrometer : (1) A type of
spectroscope for the
precise measurements of
refractory indices
(2) An instrument for
measuring the energy
distribution of a
particular type of
radiation. e.g. a
scintillation
spectrometer.
Spectro : A photometer for
photometer comparing two light
radiation wavelength by
wavelength.
Spectroscope : For spectrographic
analysis or the
observation of spectra.
Spherometer : For accurate
measurement of small
thickness, or curvature of
spherical surfaces.
Tensimeter : For measuring vapour
pressures.
Tensiometer : An apparatus for
measuring the (1) surface
tension of a liquid (2)
moisture content of soil
or (3) tension in a wire,
fibre or beam.
Thermo : For measuring and Thermocouple : For measurement of
barograph recording atmospheric temperature.
temperature and
pressure, consisting of a
thermograph and
barograph.

47
Thermograph : A self-registering Alcohol detecting instruments : With
thermometer to record electronic alarm to warn before drivers sit behind
temperature variations the wheels or workers on the machines, thus
during a period of time prevent them from alcohol consumption when they
on a graph. are on duty.
Thermometer : For measurement of Similar other instruments : Explosimeter, Clap
temperature viz. mercury switch, LPG level alarm, Gas level indicator, Smoke
thermometer, gas detector, Insect killer, Proximity switches, Remote
thermometer, pyrometer, controls, Breath analyser, CO/methane detector,
resistance thermometer, Touch switch, Electronic siren, Loud hailer cum
thermocouple, Beckman siren, Multipoint gas detection (alarm) system, NH 3
thermometer, detector, Cl2 detector, Flammable gas detector,
thermometer clinical, , Digital in/out indicator, Burglar alarm, Heat sensor,
thermometer-maximum Manual fire alarm switch, Control cum power unit,
and minimum. Static charge detector, Hand-dryer, Timer, Hooter, 2
Thermopile : For detecting and wire ionisation smoke detector, Heat detector for
measuring heat radiation. locations subject to rapid temperature fluctuations,
Thermostat : For maintaining a Halon-1301 fire extinguishing system, CO 2
constant temperature by extinguishing system, Dragger tubes and air pump
the use of a device that for contaminated air sampling (different tubes for
cuts of the supply of heat different gases), Gas chromatography, Solid state
when the required potentiometric recorders, Combustion gas detector,
temperature is exceeded Explosive gas detector with personal monitor, Infra-
and automatically red gas analyser for the measurement of CO, CO 2,
restores the supply when CH3 and other constituents in the ppm and
the temperature falls percentage range. Dragger polymeter to determine
below that required. mean value of gas concentrations in air over a
Viscometer : For the measurement of period of several hours by means of special
viscosity. ‘Dragger’ long term detector tubes e.g. for CO, NH 3,
benzene, vinyl chloride etc. Oxygen detection
12.2 Specific Instruments system for O2 measurement with audible alarm and
fail-safe monitoring, Tunnel control laser, Portable
Some special instruments available are as follows : anemometer giving direct reading of wind velocity,
Gas/Fume/Vapour Detector & Alarm (Gas Velometers, Noise dosimeter, Noise meters,
Leakage Warning Instrument) : This is an electronic Calibrators and filters, Temperature data logger,
instrument having a sensor and audible alarm to Dust sampler for taking dust samples for
give warning when pre-set air-gas (toxic or gravimetric, chemical and mineralogical analysis,
explosive) mixture exceeds the set TLV or LEL/UEL Hilgers i.e. oil and water remover, IST (International
limit. It detects flue gases, LPG, smoke, petrol Sensor Technology of USA) sensor to measure CO,
vapours, paraffin fumes, hydrocarbons, ammonia, NOx, NH3, SO2, H2, hydrocarbons, vinyl chloride,
freon, hexane, acetone, benzene, chloroform fumes, acrylonitrile etc., in ppm or percentage level, High
CO2, H2S, methane, solvent vapours and many pressure liquid chromatography for degassing of
poisonous/explosive gases. Various types of gas solvents not necessary, Refractive index detector,
detector hand models are also available. Fluorescence detector, Autosampler,
Metal Detector : It detects the metallic objects Microprocessor based system controller, Flame
of ferrous and non-ferrous materials hidden in the arresters (or flame traps) to ensure safety from
pocket/bag etc. and can locate the concealed explosions due to flammable gases, vapours or
conducts or cables etc., from a close distance. It is dusts etc.
like torch and has piezo alarm. Flameproof equipment : Switch gears, lighting
Electronic Flasher : A built-in solid state fitting, cable/conductor, cable glands, and
electronic flasher which can flash mains bulb or accessories viz. switch socket, limit switches, rotary
series lamps on mains at adjustable flashing rate. It cam operated switches or isolators, fuse unit with
can be used as danger indicator or attracting HRC fuse links, bell, tubelight fixture, glass lighting
attention etc. fitting, flood light, control gear box, bulkhead
Electronic Aircleaner : For indoor use upto an fittings, handlamp, vessel lamp, safety torch,
area of 25 sq. meters for pollution free clean indicating lamp, ammeter, circuit breaker,
atmosphere and wherever bad odour is a problem. distribution board, control station, remote control
It also deactivates dust particles suspended in air, panels, junction boxes-round and square,
reduces effects of secondary smoking and controls flameproof and explosion proof electric motors of
virus and retards growth of bacteria. type ‘d’, type ‘e’ (increased safety), type ‘n’ (non-

48
sparking) and type ‘p’ (pressurised) are to be
selected for use in hazardous areas. Various Indian
Standards viz. : 5571, 8240 etc., are also prescribed.
See Part 8 of Chapter-25 for environment
monitoring equipment.
12.3 Process Control Instruments
For temperatures : Thermocouples, radiation
pyrometers, optical pyrometers, resistance
thermometer, all glass thermometers, electronic
potentiometer, multi-point potentiometer, automatic
electronic balanced bridge, ratio meter, automatic
miliameters, liquid type manometric temperature
measuring instrument and direct acting temperature
controller.
For pressure : Strain gauges, pressure
transducers, pressure gauge, vacuum gauge,
compound pressure and vacuum gauge, pressure
(head) gauge, draft gauge, compound pressure and
draft gauge, automatic pressure regulator, viz. gas
pressure regulator, fuel oil pressure regulator, direct
acting recorders, diaphragm type breathing valve.
High vacuum measurement : Bodurn gauge,
Bellos gauge, diaphragm gauge, Mcleod gauge,
Knudsen gauge, thermal conductivity gauge,
rotating viscometer gauge, heat filament ionisation
gauge, Philips cold cathode ionisation gauge.
For level : Liquid level detector, viz. float
gauges, mercury manometers, aneroid manometer,
liquid level measuring instrument, remote liquid
level indicator with continuous type, fixed point
indicating device, fluidised solid level detector.
For flow : Liquid filled manometer, float type
manometer, head flow meter, belt type meter, wet
balance type meter, Bellos meter, force balance
meter, integrators, area flow meter, e.g. general,
rotameters, piston type area meter, positive
displacement meter, weirs, mass and magnetic flow
meter, densito-meter, turbine velocity meter,
volumetric flow meter, gasoline flow meter, gas
flow controller, air flow controller, differential
pressure gauges for measuring flow rates.
Quality analysers : Commercial automatic
analysers installed on process plant,
chromatography apparatus, photoelectric
colorimetric gas analyser, gas/vapour monitor
alarm devices and viscoci meter.
For centralised control computers : Digital
computers, automatic petroleum processing control
system, automatic air operated centralised
monitoring and control system, electronic
instrumentation system.
Revolution meters : Tachometer, governor, air
velocity meter, accelerometer.
Density and specific gravity meters :
Psychrometer, hygrometers, dew point meters,
viscometer, velocity measuring device, consistency
measuring device, densitometer.
49
12.4 Process and Control System
Characteristics
Chemical processes and operations need efficient
process and control system and a variety of
instruments for them. Instrumentation and Control
(IC) has developed as a special branch of
engineering. Exclusive IC department and IC
engineers are employed for this specific purpose.
Types of instruments - manual, mechanical,
pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical, electronic and
computer aided, their quality and sophistication are
day by day improving. Their design, erection and
maintenance certainly need qualified and
experienced personnel. When the safety,
productivity and control systems are governed by
such instrumentation, it occupies due importance
and place in modern industry.
Process control system can be classified
machine, reactor or parameterwise such as printing
or painting machine control, turbine or compressor
control, reactor or vessel control; pressure,
temperature or flow control, speed control and
instrument control. It can also be classified as
manual control, autocontrol, semi-auto control,
analogue control and computer control.
Classification also exists as mechanical control,
pneumatic (air) control, hydraulic (water or oil)
control, electronic control etc.
Main functions (objectives) of control system
are to collect information, to measure and display it,
to control normal working and to detect fault and
correct it. The control system depends on process
characteristics. Therefore they are discussed first.
Process Characteristics, as mentioned by F.P.
Lees, include many things as under :
Functionwise they require monitoring,
optimisation, scheduling, process investigation,
plant commissioning, feed forward control etc.
Sequential control characteristics include batch
or continuous operation, plant start-up or
shutdown, changes in equipment, product quality
or throughput, and mechanical handling operations.
Process characteristics which tend to make
feedback control more difficult are measurement
problem, dead time, recycle, very short or long time
constants, nonlinearity, limit cycles, strong
interactions, high sensitivity, high penalties and
changes in parameters or constraint.
The process disturbances include quality and
availability of raw materials, product, services,
plant equipment and environmental conditions.
These disturbances may be due to malfunction of
plant equipment or control system, process
materials behaviour, drifting and decaying factors
and links with other plants.
Control System Characteristics include
manual, analogue and computer control.
Manual control system includes instruments
for whole range of chemical and physical properties
and a wide range of displays such as panel board
displays, computer graphics and displays of flow,
current measurement, alarms, sequential control,
maloperation, command etc.
Analogue control equipment are used for
measurement, information reduction and sequential
control. They include data loggers, alarm scanners
and trip systems. Trips may be used for safety
shutdown function also.
Computer controls include direct digital
control (DDC), distribution control system (DCS)
and supervisory control.
Present trend in control systems is to increase
degree of automation and a change in operator’s
role from control to monitoring.
12.5 Instrument System for Safety
Use of instrumentation for safety is equally
important. Process parameters are well known
because of the fixed objectives and therefore
instrument system for process control developed
first. Instrument system for safety developed at a
later stage based on learning from accidents and
thinking of remedial measures.
Types of instrument systems for safety include
fail-safe design, trips, interlocks; gas, smoke and fire
detectors, toxic detectors, reaction runaway
detectors, logic systems etc.
Some basic principles for safety
instrumentation are as under :
1. Instead of providing elaborate or complex
instrument system, the hazard should be
reduced at source.
2. HAZOP study should be conducted to assess
potential hazards, operating difficulties and
instrumentation necessary.
3. The measurement should be of direct variable
and at direct location.
4. While designing alarms, other factors like
instrument failure, operator confidence, his
information load etc. should also be considered.
5. As far as possible instrument design should be
fail-safe.
6. Range of the instrument should be sufficient so
that even low input can be measured.
7. Control system should be capable of dealing
with normal and abnormal conditions e.g. start-
up and shutdown.
8. In case of failure of auto-controls, manual
controls should also be provided for safety.
9. Fault finding instrument should not be disturbed
by the fault itself.
10. Service instruments (e.g. for air, power, inert
gas) should have high integrity.
11. Instrument should be checked regularly and
repaired quickly.
12. Instrument design should be such that it should
indicate its fault easily. The process operator
50
should be trained to find such fault as a part of
his duty.
13. Test should correspond as nearly as possible to
the expected plant conditions. It may pass a
workshop test, but may not perform
satisfactorily on the plant.
14. Valves may stick or jam. Jamming in the open
position is dangerous. More positive isolation
may require double block and bleed valves.
15. Human errors should be fully considered.
Ergonomic principles should be applied to
reduce human error as far as possible.
12.6 Safety Features of Instruments
Instruments failure can also cause accidents.
Therefore while designing and manufacturing, it is
necessary to consider safety features of instruments
also. For examples, ordinary glass or plastic parts
may not withstand high pressure or temperature,
corrosive metal parts are not suitable for corrosive
chemicals, teflon coating with stainless steel is
required for material like oleum, lead is preferred to
make film badges for shielding against ionising
radiation, electrical parts must conform to Indian
Standard for better performance and special alloys
are required for special purposes.
F.P. Lees has listed following features :
1. Instrument may fail due to a functional fault or
loss of containment from the instrument.
2. Slight glasses or rotameters, made of glass, can
break and leak. If leaks are dangerous, glass
should be avoided.
3. Material of construction should be proper. After
considering the properties of the material to be
handled and working parameters, material for
instrument should be selected.
4. Pressure transmitters and regulators can be
damaged by overpressure. If they break, their
pressure should be safely released.
5. Protection against corrosive fluid is necessary.
e.g. use of inert liquid in impulse lines on
pressure transmitters or of chemical diaphragm
seals on pressure gauges.
6. Sampling and impulse lines should be checked
for blockage. Steam tracing is useful against
freezing (e.g. Phthalic anhydride).
7. A thermowell to hold thermometer should be
carefully designed to take into account
corrosion/erosion effect.
8. Pulsating flow in flowmeters can cause
inaccuracies. Design of orifice plate should
consider this factor.
9. Complex instruments like analysers, speed
controllers, vibration monitors and solids
weighers are generally less reliable.
Consequences of their failure should be carefully
analysed.
10. Out of different types of pressure regulators (e.g.
PRV, NRV, EFV, SV, RD), the right one should
be selected at right place. No bypass should be
provided between pressure regulators.
11. A control valve should be selected properly.
Nominal capacity, rangeability, control
characteristics, flow limit when fully open,
cooling fins for temperature protection, bellows
seals to prevent leaks and mechanical balancing
(capacity) against process pressure are the
factors to be considered for selection.
12. Instruments should not become a source of
ignition. Electrical area classification should be
considered. They should be flameproof as per
requirement.
13 FIRE, EXPLOSION AND TOXICITY
INDEX
13.1 General Criteria
Flammable chemicals may be solid, liquid or
gas (vapour). Cotton waste, coal, sodium peroxide,
phosphorous etc., are solid; petrol, acetone, alcohol,
solvents etc., are liquid and LPG, hydrogen,
methane etc., are gases. Vapours from flammable
liquids are heavier than air. As per the Petroleum
Act, flammable liquids (hydrocarbon) are classified
as below :
Class Range of Flash Example
Point
A Below 230C Methanol
B 23 to < 650C Diesel, Fuel Oil
C 65 to < 930C Propionic acid
See para 28 of Part 7.3 for classification of
flammable liquids under MSIHC (Amendment)
Rules 1999.
Low flash point indicates higher flammability
and requires much care. Detailed precautions are
mentioned in Petroleum Act and Rules (See Part
2.14 & 2.15 of Chapter-28). Most flammable liquids
will flow or float on water where they can burn
freely and flow over a large area. Heavier
flammable liquid (specific gravity more than one)
will go underneath the water which will extinguish
the fire.
Vapour density of gas or vapour is useful to
locate the ventilation. Gas with vapour density less
than one is lighter than air and will go up on
release, viz., ammonia (0.59), hydrogen (0.069),
methane (0.6). Gas with vapour density more than
one is heavier than air and will go down on release,
viz., benzene (2.8), butane (2.04), propane (1.56).
Fire is caused when flammable vapour or gas
combines with oxygen in air in correct proportion
and source of ignition. Explosion is caused when
confined vapour or gas (capable of pressure build
up) combines with oxygen or air in correct
51
proportion and source of ignition. If auto-ignition
temperature is available, then, source of ignition is
not needed. Autoignition temperature (AIT) of
Methane, Ethane, Propane, n-Butane and n-Hexane
are 537, 515, 466, 405 and 223 0C respectively.
Hydrogen exhibits a reverse Joule-Thompson
effect, so that leaking gas heats up and self ignites.
Its flame is non-visible and one may unawarely
walk over it.
Material Factor is a combined measure of
flammability and reactivity and is a number ranging
from 1 to 40. Higher MF indicates higher fire and
explosion hazard. MF for ammonia, benzene,
butane, ethylene, acetylene and nitro-glycerine are 4,
16, 21, 24, 29 and 40 respectively. Thus nitro-
glycerine is more flammable than ammonia.
Identify the flammable solids, liquids and gases
(vapours) from their chemical properties including
reactivity with other substances and effects of
process parameters on environment and assess the
fire hazards. Then from total fire hazards per unit
area, calculate the fire -loads to assess the quantity
and quality of fire prevention and protection
systems. Then from Chapter-13, select the
appropriate fire extinguishers - fixed and portable,
viz. foam, CO2, or dry powder type for flammable
liquids and CO2 or dry powder type for gases.
Seven basic safe guards against flammable
chemicals are :
1. Isolate the hazard.
2. Confine safely the flammable chemical
(explosive mixture) for safe drawing or
containment for safe disposal.
3. Ventilate to prevent explosive mixtures.
4. Install explosion vents in furnaces and where
necessary. Rupture discs, explosion proof
barricading blast walls and process controls are
safety measures to prevent explosion.
5. Eliminate ignition sources.
6. Educate and train workers to fight fire hazards.
7. Provide adequate fire prevention and protection
systems.
Use of work-permit system, safety check list,
good housekeeping; good maintenance of electrical
installations, fire prevention and protection systems,
sparks generating processes, friction of heat
generating machines and equipment, bonding,
earthing etc., and safe handling of LPG, ethylene
oxide and other flammables are important safety
measures. For more details, see Chapter-13.
See part III of Sch. 19 u/r 102 of the Gujarat
Factories Rules for ‘Fire & Explosion Risks’. It
requires hazard & area classification, spark
avoidance, insulation, earthing, safe heating, dyke,
waste disposal, safety valves and fire fighting
system. For details see Part 11 of Chapter-23.
See Part 5.2 of Chapter-19 for further details of
fire, explosion and toxic releases.

13.2 Assessment of Fire, Explosion
and Toxicity Index (DOW and
MOND Index)
Various hazard indices have been developed to (1)
Quantify the expected damage due to fire, explosion
or toxicity (2) Identify the equipment that would
create or escalate an accident and (3) Communicate
such risk potential to management to take necessary
remedial measures e.g. increasing separation
distance, erecting a blast wall or fireproof
construction and revision of fire fighting and gas
control facilities.
The most famous and widely used hazard
index is the Dow Index developed by the Dow
Chemical Company of USA since 1964. The MOND
Index is an extended Dow Index based on the similar
methodology with an useful extension e.g. to
estimate fire load of an area and a unit toxicity
index.
In the first three editions the methods of
determining the Fire and Explosion Index (F & EI)
were developed and in the fourth edition, the
method of calculating Maximum Probable Property
Damage (MPPD) from the F & EI was suggested and
a Toxicity Index (TI) was introduced. For details the
Company’s Guide has to be referred.
To develop an F & EI and risk analysis
summary, we need -
1. An accurate plot plan of the plant.
2. A process flow sheet.
3. An F & EI Hazard Classification Guide.
4. An F & EI Form.
5. An Unit Analysis Summary.
6. A Plant Risk Analysis Summary, and
7. A cost data for the installed process equipment
under study.
A schematic diagram of procedure to calculate
F & EI, MPPD, MPDO (Maximum Probable Days
Outage) and BI (Business Interruption loss) is given
in Fig. 18.
Select Pertinent
Process Unit
 5. F & EI = MF x F3. From the chart, by using F & EI,
Determine Material
Factor
 6. Determine the Rupee value of all equipment
 
Calculate F1 Calculate F2
General Process Special Process
Hazards Hazards
 and/or by relocating certain high value
Determine Unit
Hazard Factor
F1 x F 2 = F 3

F3 x Material Factor =
F&EI

Determine Exposure
Area

Determine
Replacement Value in
Exposure Area
Damage
Factor
Base MPPD

Apply Credit Factors
Actual MPPD

MPDO

BI
Fig. 18. - Procedure for Calculating Unit
Hazard Factor, F & EI - MPPD &
MPDO & BI
As revealed from the figure, the procedure for
assessment is summarised as under -
1. Identify on the plot plan any Process Units that
are considered pertinent to the process and that
would have the greatest impact on the
magnitude of a fire or explosion.
2. Determine the Material Factors (MF) for each
process unit. It can be calculated from
flammability and reactivity, or from its ready
table (some figures are given below).
3. Evaluate each of the contributing hazard factors
listed on the F & EI Form, under ‘General
Process Hazards’ and ‘Special Process Hazards’
and apply the appropriate penalties. This will
give F1 and F2.
4. Unit hazard factor F3 = F1 x F2. This gives the
degree of hazard exposure of the process unit.
From the chart, using unit hazard factor with the
MF to determine Damage Factor (DF) which
represents the degree of loss exposure.
Area (radius) of Exposure surrounding the
process unit can be determined.
within the Area of Exposure. This value is used
to obtain the Base maximum Probable Property
Damage (Base MPPD).
7. The Base MPPD can be reduced to an actual
MPPD by applying various Credit Factors
equipment outside the Area of Exposure.

52
8. Actual MPPD is used to obtain MPDO, from Hydrogen cyanide 29 10300
which Business Interruption (BI) can be Hydrogen sulphide 21 6500
calculated. Kerosene 10 19800
Lube oil 4 19000
For the details of each of above steps and Methane 21 21500
necessary Tables, Figures, Forms and Charts, see Methyl alcohol 16 8600
Reference No. 36 at the end of this Chapter.
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 16 13500
Material Factor (MF) is the basic starting value
Methyl mercaptan 21 10000
in the computation of the F & EI and other risk
analysis values. It is a measure of the intrinsic rate Mineral oil 4 17000
of potential energy release from fire or explosion Naphtha 16 18000
produced by combustion or chemical reaction. Nitrobenzene 10 10400
The MF is obtained from N f and Nr, the NFPA Nitro-glycerine 40 7800
signals expressing flammability and reactivity (or Octane 16 20500
instability) of a material at ambient temperatures. Pentane 21 19400
As fire and reaction hazards increase with Petroleum-crude 16 21300
temperature, ‘Temperature Adjustment of MF’ is Phenol 10 13400
also required. In case of mixture, normally the MF of Propane 21 19900
the component with the highest MF value is Propylene 21 19700
considered. Pyridine 16 5900
The MF is a number in the range from 1 to 40 Styrene 24 17400
and higher number indicates higher hazard. MF and Sulphur 4 4000
Heat of combustion H c of some common chemicals Sulphur dioxide 0 0
are given in Table 18.7. Toluene 16 17400
Vinyl chloride 21 8000
Table 18.7 : MF & HC Values Vinyl cyclohexane 24 19000
Chemical MF Hc BTU/lb Xylene 16 17600
Acetaldehyde 24 10500
Acetone 16 12300 In the above table higher MF indicates high
Acetonitrile 24 12600 hazard potential and higher H c indicates high heat
Acetylene 29 20700 generation while burning, which in turn, indicates
Acrylonitrile 24 13700 more quantity of fire fighting material (e.g. water,
Ammonia 4 8000 foam, DCP etc.) and equipment. MF for dusts is
Benzene 16 17300 determined by different methods.
The Toxicity Index is used to evaluate process
benzyl peroxide 40 12000
exposure level for toxicity hazard and is defined as
Bromine 1 0
–
Butane 21 19700
Calcium carbide 24 9100
Th  P  S 
Carbon disulphide 16 6100 TI   
Carbon monoxide 21 4300 100  100 
Chlorine 1 0
Chlorine dioxide 40 700 where Th is the factor for the most hazardous
Cyclohexane 16 18700 material present in appreciable quantity with the
Cyclopropane 21 21300 lowest TLV, P the total GPH (General Process
Diesel fuel 10 18700 Hazards) penalties used and S the total SPH (Special
Process Hazards) penalties used.
Diethyl peroxide 40 12200
Th can be known from the NFPA health rating
Dinitro benzene 40 7200
Nh as under -
Ethane 21 20400
Ethyl alcohol 16 11500
Nh Th
Ethylene 24 20800
Ethylene dichloride 16 4600 0 0
Ethylene oxide 29 11700 1 50
Formaldehyde 21 8000 2 125
Fuel oil #1 to #6 10 18700 3 250
Gasoline (petrol) 16 18800 4 325
Hexane 16 19200
Hydrogen 21 51600

53
Assessment from Index : The degree of hazard Moderate 2.5 -- 4 30 -- 100
potential can be determined from the value of F & EI High 4 -- 6 100 -- 500
as under : Very high >6 >500

F & EI Range Degree of Hazard Thus by knowing the hazard potential

0 - 60 Light categories, inter-unit separation distances and unit
61 - 96 Moderate boundary distances can be determined from the
97 - 127 Intermediate Tables 18.9 and 18.10 respectively.
128 - 158 Heavy
159 & above Severe Table 18.9 Inter Unit Separation Distances
Minimum distance in Meters

Dow F & EIUnit ‘A’ of Reduced

Example : Suppose General Process Hazard factor F 1 to Unit ‘B’ having Reduced
and Special Process Hazard factor F 2 have been Dow F & EI of
calculated as 2.8 and 3.8 respectively. Then with a
MF 24 for acrylonitrile (ACN), the F & EI value is F 3
x MF = F1 x F2 x MF = 2.8 x 2.8 x 24 = 255. As it is

Moderately Heavy
above 159, it indicates severe hazard.

Moderate

Extreme
Heavy
Light
Mild
Based on F & EI and toxicity index TI, following
categories are available :

Category F & EI TI Degree

of Mild 0 5 6 8 10 12
Hazard Light 5 6 8 10 12 15
I F<65 T<6 Low
Moderate 6 8 10 12 15 17
II 65F<95 6T<10 Medium
Moderately 8 10 12 15 17 20
III F95 T10 High
heavy
Heavy 10 12 15 17 20 25
Fire Potential can also be assessed if the Fire
Extreme 12 15 17 20 25 30
Load F (BTU/ft2) for particular area is known
(calculated). Then a range of expected fire duration
Table 18.10 : Within Unit Boundary Distances
and hazard categories can be assessed from Table
18.8 Unit Minimum distance in Meters to
Reduced Works Plant Offices,
Table 18.8 : Fire load, Duration & Hazard Dow Boundary Boundary Amenities
Category F & EI Control
Rooms etc.
Fireload F Range of Hazard Example
in expected category Mild 20 15 10
BTU/ft2 fire Light 25 20 12
of normal duration Moderate 30 25 15
working in hours Moderate 40 30 20
area ly heavy
x 103 Heavy 50 35 30
0-50 0.25-0.5 Light Buildings Extreme 75 50 45
50-100 0.5-1 Low Dwellings
100-200 1-2 Moderate It should be borne in mind that all such
200-400 2-4 High Factories assessment and distances are approximation and
400-1000 4-10 Very high Occupied suggest a minimum guideline. The complex
1000-2000 10-20 Intensive buildings computation method has its own limitations. DOW
2000-5000 20-50 Extreme Rubber index cannot predict probability of hazard
5000-10000 50-100 Very Ware- occurring. Corrosion and leakage have special
extreme houses effects. Reactions difficult to control, operation in or
near flammable range and greater than average
Explosion Potential can be known from the explosion hazard certainly contribute to high risk
following table if Internal Plant Explosion Index ‘E’ category.
or Aerial Explosion Index ‘A’ is known.
14 TOXIC RELEASES
Category E A
Light 0 --1 0 -- 10
14.1 Some Definitions
Low 1 -- 2.5 10 -- 30

54
Section 41-B (4) of the Factories Act requires on-site As per example risk of death for a man aged 30
Emergency Plan. Such plan requires ‘Risk and is 1 x 10-3 per annum and that for a man aged 60 is 1
Environmental Impact Assessment’ as the basic step. x 10-2 per annum.
As per the CIMAH Regulations 1984 the This means death possibility of a man aged 30
manufacturer is advised to assess what dangers is 1 out of 1000 per year, while that of a man aged 60
could arise to people on and off-site as a result of is 1 out of 100 per year. Risk unit ‘1 x 10 -n means
these foreseeable emergencies and what effects could 1/10n i.e. one time event out of 10 n such
be on the environment.
occurrences during a period (e.g. 1 year).
Such assessment of dangers is the ‘Risk
Individual Risk is the frequency at which an
Assessment’ and its effects on environment is the
individual may be expected to sustain a given level
‘Environmental Impact Assessment’ in simple
of harm from the realisation of specific hazards.
terms.
Societal Risk is a measure of the chances of a
Risk assessment and environmental impact
number of people being affected by a single event or
assessment are complex subjects, need many data,
set of events and is often presented as f/n curves.
experts’ team, proper hazards identification and
(i.e. frequency v/s number of people affected).
exhaustive calculations.
Almost all human activities involve some risk
Environment as defined u/s 2(a) of the
and zero risk is not possible. Therefore the concept
Environment (Protection) Act includes water, air and
of Acceptable risk is developed and Fischoff defines
land and the inter-relationship which exists among
it as ‘the level which is good enough where the
and between water, air and land and human beings,
advantages of increased safety are not worth the
other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and
extra costs of reducing risk’. Thus it indicates the
property.
balancing condition of accident costs v/s preventive
Environmental Pollutant defined by the same
costs.
Act as ‘any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
Hazard Analysis is the identification of hazards
present in such concentration as may be or tend to
and analysis how they could occur and estimation
be injurious to environment.
of the extent, magnitude and likelihood of any
Hazard is the inherent property of a substance
harmful effects or consequences.
to cause harm or a physical situation which may
After hazard analysis we come to the risk
cause human injury, damage to property or the
analysis to find out the frequency or probability of
environment or some combination of these criteria.
hazards and their consequences.
Chemical Hazard is a hazard due to chemical
After risk analysis, we come to the Risk
(including its storage, process, handling etc.) and it
Assessment when judgement of acceptability of risk
is realised by fire, explosion, toxicity, radiation etc.
is compared against social, political or legal criteria.
Risk is the likelihood of an undesired event (i.e.
Then follows the Risk Management making
accident, injury or death) occurring within a
decisions and establishing ownership of actions and
specified period or under specified circumstances. It
monitoring to contain within limits of criteria.
may be either a frequency or a probability
This is also explained by a progression chart as
depending on the circumstances.
shown in Table 18.13.

55
Table 18.13 : Hazard And Risk Study Progression Chart
STAGES OF HAZARD HAZARD RISK RISK RISK
HAZARD AND IDENTI- ANALYSI ANALYSIS ASSESS- MANAGEMENT
RISK STUDIES FICATION S MENT
1. Identification of
Sources of
Hazards and
Their Causes Qualitative
2. Analysis of
Mechanism of
Hazard
Occurrence
3. Analysis of
Terminal
Consequences of
Hazards Quantitative
4. Probability or
frequency of a
hazard occurring
and an estimation
of risk Quantitative
5. Judgement of
acceptability of
risk against social,
political or local Usually
criteria Quantitative
6. Making
decisions and
establishing
ownership of
actions and
monitoring to Mixture of Qualitative
contain within and Quantitative
limits of criteria

14.2 Atmospheric Dispersion / The viscosity of the liquid determines the rate
Diffusion : of growth of the pool, i.e. its area.
Generally the initial rate of emission will be
greater per unit area than the equilibrium rate. The
For basic concept of dispersion, refer foregoing part
pool is cooled because of evaporation.
13.2.
Liquid Gas Spills : Material stored in
Types of Toxic Spills : Three types : liquids,
pressured and/or refrigerated containers. viz. Cl 2,
gases stored as liquids (like Cl 2, NH3) and gases (N2,
NH3, LPG.
O2 )
If the release rate is slow enough the material
No buoyant plume created, unless there is a
will enter the atmosphere as a gas. But in a sudden
fire.
release such as a tank rupture, the dispersion process
can be described in 4 phases.
Liquid Spills : Material which is normally a liquid
at atmospheric pressure and temperature causes a
1. Turbulence called ‘flash off’ caused by rapid
pool to form. viz., benzene, acrylonitrile and vinyl
escape of the liquid or gas. For a 20-ton NH 3 tank
chloride.
rupture, tests suggest @20% vapour & 80%
Rate of evaporation from the pool depends on :
liquid aerosol coming out as a cloud.
2. The cloud (liquid cylinder or column) starts to
1. Vapour pressure of the liquid.
slump like a water column starts to spread out.
2. Area of the pool.
During slumping, air is entrained slowly. This
3. Heat of evaporation.
second stage lasts 30 to 40 seconds for a 20-T
4. Air temperature.
NH3 spill.
5. Ground temperature.
3. The gas cloud now enters the ground hugging
6. Heat transfer of convection & radiation etc.
phase. Most of the air entrainment takes place
through the top surface. Depending on ambient

56
 temp., gases in the cloud will reach ambient air
density in 3 to 5 minutes after slumping starts
from a 20-T NH3 spill.
4. The natural process of atmospheric turbulence
takes over, and the cloud diffuses while
travelling alongwith the wind, like any other
material in the atmosphere.

Gas Spills : Such spill results in the formation

of air-gas mixture at a temp. some what below
ambient temp.
14.2.1 Meaning of Dispersion and
Effects:

Dispersion and diffusion means spreading and

dilution of gas in air. When smokes come out from a
chimney, vaporisation takes place from boiling or
evaporating liquid, any material leaks or spills due
to leakage or handling and discharges gas or vapour
in atmosphere, safety valve or vent opens and
liberates gases, any accidental failure of any vessel
or equipment occurs giving sudden rise of vapours
or gases or due to any fire or explosion when gases
come out, dispersion phenomenon takes place.
Because of discharge pressure, lighter vapour
density, buoyancy, kinetic energy, temperature etc.
the escaping material travels in air and because of
turbulence in air and wind velocity the mixing (air-
entrainment), diffusion and spreading in wind
direction take place. Weather conditions and
topographical factors also affect. Dispersion may be
of a flammable gas-air mixture or non-flammable
(inert, toxic or corrosive) gas-air mixture. It may be
a continuous emission or instantaneous puff or
plume release.
The dispersion is of more concern when it is of
very toxic gas or highly flammable vapour, because
it can give direct rise to toxic effect, fire or
explosion.
Toxic release in bulk quantity and for a long
duration (e.g. Bhopal incident) affects public at
large. To assess the consequence, fatalities, injuries
and property damage and for the purpose of
evacuation to save life, scientific calculations
become necessary which include probit equation
and analysis and a variety of gas dispersion
modelling. The computer models can give quick
results.

57
 In case of toxic dispersion, normally three
zones are considered. The inner most or zone-1
contains the highest concentrations of leaking gas
wherein maximum fatality/injury can be predicted.
No entry or no rescue operation may be possible
there. Then in intermediate or zone-2,
evacuation becomes most necessary and
must be carried out at the earliest possible
otherwise great fatalities or/and injuries
may result. This is the target area of
emergency planning and rescue activities.
But in doing so, use of necessary personal 1
protective equipment and vehicles is to be 2
done very carefully. The outermost or 3
zone-3 is a safe zone but it can be affected
also if dispersion aggravates or lasts for a longer
time. Therefore alert and warning action is required
in this zone. People must be advised to go away by
their own arrangement and should be helped if
necessary.
A flammable gas in explosive range with air
can cause fire or explosion and may be consumed by
combustion. But a large vapour cloud is capable of
producing an unconfined vapour cloud explosion.
Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE)
and/or fireball are also possible.
A dispersing gas gets diluted in air during
dispersion, diffusion and travelling and its density
Release of a gas
BLEVE

Immediate ignition Flare
 Yes
Vaporisation Pool fire

Dispersal

Yes
Delayed ignition
  Yes
Toxic
Toxic material
effect
 Yes
No damage
Types of releasing gas may be of the following
nature :
1. Liquefied pressurised gas (e.g. LPG).
2. Flammable gas (e.g. fuel gas, H2).
3. Toxic gas (e.g. Cl2, NH3, CO).
4. Low boiling liquid (e.g. petrol, benzene).
5. Liquid with toxic combustion products.
Their hazardous effects may be of the following
types.
58
becomes close to air density. Therefore the majority
of dispersions are known as ‘air-density or neutral
density dispersion’. Only some dense gas dispersion
needs special calculations and treatment.
A gas released from any point may be ignited if
flammable and may cause, BLEVE, flare or pool fire
and cause heat radiation damage. Fire may generate
toxic products and adds toxic effects too. If
immediate ignition is not possible, the gas may
vaporise, disperse and may cause delayed ignition
which by pressure wave may cause flash fire or
explosion and ultimate damage. If the released gas
is not flammable but toxic it causes toxic effects and
if it is inert like nitrogen, causes oxygen deficiency
in a confined space. If the gas is in no way injurious,
no adverse effect is possible. This phenomenon of a
liquefied pressurised gas is shown below :
No Heat radiation
damage
Toxic
Products
 Yes
Heat radiation + toxic
effects
Pressure wave
 No
Flash
Explosion
fire
 
Damage
1. Heat radiation from a jet, pool fire, a flash
fire or BLEVE.
2. Explosion overpressure.
3. Toxic effects from toxic materials or toxic
combustion products.
The following effects consequential to the
accidental release of hazardous materials are of
much interest :
1. Atmospheric dispersion as a function of source
strength, gas density, weather conditions and
topographical situation of the surrounding area.
2. Intensity of heat radiation (in kW/m 2) due to a V = K1 + K2 In C (In=loge) ----
fire or a BLEVE as a function of the distance of
the source. where V is a measure of the vulnerable resource
3. Energy of vapour cloud explosions (in (human or property) which gets injury or damage,
N/m2) as a function of the distance of the and variable C is a measure of the intensity of the
exploding cloud. causative factor which harms the resource.
4. Concentration of the evaporated material which The logarithmic term (InC) i.e. log eC in above
may be explosive or toxic. equation arises because in any population, some
5. Concentration of the toxic products of people can tolerate high intensity of harmful
combustion produced by a fire and causative factor than others. The distribution is
6. Duration that these respective effects may slanting (oblique).
prevail. The constants K 1 and K2 can be calculated from
the relationship between the intensity of causative
Some damaging effects due to heat radiation, factor and the degree of harmful response. In case of
blast overpressure or toxic concentration are fire, K1 and K2 depend upon effective time
summarised below : duration(s), radiation intensity (W/m2), duration of
pool burning(s) and radiation intensity from pool
(A) Radiation Effects : burning (W/m2). In case of explosion, they depend
Radiation energy required for 1% on peak over-pressure (N/m 2) and impulse (Ns/m 2)
lethality and in case of toxic release, they depend on
Exposure
Without With protection concentration (ppm) and time interval (min).
Duration
protection (e.g. clothing) In case of fire, burn deaths may take place due
(kW/m2) to flash fire or pool burning. In case of explosion,
10 sec 16.7 21.2 deaths or injuries may take place due to impact,
30 sec 7.3 9.3 eardrum rupture, flying fragments, structured
damage, glass breakage and lung haemorrhage. In
(B) Blast wave Effects due to Overpressures : case of toxic release, deaths or injuries may take
Type of damage Peak overpressure place due to toxicity and concentration of the gas.
Total destruction 0.830 E + 5 Pa In case of fire, deaths or injuries may happen
Heavy damage 0.350 E + 5 Pa due to thermal radiation. This effect is time-
Moderate damage 0.170 E + 5 Pa dependent and is given by following probit
Minor damage 0.035 E + 5 Pa equation :

Approximately 0.1 bar peak over pressure may P = K1 + K2 In Cnt = K1 + K2 loge Cnt
cause 1% fatality or serious damage to 10% of the
housing/structures. where P is the probit i.e. a measure of probability of
people that may be affected, K 1 and K2 constants, C a
(C) Toxic Effects (fatalities) : causative factor (here radiation intensity in kW/m 2),
LC30 in mg/m 3 n = 4/3 and t = time in seconds.
(lethal concentration at The values for K1 and K2 are mostly derived
Chemical from experiments with animals. However, human
30 min exposure)
1% Fatality 50% Fatality toxicity factors have been derived from past
NH3 1871 5999 accidents. Inhalation experiments with rats seem to
CO 787 7949 be best applicable to predict damage to people from
acute intoxication.
Cl2 364 1005
In above probit equation following probit
EO 432 4443
constants are relevant for the following chemicals :
HCl 391 3950
Dispersion can be studied in four types of areas
Probit Constants
(1) Leaks and spillage (2) Dispersion from vents and Chemical
K1 K2 n
jets (3) Dispersion of heavy gases and (4) Dispersion
NH3 - 15.8 1 2.0
by fluid curtain. Simultaneous study of
meteorological and topographical conditions CO - 7.4 1 1.0
becomes a part of the subject of dispersion and Cl2 - 14.3 1 2.3
modelling. EO - 6.8 1 1.0
Probit Analysis is a method (calculation) to HCl - 6.7 1 1.0
assess probability of injury or damage due to serious
or lethal dispersion. It is a mathematical expression Examples :
in the form of a probit function as under : (1) Let us consider C = 21.2 kW/m 2 radiation
energy for 1 % lethality with exposure time 10
seconds, then for Ethylene oxide (EO),

59
 Thus a probit equation generally gives the
P = K1 + K2 In Cnt relation between the causative factor and the
= - 6.8 + 1 In (21.21 x 10) probability of death.
= - 6.8 + 1 In (21.2 x 10) However it should be borne in mind that probit
= - 6.8 + In 212 equations are just approximation in an impact
= - 6.8 + 5.35 model of hazard assessment and there may be a vast
= - 1.45 difference in actual result.
Models are derived from dispersion or probit
(2) Let us consider C = 1871 mg/m 3 concentration equations and many are named after their
for ammonia at its LC30, then for 20 seconds developers. Modelling is a method of hazard
exposure, assessment to predict scenarios for loss of
containment with potential for fire, explosion or
P = K1 + K2 In Cnt toxic release.
There are many models. Neutral density
= - 15.8 + 1 In (18712 x 20)
modelling as discussed in Part 14.3 following, gives
= - 15.8 + In (3500641 x 20)
scenario of gas dispersion concentration at different
= - 15.8 + In 70012820
places. Dense gas dispersion models consider three
= - 15.8 + 18.06
distinct phases of gas behaviour :
= + 2.26
1. Initial mixing (source models)
(3) Let us consider C = 25 mg/m3 concentration for
2. Gravity slumping (dense gas models)
chlorine, then for 5 minutes (5 x 60 = 300 seconds)
3. Turbulent spread (neutral gas models)
exposure,
‘Box’ models and ‘Conservation’ models are
P = K1 + K2 In Cnt
main two categories of mathematical models used to
= - 14.3 + 1 In (252.3 x 300) represent dense gas dispersion.
= - 14.3 + In (1641.57 x 300) A variety of computer packages is becoming
= - 14.3 + In 492473.96 available which can be executed on personal
= - 14.3 + 13.10 computers and the results displayed as three-
= - 1.2 dimensional plots using conventional dot matrix
printers. Simultaneously, there have been a number
The probit P is a random variable with a mean 5 of substantial field trials, backed up by experimental
and variance 1. The probability (range 0 – 10) is work using wind tunnels. There is a fair amount of
generally replaced in probit work by a percentage common ground and much of it has been reviewed
(range 0 – 100) from the following table : in the literature. Table 18.11 gives a comparative
summary of the various model outcomes.
Probit % (approx)
2.5 0 Table 18.11 : Various Model Outcomes
2.67 1
Name of Description
3 3
Model
3.5 8
Germeles & Well mixed cylindrical source,
4 15
Drake slumping transition to Gaussian
4.5 30 DENZ plume, no edge mixing
5 50 Cox & Well mixed cylindrical source,
5.5 70 Carpenter transition with heat transfer and
6 85 edge mixing
7 98 Shell Needs a wind but no transition
7.5 100 HEDAGAZ needed, no heat transfer but edge
mixing
Thus probit P = 2.67 represents 1% of the EIDSVIK Well mixed source, no transition
exposed population, P = 5 represents 50% of the needed, with edge mixing
exposed population, P = 5.5 represents 70%, P = 7 Mariah Conservation models, fully three-
represents 98% and P = 7.5 represents 100% of the Zephyr dimensional, no transition
exposed population or percentage damage or degree SIAB needed. All these models use
of injury that can result from the exposure. FEM virtually the same basic
In previous example (2) of ammonia release, P SIGMET equations but have different
= 2.26 indicates that approximately 0.9% of the numerical solution methods with
population may be affected. differing approximations in
A common rough estimate for the hazard range matters of detail.
for large pool fires is about 2 pool diameters, and for
large drifting vapour clouds 1.5 cloud diameters.

60
 To verify the efficacy of the results, actual field
tests are also done and ‘field tests plus models
regression analysis’ is carried out.
Results of some models are given in Table
18.12.
11. Boiling rate of heavy liquids with boiling
temperature less than ambient.
12. Radiation view factor between an inclined flame
and an arbitrarily oriented surfaces in space.

Table 18.12 : Some Downwind Ranges For 14.2.3 Gaussian Form of

Chlorine and Ammonia Dispersion Equation :
Model Concen Range (km) at
tration, weather conditions While any one field experiment on plums
ppm D5 F2 diffusion/dispersion may show significant
Chlorine (50 T release) differences, the Gaussion (normal) form has been
Denz, USCGVM 48 2.6 6.5 found most effective for a wide range of
Zenz, COVO (b) 400 0.7 1.5 atmospheric conditions.
Cox & 48 4.9 4.5 Some assumptions, are as follows :
Carpenter,
USCGVM 1. A homogeneous turbulent wind flow i.e. no
Cox & 400 1.3 1.2 changes in meteorological fields in horizontal,
Carpenter, i.e. uniform turbulence.
COVO (b) 2. Steady state conditions i.e. no changes in
Scaling law LC50 500 1.45 1.86 meteorological fields with time.
at 30 min 3. Passive pollutants i.e. no loss of material by
Ammonia (100 T release) various sink mechanism, i.e. removal of particles
Denz, Canvey 2 3255 1.3 2.4 or/and gases (effluents) from the troposphere.
Denz, COVO (b) 8000 0.9 1.8 4. Stack effluent is assumed to originate at a point
Cox & 3200 0.96 1.11 source.
Carpenter, 5. Theoretical plume has no initial momentum and
COVO (a) buoyancy, causing plume centre line horizontal
Cox & 8000 0.66 0.77 in the direction of local wind velocity and there
Carpenter, will be no plume rise. This is accomplished by
COVO (b) shifting the point source at effective plume
Scaling law LC50 10000 1.03 1.7
height ‘he’ as shown in figure.
at 30 min
The theory of the dispersion of gases which
For weather conditions A to F see Tables 18.15 have a density close to that of air goes back over
and 18.16 in Part 14.3 following. For simple scaling many years. It has a practical application to the
law see Part 14.4 and for other models Part 14.5. calculation of smoke dispersion. It can also be applied
All the above results are mean values and the to the dispersion of dense gases if their concentration
scatter around the mean values is large. While the is low and has some conceptual value in the
scatter is appreciable and is indicative of the development of a theory for heavy gas dispersion.
uncertainty, there is a fair measure of common Considering the case of 100 ppm, 100 ppm =
ground and sufficient agreement for many aspects 100/106 = 1/104 = 0.00001 x 100 = 0.001%. This
of hazard assessment. proportion in air is : 99.999% air and 0.001%
Vulnerability models given by Raj and Kalelkar effluent gas. It’s a very small fraction.
discuss following situations : Similarly 10 ppm = 0.0001% i.e. 99.999% air and
0.0001% effluent gas. This is a still very small
1. Venting rate. fraction. Similarly 1 ppm is negligible amount in 10 6
2. Spreading of liquid on water. parts of air giving only 0.00001%.
3. Mixing and dilution. This emphasises that the air fraction is
4. Vapour dispersion. predominant and it is mostly neutral (air) density
5. Flame size. dispersion and the chemistry of gas plays negligible
6. Thermal radiation from flames. role at lower concentration which is soon attained
7. Spreading of a low viscosity liquid on a high after source emission and dispersing of gas in
viscosity liquid. atmospheric huge air. This is why the gas
8. Simultaneous spreading and evaporation of a characteristics are not considered in Gaussian
cryogen on water. formula. The down wind concentration is directly
9. Simultaneous spreading and cooling of high proportional to the mass released and inversely
vapour pressure chemical. proportional to the distance.
10. Mixing and dilution of a high vapour pressure, The three dimensional diffusion equation is:
highly water soluble chemical.

61
X ( x, y , z )  This proves that the ground level centre line
down wind concentration is the highest and of much
 2
Q 1 y  relevance.
exp     
2 6 y 6 z u  2   In above calculations 6y and 6z are taken from

 6y  
 CHART at weather condition A. & For the C, D & F
  2  weather condition, another table (follows) gives the
  
2
 1  z  he 1  z  he   
 exp      exp      ready value of ‘ ’ as :
  2  6z    2  6 z  
     6y6z = 0.01085 X 1.773 for weather D and x = 100-500
m
considering x = 100 m
(1) Let us find a concentration at a point
this 6y6z = 0.01085 x 1001.773 = 38.1
X = 100 m, Y = 20 m and Z = 10 m
Then
Chlorine leak rate Q = 3 Kg/Sec = 3 x 10 6 mg/sec
and wind speed u = 2 m/sec are presumed. Q 3  10 6
X    4317 ppm for Cl 2
Then - concentration at this point 6 y 6 z u   38.1  2

X (100,20,10) 
(compare this with condition A)
 3  10 6   1  20  2 
  exp      From the chart, for weather D, we get 6y = 8 & 6z =
 2   26  15  2   2  26   4.8. It gives 6y6z = 8 x 4.8 = 38.4 nearly the same
  1  10  2   1  10  2   value (at 100 m) as above and it will give the same
  concentration. The chart is useful for A to F
 exp       exp      
  2  15    2  15    conditions while the Table for C, D and F condition
 
only.
Here, he is considered zero to assume the source of
Table 18.14 : Comparison of Dispersion
emission at ground level, and weather condition A
Coefficients
(unstable).
Stabi Model Down wind 6y6z
lity distance meters
X = 612.4 x 0.744 x (0.80 + 0.80)
(meters)
= 729 mg/m3 = 729 x 24.45 / 71
D RAM 100-500 0.01085 X1.773
= 251 ppm
C RAM 100-500 0.01985 X1.835
(2) Let us find a concentration at a point F RAM 1000-2000 0.0113 X1.543
X = 100 m, Y = 20 m, and Z = 0 m 500-1000 0.00752 X 1.6
Other parameters as above. Then 200-500 0.00379 X1.704
100-200 0.00311 X1.742
X (100,20,0)  F TAM 500-5000 0.01206 X1.518
F Rail / 100-500 0.00353 X1.716
 3  10 6   1  20  2 
Road
  exp        exp0  exp0 
 2   26  15  2   2  26  
 
Commi 0.01126 X1.598
ssion
= 612.4 x 0.744 x 2 = 911.3 mg/m3
At condition A (Day) 6y6z is more and gives
= 911.3 x 24.45 / 71 = 314 ppm
lower concentration.
At condition F (Night) 6y6z is less and gives
(3) Let us find a concentration at a point
higher concentration.
Table 18.15 : Stability categories - Pasquill -
X = 100 m, Y = 0 m, and Z = 0 m, i.e. at the ground
Gifford Data
level centre line.
Day, incoming solar Cloudiness,
u, m/sWind Velocity

Other parameters as above. Then

radiation Night
Q 3  10 6
Cloudiness 4/8

Cloudiness 3/8

X (100,0,0)  
 6 y 6 z u   26  15  2
Moderate
Strong

Slight

= 1224.9 mg / m3 = 1224.9 x 24.45 / 71

= 422 ppm

<2 A A-B B - -

62
 2-3 A-B B C E F or experimental values
3-5 B B-C C D D ds = density of effluent
5-6 C C-D D D D d = density of air
>6 C D D D D
If multiple stacks are to be considered, their total
Table 18.16 :Weather Condition effect is considered as :
A Extremely Can occur during daytime
unstable only. XN = X1N4/5 where
B Moderately Can occur during daytime
unstable only. N = No. of stacks upto a total of 10, X 1 is ground
C Slightly level concentration due to one stack alone without
unstable the influence of other stacks. X N is ground level
D Neutral Category D can be used for concentration with N stacks operating
all velocities day and night. simultaneously. For example, with 3 stacks X 3 = 2.4
X1 compared with 3 X 1 if mutual effects were
E Slightly Can occur at night only.
omitted. There are enhancement factor and other
stable
criteria also.
F Moderately Can occur at night only.
stable
All above calculations are for uniform
Note : Night is the period from 1 hour before sunset
atmospheric conditions. For Non uniform atmospheric
to 1 hour after sunrise. Cloudiness is that fraction of
conditions the calculations are still more complex
the sky above the horizon covered with clouds.
due to following considerations :
Above calculations are done by considering
1. Restricted diffusion caused by inversion layers.
emission source at the ground level. But if it is to be
2. Trapping (limited mixing layer).
considered at stack outlet,
3. Fumigation (inversion break up).
4. Large thermal instability and the looping
he = hs + h.
plume.
he = Effective plume height (elevation of
5. Effluent emission in wakes of buildings and
centre line relative to ground level)
topography.
hs = Physical height of stack
6. Climatological data.
h = Plume rise (see figure)
Experimental Methods are developed to
The plume rise depends on characteristics of
determine plume travel and diffusion parameters
the stack effluent and those of ambient atmosphere.
which cannot be deduced solely from theoretical
Effluent characteristics can be known by the
considerations. There is a limit to such theoretical
processes by which it is formed. The rate of rise
contributions owing to the complex nature of
induced by the momentum and buoyancy diminishes
various physical processes involved.
as entrained air increases total plume mass. Rise
To find leak rate (Q) in Gaussian Formula
rate is initially high and rapidly decreases with
X=Q/6y6zu, Table 18.17 is given below for some of
distance. Accuracy of plume rise equations is
difficult to specify in broad terms. Field the usual gases.
measurements of plume rise for a given stack vary
by @ 25% in results. Yet it is given by : Table 18.17 : Gas Leakage Rate in Kg/Hr
kg/cm2Ammonia P=10

kg/cm2Phosgene P=2

h  x   K1Qh a b U c
kg/cm2Chlorine P=7
Hole Size (Dia) mm

kg/cm2LPG P=7.6

Qh  QmCp Ts  T  , or  AsVsTcp   d  ds 
Sr. No.

and Qm = dsAsVs

Here -

X = Downwind distance 1 0.5 1.45 13.68 0.68 0.60

Qm = mass emission rate 2 1.0 5.82 54.72 2.74 2.40
3 2.0 23.29 218.88 10.98 9.57
U = wind velocity
4 3.0 52.38 492.48 24.69 21.60
As = stack outlet area
5 4.0 92.88 875.88 43.20 38.16
Qh = heat emission rate 6 5.0 145.44 1368.72 68.61 59.76
Vs = emission velocity 7 6.0 209.52 1970.64 97.20 86.40
K1 = constant 8 7.0 285.12 2683.08 133.20 117.72
Cp = specific heat 9 8.0 372.60 3504.24 172.80 153.72
a,b,c = exponents, theoretical 10 9.0 471.60 4428.00 222.12 194.40

63
11 10.0 582.12 5472.00 274.34 240.12 D5 0.14 0.28 0.15 0.09 0.12 0.13
12 12.5 873.86 8230.62 412.59 360.00 0.17 0.26 0.20 0.11 0.11 0.15
13 25.0 1455 13680 686.16 600.48 D2
14 50.0 16704 136872 6861.60 6004.80 E2 0.20 0.31 0.24 0.13 0.13 0.18

F2 0.23 0.36 0.29 0.15 0.15 0.21

Following assumptions are made while LEL 1.0 0.05 2.1 5.8 1.8 0.12
preparing this table. or % % % % % %

maximumWindspeed mt/s for R 30 minLC50 At

1. Equation for pipe discharge from a large
10000 500 21000 58000 18000 1200
chamber is assumed to be valid for leakage of ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
gas through orifice (puncture) on the surface of
container.
Ref. Perry, R.H., Green, D., ‘Perry’s Chemical
Engineer’s Handbook’ McGraw-Hill Book
Publishing Company, 6th ed., pp 5-30.
2. Flow rate given in the tables is the initial leakage
rate at the time of leak. The leakage rate tends to
decrease with decrease in the pressure inside the
2.3 2.5 1.9 2.3 2.4 1.6
container.
3. These flow rates are not valid for the stack
release of gases.
4. For Phosgene, value of k (Ratio of Cp/Cv) was
assumed to be same as ideal gas (due to non-
availability of data).
5. For LPG, properties of n-butane were taken.
6. These tables give the approximate calculated Examples :
flow rate which is likely to change depending on
existing conditions. 1. Considering LC50 = 500 ppm at 30 min for
7. Flow rates are calculated at ambient temperature Chlorine and a = 0.28 for D5 weather condition, if 1
(30 0C) and pressure (1 atm). tonne chlorine leaks,
8. Standard pressure of storage, containers/
cylinders of the gases were taken for calculation. R = a X M0.42 = 0.28 X 10.42
= 0.28 X 1 = 0.28 km.
See Table 4 and 9 to 15 in Chapter-32 for safe
discharge limits of chemicals. Thus at 280 mt downwind distance the chlorine
concentration will be 500 ppm (its LC50 at 30 min
14.2.4 Downwind Scaling Law : value) and within that range 50% people may die if
exposed for 30 minutes. Therefore evacuation
The simplest form of gas dispersion equation is should be carried out within 30 minutes.
given by a following downwind scaling law :
2. Similarly considering LC50 = 10000 ppm at 30
R = a x M0.42 min for Ammonia and a = 0.14 for D 5 weather
Where R is in kilometres and condition, if 20 tonnes ammonia leaks,
M is in tonnes released.
R = a X M0.42 = 0.14 X 200.42
The factor ‘a’ depends on the physical properties = 0.14 X 3.519 = 0.492 km.
of the dense gas and the weather conditions. For certain
gases and different weather conditions, value of ‘a’ Thus at 492 mt downwind distance the ammonia
is given in Table 18.18. concentration will reach upto 10000 ppm (its LC 50 at
30 min value) and within that range 50% people
Table 18.18 : Value of factor ‘a’ for gas dispersion may die if exposed for 30 minutes. Therefore before
scaling law considering LEL or LC 50 30 minutes, maximum evacuation of people should
be carried out.
conditionWeather

Value of ‘a’ for the gas

3. Considering LEL 5.8% of LNG, if 50 tonnes
NH3 Cl2 Prop LNG Buta HF LNG comes out at the worst weather condition F 2,
ane ne factor ‘a’ will be 0.15 and

R = 0.15 X 500.42
C5 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.10
= 0.15 X 5.170 = 0.775 km

64
 distance for IDLH concentration and successively
Thus 50 tonnes LNG can reach to its LEL more distance for STEL and TLV values.
concentration at 775 mt distance. Therefore within For the same value, distance varies much say
this range fire or explosion is possible and beyond from 15 mt to 985 mt for IDLH value, from 50 mt to
this distance when gas concentration will become 2071 mt for STEL value and from 70 mt to 2810 mt
less than LEL, fire or explosion hazard is ruled out. for TLV value.
Thus downwind scaling law gives us an A question arises that the result of which of the
estimate of the mean or average distance for the seven models should be considered perfect or relied
fixed parameters of gas properties, weather upon? This seems to be a complex mathematical
condition (this includes wind speed) and LEL or exercise for a rough estimate and the results are
LC50 criteria, for a particular mass released. This always changeable with the changing leak rate,
hazard range (R) is useful for emergency planning wind velocity, weather condition, topography,
and evacuation or rescue activity. slumping and mixing effects.
Limitation of applicability of this simple rule is The same reference (No.47) also gives following
its factor ‘a’. If ‘a’ is not known, this equation is not figures for 3 chemical accidents in India during
useful. Factor ‘a’ for a particular gas has to be 1984-85 :
derived from its properties like density, sp. Gravity,
boiling point, flash fraction, vapour weight, added Chemical Quantity Concen- Safe
air, cloud weight and density (kg/m 3 of cloud), Leaked Released tration, Distance
cloud volume (m3) and temperature (0C) and LEL or Tonne g/m3 KM
LC50. MIC 40 0.046 >20
For more interest of this Scaling Law, reference Oleum 55 0.08 >20
No. 38 should be referred. Chlorine 2 0.073 15.8

14.2.5 Other Models : Thus approximately 3 t chlorine, 40 t MIC or 55

t oleum leakage is hazardous upto 20 km.
In previous examples downwind distances are
calculated by considering LC50 concentration. Computer Software CAMEO :
Similarly they can be calculated by considering
IDLH, STEL or TLV concentration also. But for such See Part 13.3 of Chapter-5 and Part 6.4.3 of
calculation Gaussian or Scaling Law equations Chapter-19 for a computer software package known
(explained earlier) are not useful as they do not as CAMEO. It is useful to calculate gas dispersion
consider IDLH, STEL or TLV values. Other models concentrations, to determine different scenarios and
are utilised for such calculations. Intercomparison of evacuation options for 700 airborne toxic chemicals.
such different models with their performance for It is most useful for offsite emergency planning.
chlorine release at Chembur, Bombay (August 1985)
is given below in Table 18.19. 14.3 Monitoring & Control of
Hazardous Exposures
Table 18.19 : Chlorine release, 2 tonne, for 90
minutes, stability B and wind speed
2.9 m/s 15 ON-SITE AND OFF-SITE
Downwind distance in KM EMERGENCY PLANS
For For For
Model
IDLH STEL TLV Such plans must be prepared by all hazardous
Value Value Value industries for effective implementation at the time
OME (Canada) 0.985 2.071 2.81 of various emergencies. Periodical rehearsal should
IIT Heavy Gas be carried out to check the efficiency or drawback
0.070 0.258 0.537
Model-II in the plan. Necessary personnel, equipment and
DEGADIS (USA), materials must be provided for all times. For details
0.242 0.718 1.268
Steady State see Part 6 of Chapter-19.
PEM (USEPA) 0.084 0.234 0.400
SLAB (LLM Calif,
0.225 0.710 1.25 16 TRANSPORTING, RECEIVING,
USA)
INPUFF (USEPA) 0.055 0.095 0.17
STORING AND HANDLING
TRIAD (USA) 0.015 0.05 0.07 HAZARDS AND CONTROLS
Courtesy : Ref. No. 47.
Storage tanks of dangerous chemicals must be
As IDLH concentration is more than STEL and constructed and controlled properly. Safe inventory
STEL is more than TLV, this table indicates shorter must be maintained. Content should be minimum

65
possible. Necessary safety fittings on the tanks
should be provided. LPG tanks and tanks of other
flammable or toxic chemicals must have proper
safety devices. Toxic gases should be kept in
liquefied state if possible. Cooling media and
device, safety valves, pressure gauges, temperature
gauge, scrubber, level or content indicator, flare,
water curtain, toxic exposure sensors and alarms,
emergency bypass, safe discharge and collection,
etc. should be provided as per requirement. Name
and quantity must be clearly mentioned to assess
the hazard potential. Barrels, carboys, glass vessels
must be kept, handled and used in safe manners.
Use emergency kits, tools etc. where necessary. All
the vents of storage ranks of low boiling chemicals
should be connected to an appropriate condenser or
scrubber. Alternate power (e.g. DG set) must be kept
ready to run the cooling system, scrubber etc., in
case the main power fails.
16.1 Transportation and Handling of
Chemicals
From storage at production place, chemicals are
transferred or transported to an user place or
another storage place. It may be from one place to
another outside place or within the factory
premises.
Chemicals are transferred in solid, liquid or
gaseous forms. Solids are transferred in lumps or
powder form and may generate dust, for which dust
compression or extraction system is necessary.
Liquids are transferred by gravity, pumping or by
water, air or inert gas pressure. Splashes from
vessels, pipes, joints, pumps, glands, valves and
cracks are possible. Control of flow rate, safety
showers, absorbents and personal protective
equipment become necessary. Gases can leak
through cylinders, valves, pipes, joints, vessels,
gauges etc. Flow rate control, scrubber, condenser,
venting and safe discharge are essential.
Transportation is by road, rail or water.
Containers are mostly standardised to ensure safety
during transit. When a truck or tanker meets with
accidents or leaks on the way, it creates problem.
Fire or explosion can cause harm to public or
property. Corrosive or toxic chemical can cause
harm to public, animals, birds and environment.
Sometimes grave emergency is created. Warning to
public, speedy rescue operation, evacuation and
calling helping hands may become necessary.
While considering transportation of chemicals
one has to consider the physical and chemical
properties of the product being handled, whether it
is a solid, a powder, a liquid or a gas under
pressure; the type of packing, hazards, and the
mode of transport available.
See Part 2.39 of Chapter-28 for Statutory
Provisions for transport of hazardous goods
66
16.1.1 Modes of Packaging
1. Glass bottles and carboys are some of the oldest
packaging available for corrosive liquids,
solvents etc. Some of the bulk industrial
materials still being transported in bottles are
Bromine, Mercury etc. The laboratory reagents
and pure grade chemicals are also transported in
glass bottles of various sizes. Many corrosive
chemicals like Nitric acid, Sulphurylchloride,
Thionylchloride etc., are transported in glass
carboys holding 25-50 kg of the material. These
glass bottles and carboys have to be properly
protected against shocks. Wooden crates for
carboys, plastic or paper packing for bottles is
usual. Dangerous chemicals are further
protected by packing in clay or other absorbent
material so that in case the bottle breaks, the
chemical is absorbed and causes least damage.
2. Plastic bottles, jars, carboys and drums : These
could be constructed out of polythene either of
low density or high density, PVC or other
materials. Quite a lot of chemicals ranging from
laboratory chemicals to industrial raw material
are being packed and transported in plastic
containers. These containers may be further
protected by wooden cases. The material must be
correctly chosen. Several tragedies have
occurred because, on long storage the plastic
containers became brittle and the chemical
leaked out.
3. Steel drums in various sizes have been used for
storage and transportation of solvents and
chemicals. Even corrosive chemicals like
chlorosulphonic acid are shipped in steel
containers. This is quite a common packing for
chemicals of all description; and quite
economical too. Recently polythene and PVC
liners, as well as polythene lined drums, have
been made available and these are used for
packing even highly corrosive materials like
hydrochloric acid. Proper sealing of the drums is
essential.
4. Bags of various types: Jute bags and paper bags
are used for the innocuous chemicals like Soda
ash, Salt, Kieselguhr, etc. Polythene lined jute
bags have been used for the materials which
need to be protected against moisture. Woven
high density polythene bags are being used for
packing corrosive and water sensitive materials
like Caustic Soda and Caustic Potash. Obviously
this packing cannot stand piercing and must be
well protected and handled such that the bags
are not damaged. In transport, the bags must be
properly stacked and secured.
5. Gases under pressure in cylinders : Quite a few
gases like Chlorine, Sulphur dioxide, Ammonia,
Ethylene oxide, Oxygen etc., are sold in cylinders
containing quantities ranging from 50-100 KGs.
Steel cylinders are the commonest, but various
 kinds if linings are also given for special
products. The rules governing the design, testing
and filling of cylinders are quite elaborate and
must be followed.
6. Tank cars for bulk transport of chemicals are
very common, particularly for petroleum
products, solvents, acids and alkali solutions.
Tanks can be made of various materials of
construction such as steel, stainless steel, rubber
lined FRP or FRP lined, lead-lined or any other
special construction. The tank cars could be in
various sizes, holding 5-10 tons for road
transport or 20-50 tons or more for rail transport.
Now a days long tankers/trailers have been used
to carry more weight.
The tank cars should be properly designed and
fabricated to meet the service condition.
Contamination should be avoided, as it could be
dangerous for the product as well as the tanker.
Good arrangement for receiving the chemical as
well as discharging should be provided. Vent valves
and arrangements to prevent static electricity build
up when handling solvent, are a must. Gases under
pressure such as liquefied natural gas, chlorine, etc.
are also transported by tank cars. Then FFE and PPE
should be carried with the vehicle and their safety
rules should be followed.
16.1.2 Modes of Transport
(1) Railroad Transportation :
It accounts for quite a large proportion of the
chemicals transportation. The greatest hazard in this
mode of transportation is that because of the far
flung operations, it is not possible to train everyone
connected with the operation in the proper care to
be taken. Proper labelling of hazards involved is a
help. Derailment and accidents are other hazards.
The preventive measures are : (a) improved
design of the tankers and the couplers, (b)
limitations on the size of the tanks, (c) positioning of
the hazardous chemicals away from the locomotive
(d) avoiding bunching together of hazardous
chemicals (e) proper labelling of content and the
hazardous nature of the chemicals.
A serious risk is that an accident may occur at a
place which is not easily accessible and where
competent guidance may not be available. In the
USA Dan organisation (CHEMETREC) has been set
up to deal with such cases.
(2) Transportation of Explosives by Rail :
See Part 2.40 of Chapter-28 for Railways Red Tariff
Rules, 1960.
Such rules (Railway Red Tariff Rules 62 to 74)
are as under :
67
1. No explosives other than safety fuses and
fireworks shall be transported by rail except in
the van specially constructed for the carriage of
explosives and approved by the Chief Controller
of Explosives and the Railway Board.
2. Label ‘Explosive’ on each side of the carriage
shall be affixed.
3. Carriage containing explosives shall be kept
away from the engine (other than electric
locomotive) and close coupled to the adjoining
carriage not loaded with explosives or other
flammable or hazardous substances
4. Not more than 10 carriages containing
explosives shall be attached to any one train. Not
more than 5 carriages of explosives shall be
loaded or unloaded at any one time at any
railway station.
5. No explosive shall be transported by any
passenger or mixed train.
6. Safety fuses for blasting, explosives of the third
class (nitro compounds) in the form of cartridges
and not exceeding 2.5 kg in weight, detonators
upto 200 (each weighing upto 225 gms) and
sporting powders and propellants in double
packing as prescribed, can be transported by
passenger or mixed trains.
7. Explosive consignment shall be received at the
specified railway premises only, during sunrise
and sunset and by an authorised railway servant
only.
8. Shunting of carriages containing explosives shall
be carried out under the supervision of
authorised officer. Shunting speed shall not
exceed 8 km/hr and no loose shunting will take
place.
9. The packages shall be removed by the consignee
within 12 hours of day light following their
arrival. The Station Master shall keep the
packages at a safe distance and covered with
tarpaulins or other suitable material.
10. No explosive shall be carried except by rail
across any railway bridge. This rule is not
applicable to carry safety fuses or gunpowder or
nitro compound upto 5 kg or ammunition Class-
6, Division 2 and 3.
International Regulations concerning carriage
of dangerous goods by rail (RID) and British
Railways list of dangerous goods and conditions of
acceptances also provide rail transport guidelines.
(3) Road Transportation :
Road tankers are constructed in a wide variety of
materials like steel, stainless steel, lined material
and FRP construction. Sometimes they need to be
heated or cooled.
Road tankers and their fastenings should be
capable of absorbing following forces -
1. In the direction of travel-twice the total weight. spontaneous combustion.
2. Vertically downwards-twice the total weight. Division 4.3 - Substances which on contact
3. Vertically upwards-total weight. with water, emit inflammable
4. Horizontally at right angles to direction of gases.
travel-total weight. CLASS 5 : Oxidising substances; organic
peroxides.
The service equipment such as valves, fittings, Division 5.1 - Oxidising substances.
gauges etc. should be protected against impact. Division 5.2 - Organic peroxides.
Three types of independent stop valves - internal, CLASS 6 : Poisonous (toxic) and
external and blind flange- are required. For certain Infectious substances.
gases like HF, shell opening at bottom is not Division 6.1 Poisonous (toxic) substances.
permitted. Fusible plug to operate below 93 0C is Division 6.2 Infectious substances.
suggested in case of petroleum tanker. Spark CLASS 7 Radioactive substance.
arrester on exhaust, a portable fire extinguisher, CLASS 8 Corrosives.
TREMCARD emergency kit and instructions to CLASS 9 Miscellaneous dangerous
driver are also necessary. substance.
See Part 2.39 of Chapter-28 for Central Motor
Vehicles Rules, 1989 for transport of hazardous See IS:1446 for classification of dangerous
goods also. Display of class labels on goods package goods.
(e.g. box, drum) and carriage (e.g. vehicle, truck, Arrangement for loading and unloading of the
tanker) are compulsory u/r 129 and 134 liquid have to be well designed. It is preferred to
respectively. load toxic and flammable material from the bottom.
It is preferable to provide a discharge pump on the
- UN, DOT, ADR, or SOLAS-74 Classification tank.
Drums, crates and cylinders are also
The hazardous chemicals/dangerous goods are transported by trucks. The important thing to see is
divided by the United Nation Committee of Experts that the chemical is securely packed so that spillage
on the Transport of dangerous goods into the do not occur on the road and the toxic vapours are
following classes : not released. The cylinders or drums should be
securely lashed so that they do not fall off the truck
CLASS 1 : Explosives. and cause danger. The driver and the attendant
Division 1 - Substances and articles which should be fully conversant with the nature of the
have a mass explosion material and the hazards involved; and trained to
hazard. handle the situation.
Division 2 - Substances and articles which
have a projection hazards but Emergency Planning for Transport of Hazardous
not a mass explosion hazards. Chemicals :
Division 3 - Substances and articles
which have a fire hazard and Various directives and recommended actions have
either a minor blast hazard or been issued by international organisations like UN
a major projection hazard or Committee of experts on the transport of dangerous
both, but not a mass goods, European Economic Committee (EEC), US
explosion hazard. Department of Transport etc. They need special
Division 4 - Substances and articles which labels or notices on packages or on vehicles, display
present no significant hazard. of correct technical name of the chemical, special
Division 5 - Very insensitive substances signs or plates, instruction in writing to the drivers
which have a mass explosion i.e. TREMCARD (Transport Emergency Card), safe
hazard. packing conditions, particulars in transport
CLASS 2 : Gases compressed, liquefied, documents, display of supplier’s name, address and
dissolved under pressure or phone number including phone number from where
deeply refrigerated. specialist advice can be available.
CLASS 3 : Inflammable liquids. Master tests of some 400 TREMCARDs of
CLASS 4 : Inflammable solids, hazardous substances are readily available from
substances liable to Chemical Industries Association of UK. ICMA of
spontaneous combustion; our country should also provide such cards in
substances which, on contact Indian languages.
with water, emit inflammable The content of a ‘Tremcard’ should include
gases. name of cargo (material), nature of its hazard,
Division 4.1 - Inflammable solids. protective devices including PPE and emergency
Division 4.2 - Substances liable to

68
action to (1) inform Police and Fire Brigade (2) Spill are some of the biggest bulk commodities in
or gas control (3) Fire control and (4) First aid. international commerce. Because of their huge
The transporter should carry ‘Emergency kit’ quantities involved, spillage and leakage can create
containing tool kit, emergency lighting, fire gigantic pollution problems, besides a fire hazard.
extinguisher, protective clothing, breathing There have been several mishaps of this type.
equipment and first-aid kit. Tanker design has assumed special safeguards being
made to prevent accidental spillage.
Emergency Action : When solid chemicals are transported, care
should be taken that the material will not cake up
In case of toxic release : because of moisture, so that it may require to be
emptied pneumatically. When carrying drums or
1. Driver of hazardous cargo should be trained to cylinders they should be properly lashed so as not
handle small emergencies. to break loose. In river transport, spillage of
2. Inform police, fire brigade and manufacturer. chemicals may cause very serious pollution
3. Takeout tremcard, MSDS etc. from vehicle and problems.
give it to police. The carriage of dangerous goods by sea is day
4. Vehicle should be taken in open area and by day increasing. About 4000 million tonnes cargo
parked away from thickly populated area. enters world seaborne trade every year, of which
5. Cordon the area around leak. about 100 million tonnes are dangerous goods in
6. Stop traffic and keep people away from the packaged form. More than 1 lac types of hazardous
vehicle. chemicals are transported by sea. They include
7. Leaking liquid can be contained in bunds of solid, liquid and gases in bulk. While cutting oil-
sand/earth. tanks and pipelines on ships at Alang shipyard
8. Small leaks can be plugged by wooden peg. (Bhavnagar) many fatal accidents have taken place.
9. If a leak is from cylinder valve it can be capped Thus these are the end problems even after
by yoke clamp. transportation by sea.
10. A leaking cylinder can be turned so as to bring International maritime Organisation (IMO),
leaking portion in gas phase. International Convention for the Safety Of Life At
11. Water is not to be added on leaking cylinder Sea, 1974 (SOLAS ‘74) and International Convention
and spill if chemical is corrosive. for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973
12. Use water sprays, fogs to absorb toxic vapour (MARPOL 73) have developed guidelines and codes
cloud. for carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form
13. Evacuate the downwind area in case of large by sea.
toxic leakage. IMO has formulated International Maritime
Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code and ‘Emergency
In case of inflammable chemicals : Procedures for Ships carrying dangerous goods
(EmS)’.
1. Park vehicle on the road side. SOLAS has formulated ‘Code of safe Practice
2. Stop engine. for the Shipment of Bulk Cargoes (BC Code)’ for
3. Inform police, fire brigade and manufacturer. transportation of dangerous solid goods in bulk.
4. Takeout tremcard, MSDS etc. from vehicle and Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG) for use in
give it to police. accidents involving dangerous goods, is available in
5. Cordon off the area, stop traffic and keep people IMO/WHO/ILO publication. IMO/ILO guidelines
away. for packing cargo in Freight Containers or Vehicles
6. Do not smoke. Ignition source to be avoided. and IMO recommendations on safe use of pesticides
7. In case of fire, try to extinguish it with fire in Ships are also available.
extinguisher. SOLAS have classified dangerous goods in 9
8. Try to stop leak by cutting off the source, close classes [see UN Classification stated in foregoing
valve. para].
9. Keep the tank cool by water sprays to avoid Main information required are proper shipping
explosion. name and UN No., chemical name, formula,
10. Surrounding area should be checked for properties and observations, classification, packing,
explosion possibility and evacuated if labelling, stowage and segregation, angle of repose,
necessary. MFAG table number and special emergency
procedure and action to be taken.
(4) Water Transport : Training courses for ship’s officers and crew
are also recommended.
Quite a lot of chemicals are transported by ocean
going ships and on river tugs. Crude oil petroleum
products, natural gas and other dangerous goods

69
(5) Transportation through Pipelines
(Aboveground, Underground and
Submarine) :
See Part 2.15 (Rules 87 to 101) of Chapter-28 for
transportation of petroleum through pipelines.
Pipelines are required to carry a variety of
materials such as water, steam, air, oil, gas (inert or
toxic, vapour or compressed), brine, solvent and
other liquid and gaseous chemicals. From storage
tanks to process vessels, from process vessels to
product tanks and from there to filling (loading)
points, pipelines are required. They may be above
ground, underground or as per requirement. Some
20 to 30% costing is estimated in pipelines and their
fittings like flanges, valves, gauges, nipples, glands,
bends, elbows, plugs, reducers, joints, couplings,
ferules, vents, drains etc. Pipework may be of cast
iron, mild steel, stainless steel, lead, copper, plastic
i.e. PVC, PP, HDPE, rubber, canvas, glass, FRP,
glasslined, rubber lined, teflon coated, asbestos
cement, RCC, stone, ceramic etc.
Criteria for Piping Installation :
Main factors are - material of construction, design
and layout, supports and clamps, welding or flange
joints, packing and gaskets, valves and other
fittings, easy approach and working platform and
testing and maintenance.
Material of construction is selected depending
on nature (corrosivity, toxicity, flammability etc.),
quantity (weight, flow, pressure) and other
parameters like temperature, viscosity, colour,
expansion etc. Thickness of pipe, its quality,
welding pattern, flanging are to be considered while
selecting for high pressure and temperature. For
extremely hazardous chemicals, pipes are tested for
inter granular corrosion and certified before used.
Insulation is applied to preserve heat and tracing
(contact tubing) for supplying heat to the inner
material.
Various Codes like Indian Standards (hundreds
of Indian Standards are prescribed for variety of
pipes, their fittings, couplings, threads, colour-code
etc., see BIS Handbook), ASME (American Code),
British Standards (e.g. BS 1710, 1319, 537, 4159) and
International Standards ISO R 508 for colours for
pipes for inland installations and on board ship.
Indian Boiler Regulations also provide details for
pipe selection, design, fabrication and testing for
boiler purposes.
Safety Aspects of Pipework :
Generally probability of leakage from pipelines is
proportional to the length of pipelines, number of
joints, valves, vents, bleeds, drains etc. and
complexity such as number of pump connections,
70
recycle streams, hours of working, etc. Therefore it
is advisable to -
1. Minimise pipelength, branches and joints, and
flanges on vacuum lines.
2. Provide welding joints for highly flammable or
toxic chemical, good gaskets and gland packing,
flange guard to deflect leak downward,
flexibility to allow thermal expansion, bellows
subjected to axial movement, drains and traps at
visible places, removable plugs on sample
points, adequate pipe supports, walkways,
platforms or working place, proper slopping for
draining, overhead clearance for vehicle
movement (about 6 m), ergonomic design for
valves to be operated and gauges to be seen,
earthing and bonding to remove static charge
due to flow, overflow return from measuring
vessel to a storage tanks, painting with colour
coding (IS:2379) and cathodic protection where
required.
More pipework in dyke is not desirable,
particularly with hazardous chemical, as it may be
trapped in fire in the dyke. Similarly pipelines of
flammable or toxic chemical should not be laid in
tunnel, as its leak may spread from one area to
another. Electric cables or hot lines and flammable
gas or liquid lines should not run side by side.
Solvent line should not be laid below the corrosive
line. Seam joints of rubber lined pipes should be
kept upward.
Piping arrangement should be such that in case
of failure at any point, the system can be quickly
isolated by closing valves, without disturbing the
rest of the system. Flushing arrangement should be
provided for easy start up and maintenance. Pipe
alleys should not run over the walking alleys,
normal layout should be near the walls or in sides.
To allow for thermal expansion special joints or
loops should be provided.
Emergency control valves should be easily
accessible. By-pass valves should be within easy
reach. Autocontrol valve should have bypass or
manual valve which may be required in the event of
failure of autocontrol valve. Particularly at the
outlet of bulk storage of hazardous chemicals,
manual and remotely controlled auto isolation valve
both should be provided as near as possible to the
outlet. Pressure relief device, liquid seal, manual
vent valve etc. should be provided to depressurise
the system where necessary.
Many different types of valve exist. It is
essential to choose the type best suited for the
particular operation it has to perform. For instance,
if ball valves are to be fitted in a high pressure
position, they should be trunnion mounted. Where
positive segregation of products is required, say at a
multi-product manifold, it is essential to provide
block and bleed valves for continuous monitoring
of valve seats and seals. For positive isolation some psi. Pipelines are laid for long distances, often
form of soft seat with a wedge gate action is across national boundaries. Booster stations are
desirable. largely automatic stations requiring very fail-safe
Pumps must be designed not only to suit the devices. The pipelines are usually buried about 1
immediate pipeline requirements, but should take meter underground and must be protected against
into account future developments. Thus, it may be corrosion. Leakage are likely to occur. The pipelines
necessary to stipulate a pump casing pressure much have to be checked constantly. The biggest danger to
higher than the pump can generate, if series or pipeline come from outside sources like
boosting pumping is envisaged. Care should be unauthorised digging and from corrosion.
taken to ensure that additional or larger impellers Pipelines should be given special additional
can be fitted as the system demand grows. The protection at various points along the route as road
maximum operating pressure for the pump and river crossings. Generally, they may be placed
mechanical seals should match the pump at a greater depth beneath rivers and ditches to
capabilities. It may be necessary to provide product allow for dredging or ditch deepening. Concrete
filtration to protect the minimum clearance of the protection slabs may be placed above the pipe to
pump moving parts, particularly on modern high warn anyone who may excavate in the area. If the
efficiency pumps. ground is particularly stony or rock filled, sand may
Flexible pipes, joints and hoses should be safe, be imported to cover the pipeline or a special
sound and properly tested. Bolted clips are protective wrap may be used.
preferred to jubilee clips. Proper supports or During construction of a pipeline, all welds are
hangers are necessary. visually examined. Generally, a percentage are
Glass piping, equipment or gauge needs radiographed to ensure that there is no cracking or
external protection to protect against external undue slag intrusion and that there is suitable
impact or internal bursting and flying fragments fusion between the weld and the parent metal. The
coming out. pipeline is wrapped to protect it against corrosion
Layout drawings of piping and fittings should once it is buried. The wrapping is normally tested
be maintained and corrected when any changes are by a 15,000 volt pressure test to ensure there are no
incorporated. holes in it. Additionally, an impressed current
Use of plastic piping is increasing. When it is cathodic protection system is superimposed to
used for hazardous gas like hydrogen, LPG, chlorine protect against subsequent wrapping damage due to
etc., utmost care is required to ensure safe joint. stones, roots, etc.
Normally metal compression fittings (rings and Pipeline control systems should be capable of
nuts) are used. Softer ring is preferred over hard recognising and measuring leak conditions and
compression ring. Nut should not be loosened. It initiating the appropriate action to shut down the
should be frequently checked for leakage. When any system and minimise the amount of product leaked.
leakage is noticed, first the supply cylinder valve
should be closed instead of operating any electric Colour Code for Pipelines :
switch or spark generating device.
Semi-conductive material for hoses preferred Requirement for Indian Standard 2379 is given in
over non-conductive or good conductive material to Table 18.20.
avoid static electricity. The conductance should be
between 10-4 to 10-8 mho. Table 18.20 : Identification of Pipelines
Failure of packing in valves, stems or flange Service Ground 1st 2nd
gaskets, opening the wrong valve or failure to colour band band
depressurise the system before opening the joint and 1 Cooling Sea French -
uninsulated steam or hot lines can cause accidents. water Green blue
Remedial measures are splash guard, replacement 2 Boiler feed “ Gulf -
of gasket, tagging and work permit procedure, water red
colour coding and proper training and supervision. 3 Condensate “ Light -
In above ground pipework which remains brown
isolated during normal operations, thermal relief 4 Hot water “ Light -
system should be provided to protect against grey
increasing ambient temperature. 5 Drinking “ French Signal
water blue red
Underground Pipelines : 6 Treated “ Light -
water orange
Petroleum products, crude oil, and natural gases are 7 Cold water “ French Canary
some of the more important products transported blue yellow
by underground pipelines. The size may vary 8 Untreated “ White -
anywhere upto 50” diameter and pressure upto 1200 water

71
9 Compressed Sky blue - -
air 1. Prepare work permit. Tag the joint or portion to
10 Vacuum “ Black - be broken.
11 Steam Alumini - - 2. Close or lock the isolation valves to stop flow in
um the line to be opened. Isolate the area.
IS:2339 3. Stop pump and motor. Remove fuse so that
12 Diesel Light Brillian - motor cannot be started.
brown t green 4. Drain, vent and cool the line completely. See that
13 Lubricating “ Light - the pressure is zero and the pipe is cool.
oil grey 5. Wear PPE like hand gloves, face shield, apron,
14 Drainage Black - - respirator etc. depending on chemical . Keep fire
15 Ammonia, Canary Dark - extinguishers ready.
Cl2, HCl, SO 2 yellow violet 6. Support the line on both the sides of joint. If it
16 Acids Dark Different colour can fall, hold it by a lifting machine. Flange nuts
violet for different acids and bolts should be opened slowly. A temporary
17 Brine Black White flange guard should be put so as to protect from
18 Caustic Smoke Light splashes or dripping. First the farthest nut-bolt
solution grey orange should be loosened so that splash if any, may not
19 CS2 Black Light come toward the body. Dripping, if any, should
orange be allowed fully. Then the adjacent nut bolts
20 Air Sky blue White Black should be opened. To separate flanges, a metal
21 O2 Canary White wedge may be used if necessary. Final bolt will
yellow be opened only after completion of dripping.
22 CO2 “ Light Spark should be avoided.
grey 7. After removing choking by scrapping, digging or
23 Ethylene “ Dark Signal drilling, the removed section of the line, valve
yellow red etc. should be decontaminated by water, air or
24 Ethylene “ “ Brillian purging inert gas. If this is not possible, it should
oxide t green be tagged with warning, indicating the
25 N2 “ Black contaminant.
Colour code is also given for many other 8. Use stable platform. Working by sitting on other
materials. For colour shade see IS 217, 166, 410, pipelines, ladder or structure is risky.
537, 101, 309, 628, 221, 631 and 437. See also Part 9. Safety shower, running water hose, fire
7.3.2 of Chapter 9 for colour coding. extinguisher, absorbent etc. should be kept ready
for use.
Identification of pipelines is necessary to avoid 10. More precautions should be taken while opening
any mistake while operating any valve, taking dead lines or pipes whose content is not known.
connection or opening the line for repair or 11. Direct cutting by hacksaw or gas flame without
maintenance. For outside servicemen it is most knowing the content is hazardous. Flammable,
useful. corrosive or toxic content must always be
Colour bands are superimposed on the ground removed first.
colour. Minimum width of colour band is 25 mm.
Width ratio of first band to second band should be (7) In-Plant Transportation :
4:1. Size of lettering should be as under :
While handling chemicals within the plant,
Outer Dia of Pipe Letter size pipelines for gases and liquids are used. The
covering (mm) (mm) different kinds of packing are used, but some other
20 to 30 10 forms of transport, such as conveyor belts and
30 to 50 20 pneumatic conveyors are also used. Important
50 to 80 30 methods for in-plant transportation are :
80 to 150 40 etc.
(a) Through Pipelines : Most plants have a system
Where flow direction is to be indicated, arrows of storage tanks for liquids or even materials which
or letters are painted near valves, junctions etc. and can be easily melted. The liquids are pumped to
at suitable intervals along the pipe. measuring tanks from where they are charged to
the reactors.
(6) Precautions in Breaking Pipelines : Safe practice is to pump to the measuring tank
and an overflow line returning to the tank.
Following precautions are necessary while opening The pipelines can be of various materials,
or breaking any pipeline : depending upon the nature of chemicals handled-

72
steel, stainless steel, polythene, polypropylene, PVC,
glass, lead, glass lined, rubber lined. The pipelines
should be well laid, giving adequate support,
provision for maintenance, and painted for correct
identification, as per IS : 2379. Pipelines carrying
LPG and flammable material should be properly
bonded and earthed Isolation valves should be
provided for easy control in case of breakage and
maintenance.
(b) Drums : While handing liquids from drums,
the material can be emptied by sucking into a
measuring vessel or by pumping out, using a small
pump that could go into the bung opening, or by a
gear pump. Air pressure should not be used, more
so with toxic or corrosive liquids.
Solids can be discharged into reactors by drum
tilters or emptied onto specially designed screw
conveyor. Cut drums should not be invariably used.
They can cause plenty of accidents, as workers are
not careful to hammer down the sharp edges.
Partially used drums must be covered, special
protection should be taken to preserve the chemical
and the product identified.
Empty drums are not really empty, if they have
been used for solvents unless specially cleaned.
Dangerous chemicals like dimethyl sulphate,
benzoyl chloride, etc. require elaborate cleaning to
really wash out the traces of harmful ingredients.
(c) Naked carboys and glass bottles should never
be transported. They should be transported in
wooden crates or cases, properly closed and
handled to avoid damage to the container.
(d) Plastic Carboys are very easy to handle and
sturdy. Special spouts are usually provided to
prevent spillage.
(e) Conveyor belts are frequently employed for
handling large quantities of chemicals. When
dealing with organic powders, steps should be
taken to see that static charge is not generated.
(f) Pneumatic conveyors are increasingly used for
transportation from one place to another within the
plant.
(g) Gas cylinders should be handled with the right
type of tackle, trolley and certainly not thrown
down. They should be protected against the heat
and impact. When kept vertical, they should be
clamped or tied to prevent fall. See Part 16.12 also.
16.2 Handling of Flammable
Gases
Gases are generally contained in cylinders, in the
compressed liquefied or dissolved state. Flammable
gases will pose fire hazard when they leak or escape
73
from their containers. Also when a gas is subjected
to a high pressure, it could burst the container with
serious consequences. In handling and storage it
must be ensured that the cylinders are protected
from damage or deterioration and heat. Some of the
precautions to be taken are outlined below.
Cylinders should not be dropped, dragged,
rolled on their side or permitted to strike one
another or other surface violently. When removable
caps are provided for valve protection, such caps
should be in place at all times expect when cylinders
are in use. It is safer to use suitable trucks to move
them even through short distances. They must not
be lifted by their cap or with the aid of rope or chain
slings. A safe cradle on platform with guard rails
should be used for the purpose. Cylinders should
not be used as rollers, or supports for any purpose
other than to contain the contents as received.
Storage room for the cylinders should be dry,
cool and well ventilated. Where practical, they
should be of fire resistant construction. Highly
flammable solvents, combustion waste materials,
corrosives and cylinders of oxygen should not be
stored near cylinders containing flammable gases. In
outdoor locations they should be kept off the
ground on a raised concrete pad or non-combustible
rack and sheltered from sun by means of non-
combustible canopy.
See also Part 16.9 and 16.10 following.
16.3 Handling of Flammable Liquids
General guidelines for loading/unloading liquids
are as under :
1. Take care of adverse weather conditions.
2. Safe access to the top of the trailer tank car.
3. Suitable fire extinguishers.
4. Where air pressure is needed or other gases such
as nitrogen, adequate hose lines should be
provided with reducing valves. Pressure should
be as minimum as possible. Soundness of the
pipe line and joints should be checked. Breakable
pipes should not be used for toxic chemical.
5. Steam lines, if heating is necessary.
6. Personnel discharging duty should be in the
vicinity.
7. Adequate personal protective equipment should
be provided.
8. Emergency shower and eye washer should be
provided.
9. Ensure that sufficient space is available in the
receiving tank.
10. Training of personnel necessary.
11. Avoid mixing of chemicals. Take full
precautions.
12. Routine thorough check-up procedures.
13. Proper identification on discharge lines.
14. Earthing for transferring flammable liquids.
Muffler on exhaust pipe.
15. Truck/tanker should be fixed by brakes or
wheel-blocks and engine stopped while loading
or unloading.
Flammable liquids are easily ignited and
difficult to extinguish. Their vapours form explosive
mixtures with air. Flammable liquids in unopened
containers offer only moderate fire risk. They
however, become severe fire hazard when
containers are open or leaky. Before handling,
containers should be carefully inspected and
damaged or leaky containers, if any, be segregated.
Containers should not be dropped, rolled or so
handled as to risk damage to them.
Good housekeeping standards are essential in
storage areas. Such areas should be isolated by
distance or constructions so that they do not expose
important buildings to fire and in turn are protected
from fire originating elsewhere. The extent of
isolation depends upon the factors such as the
maximum quantity of flammable liquid may be
stored, the severity of the fire hazard presented by
the flammable liquid etc. Detached locations should
be preferred. Best locations are in the open under
non-combustible weather canopies with minimum
wall enclosure or in one story buildings without
basements. Where storage in detached locations is
not possible and the use of main building is
unavoidable, with liquids offering only fire hazard,
a room cut off from the rest of the space by fire
resistant walls may be used. Where both fire and
explosion hazard may exist in a main building,
storage room should be located at an outside wall ,
cut off from other spaces horizontally and vertically
with fire and pressure resisting construction. Floors
should be liquid tight with slight down gradient to
permit drainage. Rooms to be well ventilated to safe
guard against fire and explosion hazards as also
against health hazards. Provision should be made
for automatic sprinkler protection and all potential
sources of ignition should be eliminated. Cutting
and welding operation and smoking should be
prohibited in storage area. The limitation regarding
the maximum number of drums that may be stored
in a particular location, the height of piles etc.
would along other thing depends upon the severity
of fire hazard associated with a particular
flammable liquid.
16.4 Handling of Flammable Solids
A large variety of solid materials used in industries
and at other places present fire risk. Flammable
solid materials become particularly hazardous
under certain conditions. Some possess the ability of
being easily ignited by external sources such as
sparks and flame. Some other are liable to heat
spontaneously and ignite. Certain materials have
the property of releasing flammable gases when in
contact with water. In the handling and storage of
74
various flammable solids apart from taking normal
precautions, additional precautions will have to be
taken to guard against the hazard posed due to
condition or circumstances under which flammable
materials may became severe fire risk.
Bales of Cotton and Jute hemp represent some
of the solid materials which are easily ignited. With
an ignition source, the fire initially flashes over
fibres on the surface and then travels at a slower
rate between bales and into individual bales.
Ignition source may be electricity, mechanical
sparks, smoking, matches etc. Bales should be
protected from such source. Electrical wiring in a
warehouse for the bales should be installed in a
rigid metal conduit for protection against
mechanical damage. Spark producing electrical
equipment including switches, fuses, circuit
breakers should be in dust tight enclosures. Ware-
house to be of non combustible construction with
floors sloping to prevent accumulation of water.
Piles sizes to be not too large and about 3m wide
aisles space to be maintained between piles. With
bales of jute, at least 1m wide space should be left
along the walls and with bales of other fibres, at
least 0.8m wide gap is to be left. The height of the
pile should be limited taking into account the floor
loading capacity and the weight of bales when
soaked with water. In any case at least 1m head
clearance is to be maintained between the top of the
piles and the deflectors or sprinklers.
Bituminous coal represents flammable solids
liable to spontaneous combustion. It absorbs oxygen
from the air and the absorption is more rapid when
the coal if freshly mined or contains much fine dust.
Moisture adds oxidation. Coal should not be stored
in contact with sources of external heat or over
trenches, manhole covers and similar surfaces
which may allow movement of air through piles. In
yards, piles height to be limited to 3m with low
grade coal and 5m with best grade coal. Where bins
are used for storage, these should be of non-
combustible material with the structure roofed over
to protect the coal from rain. The space above the
coal should have adequate ventilation to prevent
concentration of gases given off by the coal.
Calcium carbide and Alkali metals are some of
the solids which when in contact with water liberate
flammable gases. In some cases the gases released
may be ignited from the heat of reaction. These
materials are to be packed in air tight containers and
stored in dry cool and well ventilated building of
non-combustible or fire resistant construction. They
should be separated from combustibles, oxidising
agents and mineral acids.
16.5 Handling of Oxidising
Agents
Oxidising agents used in the industry include
organic and inorganic peroxides, nitrates, nitrites,
chlorates, perchlorates, permanganates etc. Being
supporters of combustion they present severe fire
hazard. Oxidising agents should be stored and
handled in fire resistive building. They should be
separated from all flammable, oxidisable and
chemically reactive materials. Storage areas to be
kept cool and well ventilated.
16.6 Handling of Corrosive
Substances
Corrosive substance will cause severe damage when
in contact with living tissue or, in case of leakage,
will materially damage or even destroy the
surrounding they come in contact with. It is likely to
cause a fire when in contact with organic matter or
certain chemicals. Certain corrosive substances have
other more serious hazardous properties (toxicity,
flammability etc.) and are commonly classed as
toxic or flammable etc. rather then as corrosive.
Important corrosive substances are : Acids and
anhydrous alkalis, halogens and halogen salts,
organic halides, organic acid halides, esters and
salts.
When in contact with human tissues, most
corrosive substances will produce chemical burns,
while certain other substances (as Chromic acid)
produce deep ulceration. Many corrosive substances
have a defeating action on the skin and may cause
dermatitis.
The safeguards against these hazards are :
1. Preventing or minimising contact between
corrosive substances and skin, mucous
membranes and eyes.
2. Corrosive substances should not be allowed to
come in contact with materials that may react.
3. All the containers, pipes, apparatus, installations
and structures used for the manufacture, storage,
transport or use of these substances may be
protected by suitable coatings, impervious to
and unaffected by corrosives.
4. All containers or receptacles should be clearly
labelled to indicate their contents and should
bear the danger symbol for corrosives.
5. A high standard of maintenance and good
housekeeping is essential.
6. Adequate ventilation and exhaust arrangement
whether general or local, should be provided
whenever corrosive toxic gases or dust are
present.
7. Personal protective devices should be used
depending upon the nature of work viz. (a)
Corrosion-resistant and impervious suits, or
hand-gloves, aprons etc. (b) Respirator, gas mask
or self contained breathing apparatus, (c) Barrier
cream when exposure is not severe.
8. First aid treatment facilities should be provided
and all concerned should be instructed to follow
safe practices such as (a) Prolonged washing
75
with water (b) Removing contaminated clothing
(c) Seeking immediate medical help.
9. Safety showers and eyewashers should be
provided.
See also Schedule 12 and 19 under rule 102 of
the Gujarat Factories Rules.
16.7 Handling and Storage of
Chlorine
Properties of chlorine are : Greenish yellow gas,
liquid or rhombic crystals, mp - 101 0C, bp - 34.5 0C,
d 1.47 at 0 0C (3.65 atm), vp 4800 mm at 20 0C, vd
2.49, TLV 1 ppm, STEL 3 ppm and TC L0 (human) 15
ppm. In addition to toxicity, it poses fire hazard
when react with turpentine, ether, ammonia gas,
hydrogen, powdered metals, polypropylene, wax,
rubber, acetaldehyde, acetylene, alcohol and many
materials. When heated, emits toxic fumes. When
reacted with water or steam, produces toxic and
corrosive fumes of HCl.
(A) Employee Selection and Training :
Persons affected with asthma, bronchitis
chronic lung conditions, and irritations of the upper
respiratory tract should not be employed where
exposures to chlorine might occur. Training classes
for both new and old employees should be
conducted periodically to keep them conscious and
informed of the hazards. They should be instructed
and trained to adopt preventive measures in case of
emergency and to use safety equipment.
(B) Leakage tools :
1. Do not use water directing on leak.
2. Keep “emergency kits’ handy and in proper
working condition to control chlorine leakage
and train workers in their use.
3. Appropriate facility for chlorine absorption
through caustic soda/lime/soda ash solutions
should be established and maintained in the
event of leakage. The containers should not be
immersed in same absorption media.
4. Ammonia water torches should be located at
nearby places where chlorine containers are
generally received, stored or used in process so
as to facilitate easy detection of any leakage by
white fumes.
5. Self-breathing apparatus, gas mask and
‘emergency kits’ should be located at strategic
points under working condition and to be easily
accessible in the event of emergency.
(C) Storage Area :
1. Storage area should be cool, dry, well ventilated,
clean and protected from external heat source.
2. It should be remote from elevators, gangways or
ventilating systems.
3. Ventilation must be sufficient to prevent
accumulation of vapour pockets. All fan
switches should be outside the storage area.
4. As far as possible, the building for the storage of
chlorine should be entirely of non-combustible
construction and separate from other building.
In case the storage is not in a different building
it should be ground floor with at least two exists
opening outside and separated from other parts
of the building by fire resisting walls and floors.
(D) Cylinders Tonners/Containers :
1. Store chlorine cylinder up-right and secure them
so that they cannot fall.
2. Ton containers should be stored on their sides on
rails a few inches above the floor. They should
not be stacked or racked more then one high.
3. Keep enough space between containers so that
all are accessible in case of emergency.
4. Store the containers in a covered shed only. Keep
them away from hot sun or any other source of
heat.
5. Do not store chlorine container with explosives,
acids, turpentine, ether, anhydrous ammonia,
finely divided metals or other flammable
material.
6. Cylinders should be stored on a cement floor
sloping towards a pit capable of collecting all the
liquid in the cylinders. Under no circumstances
should water be allowed to run on to the
chlorine in the pit.
7. Do not store containers in wet and muddy areas.
8. Use cylinders in order of their receipt.
9. Filled and empty cylinders should be stored
separately.
10. Protective covers for valves should always be
secured, even when the cylinders are empty.
11. No oil or any lubricant should be used on any
valves of the containers.
12. The correct tool should be used for opening and
closing valves, they should never be hammered.
13. Cylinders should never be lifted by means of the
metal cap, nor should rope slings, chains or
magnetic device be used. The ton containers
should be handled with a suitable cradle with
chain slings combination with a hoist or crane
having at least 2 metric tonnes capacity.
14. Never tamper with any fusible plugs of tonners
or apply heat to them.
(E) Bulk Storage :
1. Being a compressed gas, all installations and
tank vehicles used for storage and transport of
liquid and gaseous chlorine have to be approved
and licensed under the Static and Mobile
Pressure Vessels (unfired) Rules 1981.
76
2. Appropriate minimum safety distances as
stipulated in the above mentioned rules have to
be maintained from buildings or group of
buildings or adjacent property.
3. The tank has to be installed entirely above
ground.
4. The bulk storage tanks for chlorine should be
installed near waste-air system.
5. At least two safety valves should be connected
to the waste-air system.
6. Pressure indicator with alarm should be
available in the control room.
7. As an emergency measure, a perforated pipe,
connected to the blower suction, around the
storage tanks can be laid. In case of leakage
the leaked chlorine will get sucked through
this pipe which leads to waste-air system where
it can be neutra-lised.
8. Safe bulk storage of chlorine call systematic
inspection and maintenance.
See also Part 17.5 and Part 20.5 IIB, following.
(F) Handling Through Pipelines :
1. For piping dry chlorine, the material of
construction generally used is carbon steel.
Piping arrangements should as simple as
possible.
2. The number of screws or flange joints should be
kept to minimum.
3. Piping system should be well supported and
adequately sloped to allow drainage and low
spot should be avoided.
4. Suitable allowance should be provided for pipe
expansion due to changes in temperature.
5. Cleaning may be accomplished by pulling
through each length of pipe a cloth saturated
with trichloroethylene or other suitable
chlorinated solvents.
(G) Emergency Measures :
1. In case of leakage or spillage, any person
tackling of chlorine should be equipped with
emergency kits, self breathing apparatus or
masks and other appropriate items of personal
protection.
2. In case of major leakage, all persons including
neighbour (depending upon the situation)
should be warned. Take the leaking cylinder to
an isolated open place and roll it in such position
so that the leaking point is on the top. In such
case only gas and not liquid will escape.
3. Approach from the windward side so that the
escaping gas can be carried downwind to a
lower level. In no circumstances should water or
other liquid be directed towards leaking
containers, so as to disperse the gas. Also the
water solubility of chlorine is more at low
 temperatures, it will dissolve readily in the
chilled water.
4. In case of large leaks, try to stop the flow of
liquid by closing the valves.
5. After containing the liquids, one can use
fluroprotein foam to prevent evaporation of the
liquid.
6. In case of large leakage, the alternate solution is
to absorb the chlorine in an alkaline medium
such as caustic soda, soda or lime slurry.
2. Leaks of a ammonia should be searched for,
preferably with Hydrochloric acid solution or
with a small cylinder of the compressed SO 2 gas.
Because of the fire risk, sulphur candles should
not be used.
3. Gas masks should be located at strategic points
under working condition and to be easily
accessible in the event of any emergency.
(E) Storage and Handling Controls :

16.8 Handling and Storage of Indoor Storage :

Ammonia
1. Storage should be cool, dry, well ventilated and
protected from external heat sources.
Properties of Ammonia are : Colourless gas,
2. The building protected with automatic
pungent odour, mp - 77.7 0C, bp - 33.35 0C, LEL 16%,
sprinklers, vapour tight electrical equipment,
UEL 25%, d 0.771 g/l at 0 0C, vp 10 atm at 25.7 0C,
good natural ventilation, good floor drainage
vd 0.6, TLV 25 ppm, STEL 35 ppm, LC L0 (human)
and adequate exposition venting.
10,000 ppm for 3 hrs, TC L0 (human) 20 ppm -
irritant. Fire hazard low. Explosion hazard
Outdoor storage :
moderate when exposed to flame. When heated
emits toxic fumes. To fight fire, stop flow of gas.
The location should be away from any
flammable liquid storage.
(A) General Preventive Measures :
Bulk Storage :
1. Designing of layout of area with due
consideration of adequate natural or mechanical
1. In case of multiple storage facilities, a plan
ventilation.
should be prepared for readily and definitely
2. Use of properly selected material for
approaching all shutoff valves to be used for
construction of plant and equipment for
isolating various parts of the storage facilities.
handling of ammonia.
2. Each storage area should be protected at least by
3. Preventive maintenance of all equipment in
one standard fire hydrant.
proper working condition.
3. Gauge of glass should be provided with excess
4. Avoid contact of ammonia with certain other
flow check valves. The Gauge glasses should not
chemicals, including mercury, chlorine, iodine,
be longer than 120 cm and more than 60 cm
bromine, calcium, silver oxide and hypochlorite.
between supports.
4. Storage tank construction should be of integrity
(B) First Aid :
and double wall type known as ‘can in tank’
type.
1. Keep trained first-aiders having the knowledge
5. Each storage tank shall be equipped with two
in the use of first aid equipment.
relief valves mounted on a 3-way hand valve to
2. Provide necessary showers, eye-baths and
provide means for repair of faulty valve.
oxygen administration apparatus.
6. Install remote controlled valves at the bottom of
3. Suitable notices should be fixed in convenient
ammonia storage tank.
places regarding first aid measures.
7. Facilities for creating water curtains around the
ammonia storage tanks should be created to
(C) Personal Protective Equipment :
absorb ammonia vapours if they leak out,
however, care should be taken not to add water
Provide adequate and suitable personal
to the liquid ammonia else it will worsen the
protective equipment at all times e.g. gas-tight
situation.
chemical goggles, self contained breathing
8. Non refrigerated ammonia shall be stored in gas
apparatus, positive pressure hose masks, air line
tight containers.
masks, chemical cartridge respirators, hard hats,
9. In the event of power failure, provision should
soft-brimmed hats or caps, safety-toed rubber boots,
be made to run the holding compressors of all
rubber gloves, rubber apron or rubber coat, sleeves
the ammonia storage by emergency diesel
and trousers legs, etc.
generating sets so as to compress excess vapour
into liquid ammonia (for refrigerated bulk
(D) Leakage Tools :
storage system )
1. Use large volumes of water directing on leak.

77
10. A flare stack should be provided to burn
ammonia vapour in case safety valve fails to
release ammonia pressure.
See also Part 17.6 and Part 20.5 C, following.
16.9 Handling and Storage of LPG
After Chlorine and Ammonia, the third chemical of
major industrial use is LPG i.e. liquefied petroleum
gas. As LPG, propane and butane are widely used as
fuels. LNG, liquefied natural gas, is mainly
methane. It is stored as liquid and transmitted by
high pressure pipeline for industrial and domestic
uses. NGL, natural gas liquids are mainly ethane,
propane and butane. They are also transmitted by
pipeline. Fire and explosion are the main hazards
associated with them. Boiling points and explosive
limits of these hydrocarbons are as under :
Properties & Hazards of LPG :
LPG tanks can be sited above or under ground. In
any case the manhole and the safety valves should
remain in open well ventilated position. Guidelines
of Explosive Act & Rules, SMPV Rules, Petroleum
Act & Rules and Controller of Explosives must be
followed (See Parts 2.9 to 2.15 of Chapter-28).
LPG vessels should not be located one above
the other. The ground underneath should be
concreted or compacted and free from pits, drains
and culverts. Weeds, grass, shrubs, tress or any
combustible material should be removed from the
ground. Separation distances are mentioned in
Table 18.21.
Table 18.21 : Spacing of LPG Vessels
Tank
Separation Distances in mt
Capacity in
Above Ground Under
Vessels Ground
Vessels

ignition From surrounding or source of

ignition From surrounding or source of

BP LEL UEL
Gas 0
C % %
1 Propane LPG & -42.1 2.3 9.5
2 Butane NGL -0.5 1.9 8.5 Litres X 1000

Between vessels

Between vessels
Tonnes

3 Methane LNG -161.5 5.3 15

With fire wall

4 Ethane NGL -88.6 3.0 12.5
5 Ethylene -103.9 2.7 36
6 Propylene -47.7 2.0 11.1

Commercial butane (n-butane) and propane are

used as LPG. They exist as gases in ambient
condition but can be liquefied under little pressure
and on release of this pressure, they again become
gases. As liquid its density is 0.5 and will float and
0.05 0.15 2.5 0.3 1 0.3 0.3
vaporise on water surface. Therefore water is not
– - 0.5
good extinguishing media for LPG fire but it is 0.25
essential to keep the vessel cool. Its vapour density 0.25 0.5 3 1.5 1 1 1.5
is 1.5 and does not disperse easily. It tends to sink to - 1.1 -2.5
the lowest possible level and if ignited in a confined 1.1 – 2.5 – 7.5 4 1 3 1.5
space, it can explode also. Bottom ventilation (holes) 4 9
near LPG cylinder allows leaking gas to go outside. 4- 9 15 7.5 1.5 3 1.5
Its explosive range is 2 to 10%. Its flame can travel 60 -135
60 135 22.5 11 3
vessels0.25 x sum of dia of 2 adjacent

back to the source giving flash back. It can cause

-150 -337.
Depending on site conditions

cold burns to the skin due to its rapid vaporisation

5
and lowering of temperature. Its very high >150 >337 30 15 3
concentration in air, is anaesthetic and on dilution, it .5
becomes asphyxiant. It gives odour at 1/5th of its
LEL (i.e. at 0.4% of gas in air). Heavy leaks give
hissing sound or icing in the area of leak. Small
leaks may be detected by soap solution (bubbling).
Never use a naked flame to detect it.
Its empty tank may still contain LPG vapour
and if air enters in empty tank (due to any opening
or leaking of valve) it can form an explosive
mixture. Therefore it must be purged by inert gas Slope should be given to the ground beneath
first and gas-test should be made before doing any the vessels, connections and equipment containing
work on it. LPG to drive away any dripping or leakage towards
a safe area. Such evaporation area or catchment pit
Location & other Safety Aspects : should be at least 3 m from LPG vessels and have

78
sufficient capacity to contain the largest credible
leak and well ventilated to permit safe dispersion.
Gas detectors should be provided in the pit to give
warning of any LPG vapour.
For other details of fire walls, mechanical
integrity, certification, marking, fittings (safety
valves, drain connection, level gauges, valves,
pumps and compressors), piping, vaporisers,
security, fire precautions, loading and unloading
facilities, commissioning and decommissioning,
maintenance and examination, operational
procedures and training see the reference no. 41 at
the end.
See also Part 17.7 and Part 20.5 IIA, following.
Minimum safety distances are also given in
IS:6044 (Part 2) for LPG storage and installations.
Part 1 is for LPG cylinder installations.
16.10 Handling and Storage of EO
Properties of Ethylene oxide are : Colourless gas,
mp - 111.3 0C, bp 10.7 0C, LEL 3%, UEL 100%, fp
-17.8 0C, d 0.8711 at 20 0C, vp 1095 mm at 20 0C, vd
1.52, TLV 1 ppm, LD50 (rat) 330 mg/kg, LC50 (rat)
1462 ppm for 4 hrs. It is toxic, flammable and
explosive. Fire & explosion hazard when exposed to
heat or flame. To fight fire use CO 2, DCP or alcohol
foam. It can react with acids and bases, alcohol,
AlCl3, Al2O3, FeCl3, Fe2O3, ammonia, copper,
mercaptans, potassium, tin chlorides etc. Vaporises
rapidly at ambient temperature, can cause cold
burns and it is soluble in water.
PVC gloves, aprons, gum boots, goggles or face
shield and breathing apparatus are necessary
equipment to handle EO.
Safety Measures : Avoid heat, flame and ignition
sources. Dilute spillage with plenty of water.
Provide N2 blanketing and preferably keep storage
tank refrigerated. Its pressure should be kept within
operating limits. Equipment cleaning may be done
by citric acid. Prevent backflow of any chemical into
the EO vessel.
Storage tank should be separated at least 15 mt
from plants and buildings. Collusion of vehicles
should be prevented by fencing and barricade.
Spillage should be directed to a remote catchpit by
an impermeable and sloppy floor.
It polymerises by iron rust, acids, bases and by
chlorides of iron and other metals. Polymerisation is
highly exothermic and may result in explosion.
Material of construction - stainless steel or MS
aluminised from interior. Insulation - mineral wool
covered by galvanised or SS cladding. Gaskets
should be teflon coated.
Level gauges are float differential pressure
type, torque tube type or magnetic float type.
Compound pressure and vacuum gauge is
preferable. Temperature gauge with high and low
temperature alarm necessary. Double safety valves
79
(at least one must be locked open) with 2 mt
discharge outlet pipe, flame arrester on outlets and
N2 purging connections are required. Lines should
not be of less than 1 inch diameter. To prevent
reverse flow of EO, NRV and double block and
bleed valve system is required.
In emergency, start water spray system or
circulate chilled water through limpet coils or use
fire water hydrant system. Knock down vapours
with water spray and dilute continuously with
water spray nozzle.
Pump temperature should not rise 3 0C.
Therefore it should be kept cool by recycle from
delivery to suction. A centrifugal pump with
mechanical seal is normally used. If temperature
margin (3 0C) increases, the pump should be
stopped.
To avoid accident of EO road tankers, provide
driver with TREMCARD, DCP extinguisher, PVC
hand-gloves and respirators. In extreme case, EO
may be transferred from one tanker (which cannot
be pulled out or run) to another by using N 2
cylinders.
See also Part 20.5 IIG following.
16.11 Handling and Storage of
Oleum
Properties of Oleum are : It is a fuming heavy,
yellow liquid (sulphuric acid) as H 2SO4 + upto 80%
SO3. Mostly it comes in two categories : Oleum 23%
i.e. in 100 kg, 23 kg SO 3 and 67 kg H2SO4 and Oleum
65% i.e. in 100 kg, 65 kg SO 3 and 35 kg H2SO4. It is
highly irritant to skin, eyes and mucous membranes
and via oral and inhalation routes. It can cause
dangerous fire hazard by chemical reaction with
reducing agents and carbohydrates. It can cause
explosion also by chemical reaction with acetic acid,
acetic anhydride, acetonitrile, acrolein, acrylic acid,
aniline and many other chemicals. When heated to
decompose, it emits highly toxic fumes of SO 2 (TLV
2 ppm and STEL 5 ppm). It reacts with water or
steam to produce heat and toxic & corrosive fumes.
TLV 1 mg/m3.
Dyke with slopped ground floor is required to
contain storage tank(s). Acidproof lining in dyke is
necessary. Tank vent is to be connected with a
sulphuric acid tank or scrubber with strong H 2SO4 to
prevent discharge of fuming SO3. Ventline of oleum
of more than 45% concentration needs steam tracing
to prevent freezing of SO3. A roof is required to
protect from rain water. Nearby safety shower and
eye washer is necessary for workers to dilute
splashes or burns. To contain spillage ample
quantity of sand or slaked lime or sodium carbonate
should be kept aside. Water or wood dust should
not be sprayed on leaking oleum. Self-breathing
apparatus and acid-proof hand-gloves, aprons and
gum boots are necessary. Level indicator and
identification of content are also necessary. Remote
control isolation valve at the bottom outlet or no IS 7142 : For low pressure
bottom outlet and submersible pump on the top liquefiable gas.
outlet are desirable. IS 7682 : For methyl bromide gas.
Compressed air (free from oil, moisture and IS 8016 : Hand trolley for.
other impurities) is used to unload the tanker. The IS 5844 : Hydrostatic stretch
tanker outlet valve should be made of SS with teflon testing.
coating and leakproof. Air pressure data for a IS 3933,
specific unloading rate is available from published 3870 &
literature. 8382 : For medical use.
DCP extinguishers are useful on small fires of
oleum. Workers need training to attend emergencies 2 Types of safety devices mentioned in IS 5903 are
due to oleum leakage. Bursting disc, fusible plug, PRV and their
See Part 20.5 IID following. combination. It is prohibited to provide any
safety devices on cylinders containing obnoxious
or poisonous gases such as CO, HCl, HBr, HF,
16.12 Handling of Gas Cylinders :
SO2, Cl2, H2S, town gas, Carbonyl chloride,
Nitrosyl chloride, Nitrogen peroxide,
In factories we find the use of gas cylinders of
Methylamine and Methyl bromide. Shut-off
oxygen, nitrogen, acetylene, LPG, carbon dioxide,
device (except built-in with safety device) is also
chlorine, sulphur dioxide etc. The gases are filled
prohibited.
with pressure. Therefore when they leak, they come
Formulae for flow capacity of safety
out with force and pose hazards of fire, explosion or
devices, identification and marking, number of
toxicity. Therefore some rules are to be observed
test and test procedure and periodic inspection
while handling them. They are stated below.
and maintenance are also specified in IS:5903.
3 Normal procedure to identify and classify (to put
1 Following Indian Standards are useful for
into a group) gas cylinders is to see their colours.
understanding design, construction, fittings,
See IS:4379 for this purpose. Commonly used
testing, safety devices, valves and use of gas
cylinders are painted as under :
cylinders :
Acetylene - Maroon.
IS 8198 : Code of practice for steel
Air, N2 - French grey.
(12 cylinders for different
Ammonia, CO2,
Parts) compressed gases.
IS 7241 : Glossary of terms.
O2, Phosgene - Black.
IS 5903 : Safety devices. Argon, HCN - Peacock Blue.
IS 3224 : Valve fittings. Butane, Methane,
IS 7202, Propane, LPG, CO,
9199 & H2, Coal gas - Signal red.
9687 : Threads of valves. Chlorine - Golden yellow.
IS 4379 : Identification of contents Ethylene, EO - Dark violet.
(Colour Code). Helium, Neon - Middle brown.
IS 6901 : Pressure regulators for SO2 - Light brunswick
welding and cutting. green.
IS 8868 : Periodical inspection.
IS 5845 : Visual inspection for low Ground colour prescribed for flammable/ non-
pressure gas cylinders. flammable and poisonous/ non-poisonous gas
or mixture is white. Colour code is also
IS 8451 : Visual inspection for high prescribed for specific gas mixtures.
pressure gas cylinders. Thus specific colour indicates specific gas.
IS 8433 : Visual inspection for Therefore the colour shall never be changed. If
dissolved acetylene. colour is washed out, rubbed or not clear, write
IS 3196 : For LPG, Steel cylinders the name of the gas on the cylinder or on a tag
(3 parts) for low pressure. tied to it. In one factory, a worker joined an
IS 8776 : For LPG, valve fittings. oxygen cylinder instead of nitrogen cylinder to a
IS 8867 : For LPG, vapour & test
reaction vessel containing explosive mixture. It
pressure.
resulted into fire, explosion and death of another
IS 6044 : For LPG cylinder
two workers. A mistake in handling can cause
installations.
such serious accidents.
IS 7680 : For ammonia (anhy.) gas.
IS 7681 : For chlorine gas. 4 First verify the marking, number, company,
IS 7312 : For dissolved acetylene pressure, weight, capacity and date on the
gas. cylinder before their use.

80
5 Cylinder should be handled in its special trolley
or gently rolled on its bottom edge but not on the
whole surface. It should not be thrown or
subjected to undue force for damage. Lifting
machinery or magnet should not be used to lift
them. While carrying a chlorine tunner (or any
heavy cylinder) in a forklift, it should be tied
with a chain to prevent rolling.
6 Long vertical cylinder should be kept upright in
its stand or tied with chain to prevent falling.
7 No flammable material should be allowed
nearby. Source of ignition, spark, flame,
electricity, molten metal etc. must be kept away.
Cylinder should not be used as earthing. It
should be protected from excessive heat, cold,
dampness and corrosive chemicals.
8 When not in use, the valve should be kept closed
and covered with cap. If the valve is leaking, it
should be repaired by an expert or trained man,
otherwise the cylinder should be shifted in a
remote open ground.
9 Pressure regulator (double regulators for
pressure > 800 psi), pressure gauge and non-
return valve (NRV) should be maintained in
working order. Special spanner may be used to
close or open the valve keeping the thread
direction in mind. The spanner should be kept
nearby.
10 Grease or lubricating oil should not be applied
on valves of oxygen cylinders.
11 A store-room of gas cylinders should be well
ventilated. Filled and empty cylinders should be
kept separate. Construction should be fireproof
if flammable cylinders are to be stored.
12 Before testing a cylinder , it should be carefully
depressurised. Valves should not be
interchanged
13 Pipelines connected with cylinder should be kept
according to the pressure and type of gas.
Flexible plastic pipe for toxic or highly
flammable or explosive gas (e.g. Hydrogen)
should be avoided or tightened properly and
replaced in time. One worker died on the spot
due to explosion when hydrogen leaked from the
joint of a plastic pipe. Valve should be opened
gently and only as per requirement.
14 Leakage of flammable gas may be checked by a
soap solution and air bubble (not by naked flame
or lighter), ammonia by sulphur dioxide and
chlorine by ammonia water. Their bottles (torch)
should be kept ready. No leakage should be
checked by nose.
15 Quantity of cylinders should be restricted. If
toxic and flammable cylinders are kept in the
same shade, a partition wall should be provided.
A blast wall is necessary for highly explosive
cylinders. In a storage of flammable cylinders
electric wiring/fitting should be flameproof and
‘No Smoking’ notice should be displayed.
Earthing should be double and well maintained.
81
Fire extinguishers, emergency kit and PPE
should be kept ready. If the storage is in open
land, a wire fencing and locked door should be
provided.
16 Gas flow-rate may be known by providing
flowmeter or placing the cylinder on a weighing
platform. Flow-rate should not be excessively
increased.
17 The metal of adopter on a valve should be the
same as that of the valve to prevent erosion of
threads.
18 While connecting or changing a cylinder,
necessary respirator and eye goggles shall be
worn. First the cylinder valve shall be closed and
then the process (header) valve. This will
disallow any gas to remain in-between.
19 For emptying the residual gas, the cylinder shall
not be heated. This needs a suitable vaporiser
plant.
20 Provisions of Gas Cylinder Rules and SMPV
Rules shall be followed. See Part 2.11 and 2.12 of
Chapter-28.
For chlorine cylinders, see foregoing Part
16.7 (D).
17 INSPECTION, TESTING AND
MAINTENANCE
17.1 Process flowchart and its
importance for inspection
17.2 Inspection Techniques for Plants,
Vessels and Procedures
For plant safety inspection see Part 4 of Chapter 19.
Those types of inspection and general guidelines are
also useful for inspection of hazardous installations.
Some specific techniques are mentioned below :
Detailed guidelines were issued on inspection
of MAH installations under ILO Project
IND/86/MOI/FRG and circulated by the CLI,
Bombay in January 1991. It was also reproduced in
some different form in ‘Training Manual (TM8)’ on
‘Labour Inspection and its Role in Improving Safety
and Health with particular reference to the
Chemical Industry’ at Bangkok in June 1987. Its
short abstract is given below :
Main areas of inspection are tabulated as under
-
Inspection Areas
Standard Conditions of Process & Storage
1 Initial information
2 Process description
3 Operating instructions
Plant Integrity
 A meeting and discussion with the experts in the
plant can be useful.
1 Safe working limits 5. Competency of the occupier and contractors
2 Design, construction, inspection, test should be verified regarding better choice of
and certification process, catalyst, equipment etc., operating
3 Protective devices pressure, temperature, residence time etc., and
4 Maintenance management control systems.
5 Inspection & testing 6. Process documents like process description,
6 Inspection authority operating procedures, safety information,
7 Evaluation of plant integrity emergency manual etc. should be scrutinised for
completeness and quality.
A Vessels 7. Process description should be inclusive of
B Pipelines principles involved, basic chemistry of main and
C Pumps & ancillary equipment side reactions, hazards of materials and safety
D Modification to plant & precautions, plant, equipment list and line
equipment diagram, transport, storage and transfer
E Management control arrangements, operating parameters and their
safe limits, SOPs and procedure for authorising
process changes.
Process Deviations
8. Operating instructions should include flow
sequence & batch sheet, conditions to be
1 Variables maintained, actions of process controls and
2 Process chemistry monitoring instruments, allowable variation
3 Pressure limits and action necessary when that limit is
4 Temperature reached, emergency procedure, reporting route
5 Level and training schedule of operators.
6 Flow rate 9. For plant integrity, safe working limits of plant
7 Impact (including pressure vessels) should be carefully
8 Services established as design data and compatible with
9 Start-up & shutdown normal process operating conditions.
10 Operator’s error 10. The design data should include the range of
pressure, temperature, loading, flow rates,
A Sensory failure operation cycles, basis for pressure relief and
B Failure in logic properties of substances.
C Failure to act properly 11. The plant should be designed, constructed,
inspected, tested and certified according to the
design and construction code which will
Emergency Procedure achieve the safe working limits.
Fire Precautions 12. Protective devices may include pressure/
vacuum relief valves, rupture discs, explosion
vents, high/low level alarms, high/low
Some salient points on above areas are temperature/pressure alarms, weight tables,
summarised below : content gauges, maximum fill devices, padding
air/gas reducing valves and many forms of
1. Serious incidents arise from loss of containment instrumentation. Such devices should be checked
of hazardous substances. Therefore these for its suitability for the purpose intended.
possibilities and plant items should be inspected 13. Safe systems of work may include manual
in details. venting procedures, loading/unloading systems
2. The most vulnerable parts of the plant, and temperature control at fill. Cold content
procedure or system should be identified from stored below their safe temperature may cause
going through the plant layout, process flow brittle failure.
diagram and walking round the installation. 14. A scheme of testing protective devices should
Records of failure history and past accidents are be made by a competent person with due regard
useful. to local conditions (e.g. environment),
3. Safety arrangements should be checked also in consequences of failure, duplication, fail safe
relation to off-site impact with the local provision and risk physical damage.
population. 15. Preventive and conditions-based maintenance
4. All available expertise should be applied. e.g. schemes should be established.
engineering, chemical, medical, management etc. 16. The plant should be periodically and
appropriately inspected and tested. The vessel

82
 should be reassessed for continued use with
particular contents and the safe working limits
confirmed or revised. Pressure limits should be
revised if the thickness is found reduced.
Certification should specify safe working
pressure, vacuum, temperature, load and fill
ratio where the content may expand with
temperature rise and date of next examination.
17. Pressure vessels should be inspected as per
statutory requirements. The date of next
inspection should be certified by the competent
person.
18. Pipelines, pumps and ancillary equipment
should also be periodically inspected and
maintained. Colour code should be followed.
Where failure can be hazardous, standby
equipment should be provided (e.g. diesel
driven fire pump, scrubber pump, stand-by
power generator etc.). Emergency procedure
should be available in case of pump or
equipment failure.
19. Modifications to plant and equipment should be
of a standard of original integrity, otherwise the
plant should be down-rated. The modification
should be tested and certified by a competent
person for use and ability.
20. All process deviations which may affect the
plant in relation to loss of containment should be
scrutinised and the occupier’s competence to
prevent losses should be technically appraised.
Such deviations concern process chemistry,
pressure, temperature, flow rate, liquid level,
viscosity, surface tension, pH, moisture content,
contaminants, presence or absence of
air/oxygen/inert gas etc., impacts by external
forces like vehicles, falling bodies etc., utility
services, start-up and shutdown abnormalities
and operators’ errors such as sensory failure,
failure in logic (judgement or decision) and
failure to act properly (omission) or acting
improperly (commission).
Training can do little to anticipate these errors
but good process design can minimise their
effect and ensure that no single mistake will be
capable of causing catastrophe. Effective
supervision, check-lists and work permit
system can reduce the incidence of errors.
Causes of pressure rise are failure of pressure
protection or regulating system, temperature
rise, exothermic, run-away or polymerisation
reaction, back feeding of reaction mass into
storage vessel etc. It can result in fire, explosion
or/and toxic release.
Causes of temperature rise are failure of heat
control, failure of cooling system, fire,
exothermic reaction etc. It may result in rise of
pressure, flow rate, filling ratio, foaming of
vessel content, rollover, irreversible
metallurgical change to vessel. It needs
immediate venting or dumping.
83
Causes of level rise are failure of overfill
prevention device, overflow device, level control
device, communication between operators,
misrouting of process streams, siphoning, loss of
vacuum/pressure, surging etc. It may result in
overflow, spillage or vessel rupture.
Causes of flow rate deviations (too high, too
low or reversed) are changes in differential
pressure, failure or furring up of pumps,
pipelines and ancillaries, loss of pump prime,
vapour lock, operator’s error etc. It may result in
pressure/temperature deviations, rupture of
process heater or heat-exchanger, erosion or
cavitation within pipes and pumps.
Criteria of investigation include sizing and
location of pipes, pumps, vents, flares etc.,
isolation valves, gravity discharge, flexible
connections etc.
Thus types of process deviations are many and
so are their effects. Inspection process or
checklist should pay due attention on them.
21. Emergency procedures include physical
controls, systems of work and emergency plans
(e.g. on-site/off-site emergency plan). Operators
should be trained for emergency shutdown
action when and how to be followed and when
to consult senior officials. Procedures for quick
stopping the reaction, dumping or flaring and
by-passing the content should be established.
To control or mitigate effects of heavy spillage,
measures like bunding, extra tank, catchment
pits, dump vessels, diversion walls, grading of
the ground and use of absorbents or super-
sucker etc. are required. Bund walls should
withstand thermal shock, hydrostatic loading
and corrosivity of the chemical. For highly
liquefied flammable gases like LPG, a remote
evaporation area and sloppy floor are required.
For toxic or cryogenic liquids, surface area
should be minimised to reduce the evaporation,
or suitable blanketing material should be
sprayed. Possible adiabatic flashing may also be
considered.
Effects of explosion can be reduced by impact
walls near chances of explosion. Integrity of
control room should be ascertained. Storage
quantity and length and size of pipework should
be minimised. Vessel outlets and fixed pipework
should have remotely operated isolation valves.
Necessary personal protective equipment
conforming to Indian Standards should be given
to workers and well maintained. Workers should
be trained to use them.
22. Fire protection for process and storage should be
sufficient. Space separation, water drench,
insulation, fire walls, adequacy of the fire water
storage; their pumps and equipment, portable
extinguishers, fixed fire control installations,
hoses, staff and regular fire-drills etc. should be
verified.
 Many checklists are available and can be
CHECKLISTS : developed for inspection of factories. Some sample
checklists are given below :

17.3 Checklists for Routine Inspection of a Chemical Factory

(1) Checklist-1

Name & Address of the Factory :

Inspected on Date : Time :
Inspected by
Names of some workers contacted : (1) (2) (3)

A. Structural Stability and Safety :

1. Parts of building/shed requiring repairs.
2. Parts of vessels/ machinery requiring repairs.
3. Parts of Stairs/platforms requiring repairs.
4. Parts of storage/overhead tanks requiring repairs.
5. Parts of pit, sump, gutter, cover requiring repairs.
6. Others requiring repairs :
7. Lightening arrester required? provided ?
8. New extension / alteration.
9. Stability Certificate available ?
10. Specific remarks, if any (Viz. Doors open outward ? etc.) :

B. Solvent/ Liquid chemical Storage Tanks :

1 Sr. Chemical No. of Tanks Capacity Fittings

No.
1
2
2 Vents with flame arrester 12 FEE
3 Flare connection 13 PPE
4 Automatic level indicator and high level 14 Fencing/gate/lock provided?
alarm
5 Absorption media connection with drain 15 Lightening arrester necessary? Provoded?
safety valve
6 Flame /smoke detector with alarm 16 For acid/alkali/and other substances, safety
showers near?
7 Toxic/Combustible explosive gas 17 From tanks how the chemical sent to the
detector with alarm plant?
8 Earthing 18 Is measuring tank provided?
9 Bund wall/ dike / sump 19 Flameproof fitting necessary? Provided?
10 Notice 20 Permission of Explosive Dept. obtained?
11 Remote control device for emergency
drain and water spraying

C. Gas Cylinders Storage :

1 Name & No. of cylinders usually stored :

O2 (black) CO2 (black & white) Acetylene (maroon)
N2 (grey) NH3 (black, red & yellow) LPG C4H10 (red)
Cl2 (yellow) Freon CCl2F2 (grey & violet) Argon A (blue)
Air (grey) (Colour Code IS:4379)
2 Is the storage separate, away from source of heat and cordoned?
3 Gas detector with alarm.
4 FFE & PPE nearby?
5 Are the cylinders safely arranged?
6 Notice of operating/handling instructions.

84
D. Chemicals Store/Godowns :

1 Combustible chemicals separate?

2 Reactive (oxidising, reducing, compatible, dissolving, flammable, explosive, corrosive etc.)
chemicals separate?
3 Inorganic & Organic, liquid (drums, carboys etc.) separate?
4 Poisonous chemicals in a locked room?
5 Flameproof fitting necessary? Provided?
6 Earthing, FFE & PPE, Cautionary notice provided?
7 All doors and windows can be locked properly?
8 Ventilators as per vapour density provided?
9 For acid/alkali, safety shower near?
10 Quantity of each raw material and each product stored at any time.

E. Pressure Reactions :

1. Name and No. of Pressure Vessels and reactions

(Process, Steam, air etc.) :

Name of Working Exothermic? Then Constant cooling system

Vessel / Temperature provided?
Reaction & Pressure
Location
1
2

2. Safety Valve
3. Pressure gauge
4. Temp. gauge
5. Second Safety valve necessary? (above 100 psi) Provided?
6. Steam pressure reducing valve necessary? Provided?
7. Rupture disc necessary? Provided?
8. Drowning tank necessary? (after S.V. / R.D.) Provided?
9. Scrubber necessary? Provided?
10. Stirrer stop-alarm necessary? Provided?
11. Flame-proof motors / fitting necessary? Provided?
12. Earthing necessary? Provided?
13. Temperature cut off device necessary? Provided?
14. Feed/charge control necessary? Provided?
15. Quenching device for neutralisation necessary? Provided?
16. Drain / Discharge pipe?
17. Manhole
18. Vessel structure, foundation, position safe?
19. Pressure Test Report available? Date of last testing
20. Surrounding space open?
21. Sources of ignition near? Safety measures.
22. Platforms, stairs, fencing, guarding provided?
23. Documents of complete reaction, reaction rates,
pressure/temp. rise, exothermocity etc. available?
24. Gas/Flame detector in vicinity required? Provided?
25. If jacketed (limpet coil) vessels, fitting with the
jacket and how is the heating / cooling system?
26. Other devices necessary (viz. pressure
temperature recorder, auto controls, alarms,
remote controls etc.) Provided?

F. Distillation Process :

85
 1. Name and No. of Vessels, Process etc.
Sr. Name Chemi Atmos Column Condenser Receiver Unit
No. of cal pheric Provide Provided?
Vessel or d? Heat/Feed Vented Scrubber Provide
Vacuu cut off necessar d?
m? device y?
with
condenser?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.
2.

2. Nature and type of heat source (direct heat, heat through jacket, heating media etc.)
3. Heat control devices provided?
4. Temperature gauge 5. Pressure/Vacuum gauge
6. Drain Pipe 7. Manhole
8. Stirrer necessary? 9. Source of spark away?
10. Flameproof motors, fitting necessary?
11. Platform, stairs, railing, guarding provided?
12. Gas/Flame detector in vicinity required? Provided?
13. Others necessary and provided?

G. Other Processes :

Sr. Name of Name of Operating Chemicals Dangero Safety Measures

No. Vessel or Process Temperature used/react us Devices Still
Equipment Pressure ed etc. Conditio Provided necessary
ns
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.

2.

H. Toxic and Explosive Gases, Fumes, Dust etc. and Controls :

Sr. Name of Toxic , Its Scrubber Other Flare, Gas Other

No. the gas, combusti location and its neutralisi Inciner Detecto controls
fume, dust ble or type ng device ator r with necessary
- evolution explosiv (water alarm
& e blanketin
Probabilit g etc.)
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.

2.

Sr. Gas Detection Devices to Wind Refrigeration Others

No. Measuring Periodic collect direction unit for temp.
instrument testing safe and control, N2 or
available record discharge velocity brine barrier
available indicator etc.
available?
1 10 11 12 13 14 15
1.

86
 2.

I. Liquid Effluents :

Nature, (acidic, poisonous, fuming, corrosive etc.)

Treatment Plant

Platform, Stair, Pond, Sump, Fencing etc.

Discharge system (open gutter etc.)

Pumps, Motors, Machine guarding

Approved by Pollution Board?

Records maintained?
Effluent

Provided?
Sr.
No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.

2.

J. Flameproof, Explosionproof & Dustproof Fittings :

Sr. Place where such fitting Type : Flame/Explosion/Dust Is it provided?

No. is necessary proof motors, starters, switches,
wiring etc.
1 2 3 4
1.

2.

K. Water Facility :

1 Water showers at 2.1 m height with 2.5 cm dia pipe provided? Where not Provided?
provided? Water blanketing necessary?
2 Eye washers/Bottle/Wash basins/Taps Provided?
3 Bathrooms provided?
4 Cooling water in jackets, condenser etc. available for all hours?
Own overhead water tank available?
If not, what is the alternate arrangement?
5 D.G. Set or Diesel engines ready to run water pumps when electricity
fails?
6 Drinking water facility available?
Needs more centres?
Needs improvement?

L. Emergency Action Plan, Safety Manual, Workers’ Training etc. :

1 Planned for operating emergency? (small fire, air failure, power failure, cooling water
failure, steam failure, gas leakage, and storm etc.)

87
 2 Planned for fire emergency?
3 Planned for Disaster emergency? (Explosion, flood, tank rupture, earthquake, riot/strike
etc.)
4 Is safety manual ready and given to all concerned?
5 Are all workers trained for these emergency operations?

M. Medical Check-up of workers and records :

1 Pre-employment medical check-up? Record available? First-aid available?

2 Place of work as per above report?
3 Periodical medical check-up : At what interval? Forms maintained?
4 Cases of occupational disease/poisoning detected & recorded? Reported to Authority?
5 Name and address of the nearest Doctor/Hospital available?
6 ESIC facility available for such occupational health check-up and treatment?

N. Good Housekeeping

1 Where cleanliness required?

2 Lifting machinery safe moving?
3 Tools etc. in safe position?
4 Safety posters, precautionary notices in all rooms, floors displayed? Where more
necessary?
5 Motors, gears, pulleys, belts, chains, coupling etc. guarded? What not guarded?
6 Stairs, platforms, railing covers etc. guarded? Where required?
7 Ventilation (natural and mechanical) and lighting adequate? Where need more?
8 Lunch room, canteen, clock-room, lockers, ambulance room, first-aid necessary? Provided?
9 Are labels provided on all chemicals stored and manufactured?
10 Others : (Processes of fire and explosion hazards in separate room etc.)

O. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) :

1 Hazards to be faced
2 Types given
3 Types necessary : Chemical filter, mechanical filter, air-line respirator, suction hose mask,
pressure hose mask, canister gas mask, helmet, face shield, safety goggle and type, leg
guard and type, apron and type, full suit, safety belt, others.

P. Fire Fighting Equipment (FFE) :

1 Hazards to be faced
2 Types provided
3 Types necessary : Water type (Soda Acid), water type (gas pressure), Foam type, CO 2 type,
Dry powder type, Hand & Stirrup pumps, water bucket, sand bucket, fire drills, No
smoking notices, Flame traps, Auto sprinklers, Hydrants, Fire calling buttons on all floors
or in each room.

Q. Statutory Safety Records :

1 Form No. 9 (Hoist & Lifts) 7 Form No. 29 (Accident Register)

2 Form No. 10 (Lifting Machinery) 8 Safety Policy necessary? Provided?
3 Form No. 11 (Pressure Vessel) 9 Safety Committee necessary? Formed?
4 Form No. 20 (Health Register) 10 Safety Officer necessary? Employed?
5 Form No. 21 (Accident Report) 11 Records of safety meetings, accident
investigation available?
6 Form No. 22 (Poisoning/ Disease) 12 Compliance of safety inspections
available?
See also Reference No. 12 at the end of this Chapter for a further checklist of ten tables.

88
(2) Checklist-2

(A) CHECKPOINTS BEFORE ALLOWING A TRANSPORT VEHICLE INTO FACTORY GATE

Sr. Points Yes / Suggestion or

No. No Remarks
1 Qualified and licensed driver. No intoxication.
2 Name & quantity of material as per order & bill. Note vehicle No.
3 Quality of material arrived i.e. sampling.
4 Trem card.
5 Tyre condition, spare wheel and jack.
6 Main valve & other fittings, in safe condition.
7 Blind disc, gasket etc.
8 Piping, couplings and tools.
9 Tanker pressure test certificate if required.
10 Last material filled in and contamination if any.
11 Cleanliness of the tank, if it is for filling.
12 Exhaust muffler (spark arrester), if required.
13 Fire extinguisher.
14 Personal Protective Equipment required.
15 First Aid Box and Antidote.
16 Taking away bidi, cigarette, match box etc., and no smoking
instruction.
17 Product license, if any.
18 Static charge and leakage, if any.
19 Compatibility of the material to be transferred.
20 Others as per special need.
(B) CHECKPOINTS BEFORE UNLOADING HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INTO STORAGE
TANK/GODOWN
Sr. Points Yes / Suggestion or
No. No Remarks
(a) Liquid chemicals :
1 Fixation of vehicle - wheel stopper, barricade, gear locking,
engine stopping and wind direction consideration. Note vehicle
No.
2 Level checking of factory tank and road tanker and material
matching.
3 Proper piping connections.
4 Safe flexible hose pipe & couplings.
5 Emergency transfer preparedness.
6 Earthing. Flameproof electrical motors and fittings if required.
7 Deep feed pipe to avoid static charge.
8 Proper vent condition.
9 Vapour line safety.
10 Purging connection.
11 Neutralising material for spillage.
12 First Aid Box and Antidote.
13 Fire Fighting Equipment.
14 Personal Protective Equipment worn.
15 Emergency kit ready.
16 Lifting machinery, if required.
17 Pump checking. Coupling guard, if required.
18 Avoidance of air pressure transfer. If it is required, pressure
gauge and safety valve on air tank. Pressure testing of air tank.
19 Dyke, dyke discharge valve and partition wall condition. Acid
proof lining for corrosive material.
20 Safety shower / eye washer.
21 Tank level gauge working and safe overflow pipe.
22 Tank vent, Breather valve, N 2 purging, flame arrester, Pressure
gauge, Safety valve, Non-return valve, Excess flow valve,

89
 Lightening arrester etc. as per need.
23 High/low level alarms and trips. Indication of flammable
condition inside the tank.
24 Operator on duty during full unloading.
25 No smoking and no tempering.
26 Record filling.
27 Spillage washing.
28 Engine restarting only after closure of tank and tanker valves,
and spillage cleaning.
29 Special precautions depending on nature of chemical viz.
Flammable, toxic, corrosive, explosive etc.
30 AC godown for liquids of low boiling points.
(b) Gases / Gas cylinders :
1 For liquefied gas in tanker viz. LPG, EO, NH 3, points as B(a)
above.
2 Double checking of earthing and flameproof electrical
connections.
3 In case of leakage, portable hood and scrubber device, discharge
in safe media, safe venting in air etc.
4 Personal Protective Equipment.
5 Fire Fighting Equipment in ready condition.
6 For gas cylinders, lifting and transfer device.
7 Open space for speedy dispersion of leaking gas.
8 Wind sock in vision and consideration of wind direction.
(c) Solid materials and godown safety :
1 Godown/warehouse condition regarding good ventilation,
lighting, cooling, flooring etc. Windows/Grills/Louvers at 1 m
height.
2 No electric fitting for highly flammable material. Sufficient
natural lighting.
3 Flameproof electric fitting for flammable material.
4 Separate stacking of flammable & toxic material - Zone or Area
classification.
5 Use of wooden/plastic crates and shelves.
6 Spill collection arrangement and safe disposal to ETP or
incinerator.
7 Surrounding rain water gutters.
8 Waste collection, beg filling and safe disposal. Ready stock of
neutralising material.
9 Safe disposal of empty containers.
10 Compatibility of material, before putting together.
11 Proper flooring - slope, pit, pump etc.
12 Water line for cleaning.
13 Air line for use of air line respirators.
14 Proper tools, trolleys, lifts and containers for safe and easy
transfer.
15 Smoke/Flame detectors and gas leak detectors with alarms.
16 Sprinklers and other fire fighting equipment inside and outside
the rooms.
17 Personal Protective Equipment required.
18 Locked godown for poisonous material.
19 Fire resistant walls/doors if required.
20 Emergency exit on opposite side.

(C) CHECKPOINTS FOR PROCESS PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

Sr. Points Yes / Suggestion or

No. No Remarks
1 Selection of proper material of construction for a new
vessel/reactor, and modification.

90
 2 Proper design and fitting of vessel/reactor as per standard codes.
Small batch size desirable.
3 Operating conditions at less pressure, temperature, flow, slow
reaction rate and less hazards desirable.
4 Condition monitoring and pressure testing of vessels and
equipment.
5 Safety fittings like Pressure gauge, Temperature gauge, Rupture
disc, Level indicator, Non return valve, Excess flow valve,
interlocks, alarm and trips. Flameproof fitting where required.
6 Safe operating procedure and safe close down procedure
displayed for operator.
7 Batch sheet design and full filling with details.
8 Fire fighting equipment.
9 Use of personal protective equipment.
10 Open space, maintenance space and leakage checking.
11 Scrubber connections and scrubber working.
12 Safe columns, condensers, receivers and vent chillers and safety
valve for distillation process.
13 Auto and manual devices to stop heating, charging etc., and
quenching or safe transfer of material in case of emergency.
14 Close transfer/charging of hazardous material.
15 Local exhaust ventilation on toxic material charging, transfer and
filling/packing.
16 Double earthing and static charge eliminator where required viz.
Solvent in a glasslined vessel.
17 Proper piping and colour code.
18 Checking of proper O2/N2 lines and cylinders to avoid accident.
19 Use of safety work permit.
20 Machine guarding for drives, pumps etc.

(D) CHECKPOINTS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL

Sr. Points Yes / Suggestion or

No. No Remarks
(a) Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)

1 NOC and consent from GPCB.

2 Norms suggested by GPCB like pH, BOD, COD, Oil & grease,
colour, odour, suspended solid, total dissolved solid, heavy
metals etc. Fill the format of logbook given below.
3 Norms prescribed under the Factories Act (Schedule-2). Fill the
format.
4 Drawing approval of ETP.
5 Continuous operation of ETP.
6 Primary and secondary treatment plants.
7 Continuous monitoring of parameters for final discharge from
factory premises.
8 Whether pollutant being discharged above prescribed limit?

(b) Gas Emission / Leak Control

1 NOC and consent from GPCB.

2 List of emission/leaking points, pollutants and their prescribed
limits. See the format.
3 Selection of proper scrubbing media.
4 Proper design and continuous working of scrubbers/flare/
incinerator etc.
5 Final vent gas detector with alarm and discharge value.
6 Whether pollutant being discharged above prescribed limit?

91
(c) Solid Waste Disposal

1 Authorisation from GPCB.

2 Waste quantity and planning of safe transport and discharge.
3 Waste classification.
4 Incineration or method of safe disposal for detoxification of
waste.
5 Safe burying in a land approved by the Govt.
6 Safe disposal of waste and toxic containers.

Format of Logbook for Pollution Control

Sr. Name of Prescribed Measured Date & time Difference Implementation

No. Pollutant value Value of of columns of remarks in
(Norm) measurement 3 & 4 and column-6
remedial
measures
required
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
2
3
4
5
6

(E) CHECKPOINTS BEFORE ALLOWING FINISHED PRODUCT TO GO OUT FROM

FACTORY GATE

Sr. Points Yes / Suggestion or

No. No Remarks

1 Quality as per assurance and quality certificate.

2 Marking and labelling of name, weight, batch, hazard class etc.
on packages.
3 Proper containers and safe weight within limit.
4 Safety instructions.
5 TERM CARDS/MSDS.
6 Safe vehicle - proper truck/tanker body and valve, gasket, blind
disc., vent, gauges, tyre condition, spare wheel, qualified and
trained driver with cleaner, tools, First-Aid box, Antidote, pump
and flexible piping and phone numbers.
7 Necessary papers and licenses.

(F) OTHER CHECK POINTS

1 Qualified & Experienced supervisor in each shift.

2 Training to all workers.
3 Safety policy and its copies to workers.
4 Pocket safety manual given to workers.
5 Safety committee and record of its meeting and working.
6 Onsite Emergency Plan and its rehearsal.
7 Medical check-up of workers.
8 Safety Officer required? appointed?
9 Safety poster, signs, symbols etc., displayed?
10 Safety work permit system for all hazardous works.

Checklist for Bulk Chlorine

Storage

92

See also Part 16.7 and Part 20.5 IIB.
Siting of Chlorine Storage Tank
1. A bund wall provided.
2. The storage is open on four sides.
3. If stored in a building, whether lower part of the
building is provided with liquid tight bund.
4. The bund is impervious.
5. The capacity of the bund is sufficient to contain
full contents of the largest tank.
6. The bund is subdivided for each tank.
7. Bund would normally provide protection against
impact from vehicles.
8. The bund have means of removing the rain
water over the bund wall.
9. The storage tanks are sited so that they are safe
from the impact of the vehicles.
10. The storage tanks are located at a sufficient safe
distance away from hazardous processes or
storage with potential fire/explosion risk
(Advice of specialist may be sought).
Compressed Air Supply for Transfer of Liquid
Chlorine to Chlorine Storage Tank :
1. There is separate self-contained air supply unit.
2. The compressor is oil free.
3. The compressed air is cooled and dried in a
suitable unit to a dew point below minus 40 0C.
4. Dew point analyser/alarm is installed to
monitor dryness of the compressed air.
5. The compressed air is stored in a pressure
receiver fitted with a pressure gauge and the
pressure therein is not allowed to exceed 150
psig (10.3 bar) and the relief valve on the
pressure receiver is set at 150 psig maximum.
6. A pressure reducing or pressure control valve is
installed in the compressed air supply line.
7. A pressure gauge is installed downstream of the
let down valve.
8. The compressed line to the storage installation is
fitted with non-return valve or pressure operated
valve to prevent back flow of chlorine
contaminated air.
Overfilling of Storage Tanks :
1. The ullage space in the storage tank is about 10%
of the total tank volume above the liquid
chlorine level.
2. Chlorine storage tanks are (1) Provided with
adequate and reliable relief devices (2) Relief
devices relieve through a vent pipe to an
expansion vessel (3) Capacity of expansion
vessel is about 10% of the capacity of the largest
tank
3. Storage tank equipped with : (1) Reliable means
of contents measurement (2) High Level Alarm
93
(3) Combination of high and extra High Level
Alarm, or
4. Vent line from the chlorine storage tank to the
chlorine absorption system is extended into the
ullage space of the tank by a short dip pipe.
5. Frosting is observed on the surface of valve on
the vent line indicating overfilling of liquid
chlorine which passes through the valve.
6. Dual relief devices installed to permit
maintenance of the relief devices while storage
tank remains in service.
7. If two relief devices are provided the isolating
valve in the relief devices are interlocked to
ensure that one relief device is always open.
8. Any isolating valve in a single relief system is
locked open.
9. Pressure indicator/alarm are provided to
chlorine storage tank to give warning of
overpressure.
10. Alarm is provided between the discs to give
warning of premature bursting disc failure.
Expansion Vessel
Vent Line Valve on the Expansion Tank :
1. Are open and closed position is clearly shown by
an indicator?
2. Valve is sealed in the shut position with a seal
which could be broken if the valve is needed to
be opened in an emergency.
3. The compressed air connected to the expansion
vessel is blanked off.
4. Pressure indicator alarm fitted on the expansion
vessel.
Pipelines Conveying Chlorine
1. Liquid chlorine is withdrawn from a storage
tank by means of a dip pipe.
2. Bottom connection to the storage tanks and
expansion vessels are avoided.
3. An internal rapid acting shut-off valve is
provided to any bottom outlet.
4. Isolation valves on connections to the storage
tanks and expansion vessels are fitted directly
on the vessel connection.
5. The main isolating valves on the storage tanks
are backed up by second isolating valves
preferable remotely operated.
6. The remotely operated valves are operated from
a convenient positions such as unloading
terminal and the longer stretches of main control
room.
7. Longer stretches of pipe work could be subjected
to excessive stress from the thermal expansion of
the liquid chlorine trapped between closed
valves are fitted with suitable relief or expansion
devices.
8. Excess flow valve or orifice plate is installed in
the liquid outline from the storage tank to the
vaporiser to restrict chlorine flow to the
maximum demand by the process.
9. Pipeline conveying Chlorine are : (1) safe from
impact from vehicle (2) separated from pipe lines
conveying flammable or corrosive material (3)
accessible for maintenance and inspection (4)
adequately supported.
10. Pipelines conveying chlorine are distinctly
coloure-coded and/or labelled.
Chlorine Absorption System
1. A device for detecting excessive flow of chlorine
to the absorber is provided; this is achieved by :
(1) Installation of chlorine detector/alarm in the
absorber exit vent to detect chlorine leakage; or
(2) Installation of a high flow gas alarm in the
vent line to the absorber; or (3) Installation of a
high pressure alarm in the vent line to the
absorber. High pressure in the inlet vent line
would indicate high gas flow or flooding or
blocking of the packing in a tower absorber.
2. A means of detecting absorbing solution
deficiency in a continuously running process
vent absorber such as low flow alarm; low
caustic soda concentration alarm and low
absorbing solution level indicator/alarm are
provided.
3. Orifice plate is provided in the vent line to the
absorber to restrict chlorine gas flow to
maximum absorption rate.
4. It is ensured by sound operating procedure that
the vent line valve on the liquid chlorine fitting
line is always kept shut during chlorine transfer
to prevent liquid chlorine carry over to the
absorber.
5. A liquid gas separator with temperature
indicator (low) alarm is installed in the vent line
to the absorber to detect flow of liquid chlorine.
6. The storage tanks and vent lines are protected
against suck back from absorption system by : (1)
10 meter loop in the vent line or (2) Suitable
vacuum relief valves.
Chlorine Vaporiser
1. A means of early detection of chlorine leakage
into hot water or steam side such as Redox or pH
measurement is provided.
2. Heating water bath is thermostatistically
controlled and high and low temperature alarm
are provided.
3. Low pressure steam used for heating is saturated
and pressure controlled.
4. A pressure relief valve is installed downstream
of the pressure reducing or control valve and a
low stream pressure alarm is provided.
94
5. For vaporisers fabricated in carbon steel the
steam temperature is not allowed to exceed 120
0
C and the relief valve is set to relieve at a
maximum pressure of 15 psig.
6. High and low pressure alarm are provided on
the chlorine vapour side of the vaporiser.
7. The chlorine vapour pressure are maintained at
a higher pressure than the pressure in the
heating jacket.
8. High and low temperature alarms are installed
in the chlorine vapour line to give warning of
over heating or carry over a liquid chlorine.
9. A liquid/gas separator is installed in the
chlorine vapour line form the vaporiser.
10. An air or power operated pressure reducing
valve is installed in the chlorine vapour line to
control the downstream pressure to the chlorine
consuming plant. The pressure reducing valve is
fail-safe i.e. closed on air or power failure.
11. A pressure indicator/low pressure alarm is
installed downstream of the pressure reducing
valve in the chlorine vapour line.
12. A means of isolating the chlorine vapour supply
to the consuming plant is provided by (1)
manual isolating valve or (2) remotely operated
shutoff valve.
13. Suck-back or blow-back of water or reaction
liquids to the vaporiser is prevented by properly
designing the chlorine consuming plant.
Emergency Measures
1. Chlorine detector and alarms are provided in
buildings housing chlorine storage tank or
vaporisers or in outside storage installations.
2. The alarm actions are distinct local audible
alarm, warning light outside building, visual and
audible warning in control room.
3. Local alarm stations are provided to warn
chlorine escapes and are located in strategic
points near chlorine installation.
4. Local alarm station actuates the work emergency
alarm directly or indirectly.
5. The alarm stations also actuate the remotely
operated shutoff valves on the chlorine storage
tank where this is consistent with safe operation
of the user plant.
6. Medium or high expansion protein foam is
available for application over the outdoor liquid
chlorine spillage to reduce evaporation rate.
7. The application of foam is an operational
decision by a senior member of the works
emergency team.
8. Breathing apparatus is provided for escape
purposes and for use while carrying out
emergency work.
9. The following protective equipment are
provided : (1) At least 2 numbers of 30-40
minutes Self Contained Breathing sets (2) two
 full sets of protective clothing (impervious suit,
gloves and boots)
10. The breathing apparatus sets are kept in lockers
in the vicinity of chlorine storage installation.
11. Canister respirators are available for outdoor
routine operations e.g. during loading and off
loading.
12. Mechanical ventilation (normal running plus
additional emergency ventilation) system is
provided to the building housing chlorine
storage tanks or vaporiser which are purely
ventilated.
13. The stop/start buttons for the mechanical
ventilation fans are located in a convenient
position outside the building.
14. Safe assembly points for personnel not involved
in emergency team, are located upward of the
chlorine release.
17.6 Checklist for Bulk Ammonia
Storage
See also Part 16.8 and Part 20.5 II C.
(A) Refrigerated Ammonia Storage :
Siting
1. Away from residential area, public buildings,
roads, railways and airports.
2. Due account taken for prevailing wind direction.
3. Suitable crash barriers erected where necessary
to avoid the risk of damage in the event of
vehicle collision.
4. The storage is more than 25 meters away from
busy site road or through railways.
5. To prevent damage to the storage by radiation
from fire or debris from an explosion, the plant
and processes involving flammable and
explosive materials are located at safe distances.
6. It should be possible to reach the storage area by
vehicles from two directions.
Tank Design
1. Designed to be filled to the maximum working
level with ammonia at -33 0C plus a vapour
pressure within the range of 35 mbar gauge to
140 mbar gauge. (In absence of any over-riding
factors, a presence of 70 mbar gauge is
recommended).
2. The design vacuum is 6 bar.
3. The tank is designed as per a Standard Code and
due Allowance is given in case of Flat Roof Tank
to have adequate space for vapours.
4. To minimise the risk of stress corrosion cracking,
the welding consumable overmatch the tensile
properties of the plates by the smallest
practicable amount and carbon molybdenum
electrodes are not used.
95
5. The tensile strength of the plates is not allowed
to exceed the maximum detailed in the plate
specifications.
6. Copper and copper bearing alloys are not used.
7. Two manholes are fitted for access opening and
at the roof are diametrically opposite.
8. The minimum diameter of manhole is 750mm.
9. At least two pressure relief valves and the
vacuum relief valves are fitted.
10. Any one valve can be removed for examination
or maintenance without loosing protection of the
tank.
11. An isolation valve is fitted between the tank and
each relief valve and an interlocking system is
incorporated so that one valve can be isolated at
any time.
12. The nitrogen purge insulation container is also
provided with protection against over and under
pressure.
13. Tank is fitted with two independent level
indicators.
14. An independently activated high level alarm is
also fitted.
15. A branch connected to liquid ammonia feed
fitted with an internal pipe running to the centre
of the tank roof and terminating with a spray
nozzle is provided to cool the tank evenly before
starting to fill.
16. Tanks upto and including 30 meter diameter are
fitted with two earthing bosses and tanks over 30
meter with three bosses.
17. The bosses are in accordance with a standard
code and austenitic steel is used instead of brass
for the studs and washer and the copper
conductor strip is wrapped to prevent contact
with ammonia.
18. The earthing bosses are evenly placed around.
19. Roof mountings are grouped as close as possible
to simplify access.
20. The liquid inlet branch is located away from the
vapour suction branch leading to the
compressor.
21. The stairways are independently supported.
22. Before being dispatched to site all materials are
phosphoric acid pickled or steel shot blasted and
all external surfaces painted with one coat of red
lead graphite primer, except for welding margin
which is painted with one coat of brown
chromate primer.
23. The underside of bottom plates have been given
two coats of black bitumastic paint being laid on
the foundation.
24. Tanks are insulated with in situ polyurethane
and corrugated aluminium or galvanised
protective cladding. Double wall tanks are
insulated by mineral wool or perlite.
Bunding (Double Integrity Tank)
1. The tank is fitted with two liquid outlets with
internal valves capable of remote closure.
2. A liquid level detector is provided in the annular
space between the shells.
3. 50mm layer of dry sand or similar material
between the two tank bottoms are provided to
avoid metal to metal rubbing during cooling
down.
4. To allow good quality welding and inspection, a
gap of not less than 700 mm is allowed between
the walls of the tanks.
5. A valved branch fitted with blank suitable for
contact with liquid ammonia at minus 33 0C has
been provided as close to the bottom of the outer
tank as possible to drain liquid from annular
space.
Concrete Bund
1. The bund is a free standing sleeve surrounding
the tank.
2. The bund is built on a concrete foundation but
separated from it by means of a full width
elastomeric membrane which acts as a seal and
stress absorber.
3. The elastomer is suitable for contact with liquid
ammonia at minus 33 0C.
4. The bund is substantially of the same height as
the cylindrical section of the steel tank.
5. The diameter of the bund is sufficient to allow
stair-way access to the annular space between
the bund and the tank. A distance of 1500 mm is
recommended.
6. The bund is capable of holding full contents of
the inner tank and is able to withstand any
stresses imposed due to thermal shock.
7. A weather-proof cover spanning the annular
space between the concrete wall and the steel
tank.
8. The annular space between the bund is kept free
of rain water at all times, and a valved branch
fitted with a blank is provided in the base to
drain accidental ingress of storm water. The
materials of construction of both valve and
branch is suitable for contact with liquid
ammonia at minus 33 0C.
9. A liquid outlet is taken from side of the tank
close to the base. The pipe is provided with a
valve capable of remote closure. In the event of
power failure the valve closes automatically.
10. Where internal valves are remote closing two
outlet pipes are recommended.
11. When a remote closing valve is fitted externally
to the tank, it is sited in the annular space
between the steel tank and bund wall. A block
valve is fitted between the remote closing valve
and the tank and located as close to the tank as
possible.
12. The outlet pipes are anchored in the base slab or
wall and due allowance made for movements
96
which occur when the tank cools down and
warms up.
Pumps
1. The pump is free from gland leaks.
2. The liquid outlet line from the sphere to pump
slopes uniformly, well insulated and kept short
as far as possible consistent with sphere
foundation movements, and movement caused
by thermal cycling and not causing excessive
stresses in the pipe work.
3. A bypass line is arranged to return part of the
pumps output to the sphere to cool the pump,
should the delivery valve is closed while pump
is still running. The orifice plate or valve which
controls the return flow is as close to the sphere
as possible and the return line discharges into
the sphere vapour.
4. A device is fitted to indicate loss of flow through
the pump due to vapour locking or any other
cause. This may be a differential pressure or a
flow trip.
5. Material of construction of pump is suitable for
sub-zero temperature.
6. Exposed copper or copper bearing alloys are not
used anywhere on the pump.
Piping
1. Pipework is designed in accordance with a
standard specification or a code.
2. Piping, valves and other fittings are designed for
most arduous foreseeable combination of
pressure and temperature conditions.
3. Any increase in metal strength which occurs at
temperature below 0 0C has been ignored when
determining design stress valve.
4. Piping are correctly aligned to avoid the
imposition of stresses on bolting up.
5. The number of joints are kept minimum. Welded
joints are preferred. Flange joints are only used
when connecting flanged equipment (e.g. valves,
pump, etc.).
6. The gaskets used are (a) spiral wound; (b) made
of compressed asbestos fibre; or (c) made of
aluminium with tongue and groove type joint.
7. Some means of safe venting has been provided
on pipe lines in which liquid can be trapped
between valves etc.
8. The possibility and effect of two phase flow of
liquid ammonia occurring at its boiling point has
been taken into account at the design state.
9. Over-design resulting in increase of thickness
avoided to minimise the risk of brittle fracture.
10. All piping are thermal stress relieved.
11. Welding procedures are in accordance with the
latest edition of the design code.
12. Materials used for pipelines and fittings is
resistant to brittle fracture at the sub-zero
temperature encountered.
13. All welds are radiographed and all fillet welds
crack detected.
14. Before commissioning piping system is pressure
tested.
Routine Inspection
1. All pressure and vacuum relief valves are
inspected at 12 monthly intervals. Careful watch
is kept for indication of icing up which may
prevent valve opening.
2. Sources of potential corrosion are examined e.g.
aluminium may react with stainless steel studs in
the presence of sea air.
3. All automatic valves, alarms and trip system are
checked monthly to ensure correct operation.
4. In case of tanks surrounded by full height
concrete bund walls, occasional checks are made
to ensure that rain water is not entering the
annular space.
5. External insulation is periodically examined for
signs of damage.
6. Particular note is made of any bulging which
might be indicative of a breakdown of the
vapour barrier allowing ice build up behind the
insulation.
(B) Cylindrical Vessels Ammonia
Storage:
Vessel Design
1. Designed and fabricated, erected, inspected and
tested in accordance with a standard code.
2. The ambient temperature storage is designed for
a pressure of not less than 15.5 bar absolute.
3. The minimum design temperature is less than
minus 10 0C.
4. Copper and copper bearing alloys are not used.
5. Rubbers and plastics used for handling ammonia
are nonpermeable and unaffected by oil.
6. Horizontal vessels are supported on steel
saddles.
7. The welding of saddles with vessel is continuous
so that corrosion cannot occur between the
saddles and the shell.
8. Vertical vessels are provided with a welded on
skirt.
9. All nozzles and first isolation valves are
exceeding 25 NS.
10. Any branches including dip entering the vessel
below the maximum liquid level are protected
by remote operated shutoff valve except in case
of small bore pipes to content, gauges etc.,
within the protected area of vessel.
11. Access opening is provided on top of the vessel
and its internal diameter is not less than 460mm.
97
12. Relief valves are fitted and tail pipes are
arranged to vent harmlessly 5 meters above the
highest part of the vessel.
13. Vessel is equipped with at least one level
indicator.
14. Vessel is provided with two earthing bosses
wherein austenitic steel is used instead of brass
for the stud and washer and copper conductor is
wrapped to prevent contact with ammonia.
15. Ladders on vessel are sufficiently robust to
accommodate a person wearing breathing
apparatus..
16. Entire area is protected from vehicle impact.
17. The area under storage tank is surfaced with
smooth concrete arranged to slope to a drain.
Inspection and Maintenance
1. The first inservice examination includes 100%
magnetic particle testing of all the internal butt
welds.
2. If significant defects are found, the next
inspection is done within two years and again
includes 100% magnetic particle inspection of
welds.
3. If no significant defect are found any subsequent
examination includes magnetic particle testing of
all the tee junctions and 10% of the total length of
butt welds selected at random.
4. Nozzle-to-shell attachment are crack detected by
magnetic particle inspection method.
5. When corrosion is evident or suspected,
ultrasonic thickness measurement is taken.
6. The external supports are inspected for any
hidden corrosion.
7. All lines connected with the installation
including valves and other ancillary equipment
are inspected for corrosion and support.
8. All inline valves such as isolation valve and
remote control valves are removed and
overhauled.
9. All instrumentation and alarms are overhauled
and recalibrated.
10. Safety valve is overhauled and tested at least
every two years.
11. All closure and mounting studs, bolts or stud
bolts on the vessel are renewed.
12. The flange gasket and stud/bolt are renewed on
the piping between the vessel and the first
isolation valve.
Routine Inspection
1. At least once a year a careful external visual
examination of the vessel and ancillary
equipment is made by a competent person
paying attention to local corrosion particularly at
nozzles.
2. All automatic valves, alarms and trip system is
checked monthly to ensure their satisfactory
operation.
3. The area is maintained free of debris and
undergrowth.
4. Fire hydrants are regularly serviced and
maintained.
5. The personal safety equipment such as
protective suits, respirators, goggles and gloves
are available and checked daily for the
serviceability.
6. Instruction notice, vessel identity number and
valve nomenclature are clearly displayed at all
times.
7. Site illumination is kept clean and in working
order.
(C) Spherical Vessel Ammonia Storage:
Siting
As stated in ‘Siting’ of Part (A) of Refrigerated
Storage.
Sphere Design
1. The sphere is designed to sustain : (a) Stresses
imposed when it is filled to the maximum
permitted level (b) Pressure superimposed equal
to vapour pressure of the ammonia at the
maximum designed temperature (c) Any
additional pressure which may result from the
presence of inert gases, and (d) External loads.
2. The minimum design temperature is less than
minus 10 0C.
3. Full thermal stress relief has been applied to new
spheres after construction and to the existing
spheres which have not been used for ammonia.
4. To minimise risk of stress corrosion cracking the
welding consumable over match the tensile
properties of the plates by the smallest
practicable amount.
5. The tensile strength of the plate is not allowed to
exceed the maximum detailed in the plate
specifications. i.e. 350 N/mm2.
6. The individual plates for use in sphere
construction are tested and marked accordingly.
7. Hard stamping of plate material is not allowed.
8. Copper and copper bearing alloys are not used.
9. The support is designed to withstand the weight
of vessel when filled with water.
10. Hollow tubular supports (if provided) are
completely sealed against water, and air to
prevent progressive internal corrosion.
11. The bottom fittings of the spheres are easily
accessible.
12. The sphere is high enough to provide adequate
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) for
satisfactory operation of Pump.
98
13. The general openings in the sphere are in the
form of flanged nozzles or pads provided with
stud or bolts.
14. The welds of adjacent openings are not closer
than 50 mm.
15. Screw connections are not used nor nozzles are
smaller than 50mm.
16. All nozzles are grouped together in the top and
bottom crown plates.
17. All nozzles to which pipes are connected
including spare nozzles have isolating valves
mounted directly on the nozzle and bottom
outlet have two such valves closer together.
18. The access opening is on the top crown plate of
the sphere.
19. The cover of the opening is hinged or fitted with
devices to avoid need for lifting tackle.
20. The minimum inside diameter of any access
opening is 600mm.
21. At least two pressure relief valves meeting the
standard requirement are fitted.
22. If sphere is not capable of withstanding full
vacuum, a vacuum break valve is fitted or a
separate pressure & vacuum valve or combined
pressure/vacuum type are provided.
23. Any one valve can be removed for examination
or maintenance without losing protection of the
sphere. This is achieved by providing an
isolation valve between sphere and each relief
valve.
24. The pressure relief valve is provided with outlet
pipes independently extended to such a point
that the discharge will not be hazardous to
person standing on the top platform.
25. The pipework downstream of the relief is
designed in such a way that a relief valve can be
removed in a safe manner.
26. The outlet pipe is designed to prevent ingress of
rainwater and provided with drain holes.
27. The inlet to the relief valve is so designed or
protected as to prevent the blockage in the inlet
by internal fittings for examples level floats
which may become accidentally detached.
28. At least two independent level indicating
devices are fitted.
29. A separate high level alarm independent of any
level indicator is fitted.
30. The filling nozzle is provided with an internal
deflector to ensure that incoming flow does not
impinge on the level float nor cause droplet
liquid to be drawn into the vapour take off to the
refrigeration plant.
31. Sphere is provided with two earthing bosses
wherein austenitic steel is used instead of brass
for the stud and washers and copper conductor
is wrapped to prevent contact with ammonia.
32. Suitable number of spare nozzles are provided to
cover future requirement.
33. All bottom outlet nozzles are provided with
internal valves which can be remotely operated
 and which close on failure of operating power
or any other fault in operating system;
alternatively external remote operated valves
made of austenitic stainless steel and bolted
directly to the outlet nozzle are provided.
34. If there is a single bottom outlet fitted with an
internal valve there is a provision of a manually
operated means of releasing a seized valve to
restore normal operation.
Sphere Testing and Examination
1. The testing of sphere includes filling with water
and testing in accordance with a specified
standard.
2. All spheres are thoroughly inspected during
construction in accordance with the fabrication
code requirements and in addition; (a) 100 %
magnetic detection examination is carried out on
all the internal welds and all the locations of
removed toggle cleats, temporary attachments
and scars. (b) Full visual inspection and
magnetic particle crack detection examination
along with at 10% of each buttweld is done on
external surface of the sphere (c) The wall
thickness of the shell and nozzles is measured
ultrasonically and the nozzle to shell attachment
welds flaw detected.
Bunding
1. A bund wall is provided which is not less than
one meter high, positioned outside the sphere
radius and sphere support structure.
2. The capacity of the bund is minimum 20% of the
capacity of the sphere.
3. The sphere support structure is protected against
vehicle collision by trapping barriers of adequate
strength or by a bund wall.
4. The floor of the bund is made of impermeable
material.
5. Provision has been made for collection of liquid
in a low point drain pit discharging via a flanged
valve normally kept closed.
6. The normal access to equipment mounted on the
sphere is made from outside the bund.
Pumps
1. The pump should be free from gland leaks.
2. The liquid outlet line from the sphere to pump
slopes uniformly, well insulated and kept short
as far as possible consistent with sphere
foundation movements, and movement caused
by thermal cycling and not causing excessive
stresses in the pipe work.
3. A bypass line is arranged to return part of the
pumps output to the sphere to cool the pump,
should the delivery valve is closed while pump
is still running. The orifice plate or valve which
99
controls the return flow is as close to the sphere
as possible and the return line discharges into
the sphere vapour.
4. A device is fitted to indicate loss of flow through
the pump due to vapour locking or any other
cause. This may be a differential pressure or a
flow trip.
5. Material of construction of pump is suitable for
sub-zero temperature.
6. Exposed copper or copper bearing alloys are not
used anywhere on the pump.
Piping :
As stated in ‘piping’ of Part A of Refrigerated
Ammonia Storage.
Checklist for Bulk LPG Storage
See also Part 16.9 and 20.5 IIA, following.
Location and Spacing
1. Sited above ground in open air and well
ventilated place.
2. Mounded vessels are located so that manholes
and pressure relief valves are in a well ventilated
position.
3. The separation distances between vessels and
from buildings, boundary, property line or fixed
source of ignition are in accordance with the
specified code from enforcing authority.
4. LPG vessels are not located one above the other.
5. The ground beneath or adjacent connections into
vessels or ancillary equipment containing LPG is
concreted or compacted and free from pits,
depression, drains and culverts.
6. The ground other than the beneath the vessel is
sloped to an evaporation area or catchment pit
(catchment is appropriate for installation larger
than 25 tons).
7. Weeds, long grass, deciduous shrubs and trees
and any combustible material should be
removed from an area within the prescribed
separation distance.
8. The catchment pits have sufficient capacity to
contain the largest credible leak and is
sufficiently well ventilated.
9. Gas detectors are installed near the pit to give
warning of the presence of LPG vapour.
10. Any catchment pit is far enough away from LPG
vessels, building, boundaries etc., so that if the
pit filled with LPG ignites, the thermal radiation
would not exceed the following levels : (1) 7.8
KW/m2 at work area, process facilities and
unprotected LPG vessels (2) 12.6 KW/m 2 at
boundaries (3) 31.5 KW/m 2 at LPG vessels
protected by water sprays or thermal radiation.
11. Evaporation area is at least 3 m from LPG vessel.
12. To increase surface area and promote
evaporation and dispersion of gas the
evaporation area is surfaced with stone chips or
similar material.
13. Storage vessels are not sited in places that are
susceptible to flooding.
14. The minimum separation distance between any
LPG storage vessel and the top of the bund of
any tank containing a flammable liquid is 3
meters.
15. LPG storage vessels are not located within the
bunded enclosure of a vessel containing
flammable liquid, any heated storage vessel e.g.
heavy fuel oil vessel, liquid oxygen or any other
hazardous substance.
16. Any vessel in one group have a minimum
separation distance of 7.5 meters from the
nearest vessel in another group unless a fire wall
is erected between two groups.
17. Long axes of horizontal storage vessel do not
point towards nearby occupied buildings,
important items of equipment or storage tanks
containing hazardous material (so far as
reasonably practicable).
Mechanical Integrity
1. LPG vessels are designed, constructed, tested
and certified to an appropriate standard.
2. Vessels are constructed from steel which is
suitable for use at minimum safe operating
temperature (minus 40 0C).
3. Maximum safe operating pressure is about 14.5
bar gauge (210 psig).
4. Minimum safe operating pressure is 480 mbar
absolute (7 psi absolute).
5. All vessels are marked with minimum safe
operating pressure. (If not known 1 bar absolute
i.e. zero bar gauge should be assumed).
6. Safe operating limits of pressure, temperature
and loading are certified by a competent person
after installation of the vessel and before filling it
with liquid.
7. Subsequent periodic examinations are done by
the competent person in accordance with the
prescribed codes.
8. Maximum permissible fill (contents) and
Maximum permissible load on supports are
included in the documentation.
Sitings
1. All fittings are suitable for use with LPG at the
temperature and pressures likely to be
encountered.
2. The number of connections below the liquid
level are minimum. All other branches terminate
to vapour space.
3. Each vessel is fitted with at least one each of the
following items : (1) a pressure relief valve
100
connected directly to vapour space; (2) a drain or
other means of emptying the vessel of liquid; (3)
a maximum level indicator and preferable a
content gauge; (4) the maximum level indicator
is independent of the contents of the level gauge;
(5) a filling connection; (6) a means of prevailing
excessive vacuum if dictated by vessel design; (7)
a pressure gauge connected to vapour space.
4. The pressure relief valves are designed to protect
the vessel under fire exposure in accordance
with a recognised code.
5. Every relief valve is permanently marked with :
(1) manufacturer’s name and identification,
including catalogue or type number; (2) Start to
discharge pressure; (3) Certified capacity in
terms of air at normal storage temperature and 1
bar pressure; (4) date of last inspection or setting.
6. No isolation valve is fitted between a single
pressure relief valve and vapour space on the
vessel.
7. For multiple relief valve if provision is made to
isolate a relief valve for maintenance or testing,
interlocks are provided to ensure that remaining
valves continue in use.
8. The relief valve is fitted with vent pipe which is
adequately supported and have outlet at least 1.8
meter above the top of the vessel.
9. Vent pipes of relief valves are designed to ensure
that if discharge product ignite, flame do not
impinge on the vessel or on any adjacent vessel,
piping or equipment.
10. Vent pipes are provided with loose-fitting rain
cap and allow for drainage of water.
11. Drain connections are less than 50 mm in
diameter and fitted with two shutoff valves in
series.
12. The piping down stream of the second valve
does not discharge beneath the storage vessel.
13. Sight glasses are not used for measuring the
liquid level in LPG storage vessel.
14. All liquid and vapour connections on the vessels
are fitted with a shut-off valve (preferably fire
safe).
15. Shut-off valves are located as close to the vessel
as practicable. (However, where there are no
mechanical joints between the shut-off valve
flange and the vessel and the intervening piping
is designed, constructed, and tested in
accordance with the vessel design code, the shut-
off valve may be located at the downstream end
of that length of piping).
16. Remotely operated emergency valves capable of
local manual operation are fitted to all piping
greater than 19 mm internal diameter which
carries liquid if the vessel is of 100 ton water
capacity or greater.
17. Pumps are not sited beneath a LPG vessel.
18. Positive displacement pumps are provided with
a bypass or other suitable protection against
over-pressure.
19. Vapour compressors are installed in a well
ventilated position (preferable in open) at least 4-
5 meters from a LPG vessel, building and
boundaries.
20. Vapour compressors are installed in a building,
then the building is made of non combustible
material with a light weight roof. The building is
not used for any purpose other than compression
and distribution of LPG.
21. The vapour compressor have at least one of the
following : (1) high pressure cut-off switch or
similar device, on the discharge side of the
compressor (2) means to prevent liquid LPG
entering the compressor, e.g. a catchpot with a
liquid level sensor.
Piping
1. Piping are properly designed and constructed
with due regard to low temperature service.
2. All pipes carrying liquid are designed and
constructed to an acceptable standard.
3. Joints in piping are kept minimum.
4. Piping more than 50 mm outside diameter are
welded or welded flanged joints except when
connecting to equipment fitted with screw
connections.
5. Screwed joints in the piping which are subjected
to vibration are prevented from coming out.
6. Metal piping are electrically continuous so that
resistance to earth does not exceed 10 6 ohms.
7. Piping is sized and routed so as to restrict the
contents of the pipe to a minimum to reduce the
potential hazard.
8. The route selected for piping minimises the
possibility of physical damage particularly from
vehicles.
9. Protective barriers are provided to the piping
where damage from vehicles is foreseen.
10. Piping are preferably run above the ground and
routed away or protected from excessive heat.
11. Underground piping needs much protection
with all joints welded and the route of pipe run
is recorded.
Hydrostatic Relief Valves
3. Piping in which liquid LPG may be trapped (e.g.
between shutoff valves) are protected against
excessive pressure by fitting hydrostatic relief
valves.
4. The discharge from a hydrostatic relief valve
released in open air does not endanger people or
equipment.
5. The hydrostatic relief valves are not sited
beneath the storage vessel.
6. Any relief valve located under vessels is
positioned so that escaping LPG is not directed
towards the vessel surface or adjacent access
ways.
101
Flexible Connections
1. Hoses for conveying LPG complies with the
prescribed codes or standard.
2. Emergency isolation devices e.g. non-return
valve, excess flow valve or remotely operated
emergency valves are installed in piping
conveying liquid LPG to which hoses are
connected, to prevent prolong discharge of LPG
in the event of failure of hose.
Support For Vessels and Piping
1. The design of supports follow the
recommendations in the code to which the vessel
is constructed.
2. Supports permit movement of the vessel due to
changes in temperature and designed to prevent
or drain any accumulation of water.
3. The vessels are properly installed on firm
foundations and supported on concrete, masonry
or structural steel supports.
4. The supports are so constructed or protected as
to be 2 hours fire resisting.
5. The supports allow good natural ventilation
under the vessel.
6. Pipe supports are adequately designed, spaced
and secured to suit the pipe configuration and to
withstand anchorage and guide friction forces.
Fire Precautions
1. Electrical equipment installed near LPG vessels
etc. meet the standard and separation distance.
2. Plant design and layout takes care of water
supplies, fire protection equipment, fire fighting,
means of access for fire brigade appliances,
protection of fire brigade personnel.
3. There are arrangements to ensure an early call
out to the fire brigade in the event of fire.
4. There is an adequate supply of water for
protection for use in emergency (Application
rate of 9.8 litres/m2/min over the whole surface
of vessel for at least 60 minutes).
5. On site hydrants and fixed drench systems are
designed so that water flow can be controlled
from safe position.
6. There is adequate drainage to deal with water
used for fire protection and fire fighting
purposes.
7. Water sealed interceptors are filled where
necessary, to prevent LPG entering the storm
drain and sewers.
8. The storage vessel are provided with fixed fully
automatic water spray systems capable of
detecting a fire threatening the vessel and
operating the spray without manual
intervention.
9. A fire detection system does not solely depend
on sensing of excess vessel pressure.
10. For manually operated water sprays there is a
continuous supervision.
11. A remote manual operating point of the water
sprinkler is sited at a safe place.
12. Fixed water spray system are fitted to bulk
vessels at cylinder filling installation and to rail
loading and unloading gantries.
13. LPG installations are provided with portable fire
fighting equipment; portable fire extinguishers
or hose reels or an equivalent combination of
these.
14. People on premises where LPG is stored have
received adequate instructions with training to
enable them to understand the fire precaution
and action to be taken in the event of fire or
leakage of LPG.
Loading and Unloading Facilities
1. Written instructions are given which clearly
define responsibilities for all personnel involved
in loading/unloading operation.
2. At least two persons are engaged in a LPG
transfer operation.
3. A responsible person on site checks that the
quantity of LPG being transferred is suitable for
the receiving vessel.
4. The maximum level device is used to ensure
overfilling does not occur.
5. Excess LPG is removed immediately in a safe
manner in the event of overfilling of a tanker.
6. The points of transfer, where connections and
disconnection made are sited in a well ventilated
position.
7. Flexible hoses used for conveying LPG to and
from road and rail tankers into fixed piping or
vessels are : (1) designed and constructed to an
appropriate standard (2) having a means of
identification (3) examined for kinks and wear
on every occasion prior to use. Hose fittings are
similarly examined (4) hydraulically tested every
year (5) periodically checked for electrical
continuity (6) having written records of tests in
(4) & (5) above (7) kept so that it is not physically
damaged or adversely affected by the weather
when not in use or when being conveyed (8)
having means for protecting their fittings against
damage or ingress of foreign material (9) where
appropriate, protected by a precoil or similar
device to protect against external damage (10)
replaced or repaired when damaged or worn.
8. Loading arms or flexible hose in which liquid
could be trapped between shut-off valves are
protected against excess pressure caused by the
thermal expansion of the contents e.g. by
hydrostatic relief valves or by their design.
102
9. During loading and unloading the tanker stands
on an essentially level site to minimise the risk of
accidental movement.
10. Chocks are placed against the vehicle’s wheels or
other means provided to prevent vehicle
movement prior to loading/unloading.
11. The ground beneath the tanker is drained,
cambered or have a shallow gradient to a safe
place to prevent any spillage from remaining
under the vehicle or flowing under any vessels
or piping in the fixed installation.
12. The loading/unloading operation deter the
traffic approaching the transfer operation by
providing physical barriers.
13. Considerations are given to the provision of a
drive away protection device on all installation.
Examples of such devices are : (1) a self-sealing
break away coupling connected to the flexible
hose (2) means to shut emergency isolation valve
on both the fixed plant and the tanker
automatically (3) an interlocked physical barrier
or similar system on either the vehicle or static
installation (4) a means to automatically actuate
the vehicle breaking system to lock immediately
the delivery hose is taken from its normal transit
storage position until it is restored to that
position (5) a brake flap arrangement which
must be moved aside to gain access to the filling
branch the action of which actuates the braking
system (6) for public safety warning notices
readable from 6 meters are set up starting : (a) LP
gas Transfer Taking Place and (b) No Smoking or
Naked Flames.
14. Any accumulated static electricity on a road
tanker is discharged to earth.
15. The tank of the road tanker is electrically bonded
to the fixed installation before any LPG transfer
operation is carried out.
16. The electrical bonding connection is broken only
after the liquid and vapour balance connection
have been disconnected.
17. Special precautions are required for loading and
unloading of rail tankers. Electric engine not
permitted at filling station. Filled LPG tankers
are not loose shunted. Transfer point is sited in a
well ventilated position and at least 15 mt away
from other buildings.
17.4 Start-up & Shutdown
Procedures
Start-up or restart operation after a short or long
shutdown and shutdown procedures need special
precautions.
Starting sequence should be well defined,
written and known to the workers involved in this
work. Starting in sequence of utilities like water, air,
power; purging, charging, slow and gradual
heating, monitoring of pressure, temperature, flow
and reaction rate, cooling if necessary, starting of
exhaust system, scrubber or condenser etc.,
observing noise, vibration, speed, alignment,
synchronising etc. are all important.
During start-up if drains remain open, vent
valves remain closed, wrong valves are operated,
unwanted material enters e.g. oxygen instead of
nitrogen as blanketing over flammable reaction,
water where it is incompatible, air instead of steam
or steam instead of air, excess or less charging of
material or catalyst, delayed cooling or heating, not
starting of any pump or instrument, no indication or
alarm due to failure or malfunctioning of
instrument in the beginning, no starting of local
exhaust or scrubber when it is essential and failure
of interlock or trip resulting in unwanted mixing or
reaction, mixing of air with hydrocarbons,
contacting hot oil and water, thermal or mechanical
shocks etc. are some of the examples of possible
disorders.
Correct identification of pipelines, valves and
gauges, correct sequence of control operation,
correct charging or addition-rate and instead of
relying on instruments only, counter-check of other
parameters and strict manual observation and
satisfaction are requisite precautions for safe start-
up procedure.
Attention should be paid on preparatory
activity, verifying content, removal of air or venting,
purging and disposal of purged material, removal
or addition of water, slow and sequential starting of
heating or cooling, gradual reaching of working
parameters and normal operation.
Other points needing attention in start-up are -
removal of shutdown blinds, providing running
blinds, opening of scrubber or discharge line valve,
opening of isolation valve before safety valve,
starting of local exhaust ventilation, pump cooling
and priming, readiness of fire fighting equipment,
leak detection, opening vents and drains before
allowing steam in the system, partial opening of
steam valves, introducing steam from the bottom
part, observance of level and overflow if any, safe
increase in loading, avoidance of incompatible
material, avoidance of moisture and impurities in
breathing air, purging of blowdown tanks and flare,
removing air from vacuum equipment, inspecting
joints and valves for leakage, verifying steam traps
working for condensate discharge, safe
displacement of steam, water or purge gas after
their use, removing residual water before
introducing hot oil (initially cold oil should be
introduced), using heat-exchanger for indirect and
gradual heating or cooling etc.
Shutdown operation needs sequential steps like
cooling and depressuring, pumping out, removal of
residual content e.g. hydrocarbons, corrosive or
toxic chemicals, water, oil, pyrophoric catalyst,
disposal of effluents and sludge, drainage and
blinding and isolation activities.
103
Heat source should be cut off, cooling may be
continued till required, where vacuum is possible
due to cooling, inert gas or air (if compatible)
should be introduced to maintain atmospheric
pressure, pumping out material after cooling and
depressuring and pumped out hot oil should be
cooled below its flash point. Residual hydrocarbons
can be removed by purging with steam, water or
water followed by steam. After purging, air should
be allowed into the system. Residual water should
be removed. Lastly running blinds should be
removed and shutdown blinds should be installed.
If the shutdown is required due to any fault, the
cause of the fault should be found, studied and
removed before restarting the plant.
See Part 7.7.4 of Chapter-7 for emergency
shutdown.
17.5 Maintenance
Maintenance should be considered as early as the
design stage. Good engineering initially can reduce
maintenance problems considerably. Those parts of
equipment that need frequent attention should have
good accessibility and be easy to remove or replace.
Space must be available for tools or special
maintenance equipment such as lifting gear, jacks or
large torque wrenches. The planned maintenance
system that is introduced should include plant
condition monitoring. This enables the state of the
plant to be deduced whilst still in service, cutting
maintenance costs considerably compared to strip-
down inspection methods.
Any planned maintenance/condition
monitoring system should include a breakdown
maintenance repair and analysis system. This
enables modifications to be made subsequently to
such schemes by modifying maintenance periods or
adding or subtracting other operations. It will also
help to identify poorly designed or constructed
plant and enable better specifications to be
produced for replacement items.
The third safety objectives is to train operators
in the correct operating procedures. As all installed
plant, including pumps, tankage, electrical systems
and instrumentation is the responsibility of the
operations department, operating procedures must
include safety regulations which prohibit
unauthorised access to equipment. This is done by
means of a work permit system.
Maintenance Policies and Types :
British Standard BS 3811 - Glossary of maintenance
terms used in terotechnology - defines terminology
used for maintenance policies.
Like health & safety policy or good quality
assurance policy, a maintenance policy should also
be defined to include breakdown or corrective
maintenance and preventive or planned
maintenance. Then it is possible also to develop a
check list for plant maintenance.
Maintenance includes planned or scheduled
shutdowns or stoppage of work to see all
inaccessible (during normal working) parts also.
Such periodical and planned in advance shutdown
is a preventive maintenance. Instead of such a fixed
schedule, ‘condition based’ maintenance is also
possible to carry out condition monitoring. Mostly
NDT techniques are employed in condition
monitoring.
Various types of maintenance and terminology
used in BS 3811 are explained in Fig. 18 in a decision
tree form.

Unplanned Maintenance  Was the maintenance 

Planned Maintenance
No job planned? Yes
 
Could there be  Corrective  Is it a
Serious consequences? No Maintenance Yes Breakdown?
Yes  No 
Then it’s to prevent
Emergency Maintenance
a breakdown
 
Is the work to be Preventive  Are only consumable 
done already known? 
Maintenance No being replaced? Yes
Yes   No
Is dismantling and 
Examination
test necessary to find out? Yes
No  
Condition-Based
Inspection 
Maintenance

Is - or must – the
machine be stopped?
 Yes  No
Is it a major Shut-down
 Running Maintenance
Yes job? Maintenance

No
Overall Repair Servicing

Fig. 18. : Decisions on Maintenance

Main intention of any maintenance system is to failures. This certainly saves subsequent costs of
identify failure situations and by timely repair, damaged plant, machinery, equipment, material and
replacement and servicing to stop the possible stoppage time and accident costs to persons,

104
property and environment. Therefore maintenance
cost must have due consideration and budgetary
provision.
Maintenance activities include -
1. Running maintenance - running repairs with
little interruption to production.
2. Servicing - replacement of consumable including
lubrication and overhauling.
3. Production assistance - adjusting machine
settings.
4. Breakdown, Corrective or Emergency
Maintenance - unscheduled repair to broken
parts.
5. Condition-based maintenance - unscheduled
testing and repair based on unsafe condition
noticed.
6. Shutdown or Preventive maintenance -
scheduled (planned) or periodical testing and
repair including servicing.
Maintenance activities may be of the type -
Emptying, purging, cleaning, breaking of pipelines,
repair, demolition, hot work, welding, hot tapping,
part removal, repair and refitting.
Information from reliability engineering (see
Part 2 of Chapter-19) is quite useful to plan
preventive maintenance. Identification and
qualification of failures that may result in accident
or hazardous condition, plant downtime or direct
repair costs are useful. Main failure regimes of
equipment are early failure, constant failure,
random failure and wearout failure. Reasons of
early failure include (1) Incorrect design,
specification, selection and construction or
manufacturing faults (2) Incorrect fault finding,
repair method, replacement parts, refitting and bad
working conditions and (3) Start-up mechanical or
temperature stresses.
Repair, reconditioning or replacement should
be carried out as per original design, specification,
material and technique. Regular inspection can
reduce maintenance. Now a days on-line testing,
monitoring and inspection techniques reduce the
breakdown maintenance.
Steps in preparing for maintenance are (1)
Identification of plant or part (2) Its isolation and (3)
Other preparatory measures such as venting,
cooling, depressuring, purging and cleaning.
Maintenance can be made safe and systematic
by work permit systems (see Part 1.8 of Chapter 19
and Parts 18 and 19 of this Chapter), audit of permit
systems, tags and lockouts, power or content
isolation.
Proper tools, lifting machines and equipment
and personal protective equipment should be used
while maintenance work.
18 WORK PERMITS FOR
HAZARDOUS WORK
105
The objectives, methodology, issue of permit,
its execution and termination, foreseeing of hazards
and arrangement for their controls, testing and
certification of working atmosphere, use of tools
and personal protective equipment, first-aid and
rescue equipment and training of workers for such
work are the common factors in any type of work
permit application. Its sole purpose is to save life
and avoid accident.
Hazardous substances are many. They may be
explosive, flammable, toxic, hot, corrosive and may
be in the form of dust, gas, vapour, steam, hot oil
etc. They pose high degree of hazards, have caused
many accidents world-wide and need strict safety
precautions while working with them.
Other factors being common, the vital part of
devising any safety work permit is to concentrate on
typical hazards involved and then to apply their
remedial measures. Material Safety Data Sheet will
expose property hazards. Storage, process and
vessel conditions can reveal their specific hazards
(Parts 6 to 17 of this Chapter discuss such hazards in
details) and due consideration to all such hazards is
necessary before devising any substancewise work
permit. Statutory provisions mentioned in Chapters
27 & 28 also supply useful and mandatory
information.
Normally hazardous works of maintenance or
modification need work permit system. It is given
for the following category of works :
Operations Excavation, vessel entry,
working at height, hot work,
welding and cutting, equipment
removal, pipe breaking, line
breaking, lining in furnace, waste
disposal, ship breaking and
cutting.
Equipment Electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic
lifting machine, crane, sprinkler
or hydrant system.
Hazardous Explosive, flammable, corrosive,
area radioactive or toxic atmosphere.
Time Overtime or after hours work.
General and special hazards both should be
considered. For example, work with flammable
dust, gas, vapour or liquid requires flameproof
equipment and avoidance of all sources of ignition,
but depending upon the class of fire, specific fire
extinguisher is required. Work with a toxic dust or
gas needs local exhaust or capture device, but
depending on type (e.g. chlorine, phosphine, CO)
and concentration, specific respirator is required.
Work with corrosive acid needs acidproof
handgloves, goggles and apron, but depending on
fumes given by it (e.g. HCl, SO 3, nitrous fumes)
specific respirator is required. Work with hot
substance requires shielding and hand protection
but depending on its nature (e.g. steam, oil, molten
metal, liquid glass, hot surface), the specific type of
hand protection (cotton, leather, asbestos) can be
selected. Working on a fragile roof needs a crawling
board, substantial platform or support and a safety
belt but the height, place and position will decide
the type of ladder or platform and type of anchoring
as specific requirement. Work with dust requires
exhaust or suction device but the type (e.g. sand,
coal dust, wood dust, chemical powder, bio-
organism) and size (microns) decide specific type of
respirator.
Knowledge of appropriate solvents, scrubbing
media, absorbers, adsorbers and inactivating
substances is always useful while preparing work
permit for any specific substance.
Knowledge of right type of tool, tackle,
equipment and instrument helps in suggesting work
with safety.
Work permit to demolish or repair any tank,
vessel or equipment needs special precautions.
Inner content should be identified and removed
before allowing any hot work. The atmosphere must
be rendered non-flammable. Residues lie not only
on the bottom but also on the walls and may evolve
volatile material and catch fire. Polymer residues
normally lie on the upper walls or the roof. To
remove such residues first requirement is to clean
them. Cleaning can be performed by hand cleaning,
machine cleaning or steaming out. Bottom residues
can be covered by water or protein foam as
blanketing. Inerting is also possible but this needs
oxygen reduction below 10% to carry out any hot
work on the tank.
Where liquid content (residues) is of low flash
point (e.g. <40 0C), the tank may be fully filled with
water and then cold cutting (using pneumatic chisel)
method may be applied. Cutting should start from
the top and proceed toward bottom. Here the
vapour space is minimised, resulting in turn,
minimisation of the hazard. But the tank should be
capable of withstanding the water load.
In another type of method, high expansion
foam (e.g. 40 m3/min) can be used as a blanket. Heat
exchanger containing flammable vapour can be
filled with water and crushed for demolition.
However it should be noted that all such
techniques require special knowledge and need of
an expert/competent person.
18.1 General Checklist :
A general checklist (Format) of permit for
Hazardous Work is given below in Table 18.22.

Table 18.22 : Work Permit for Hazardous Work.

Name & Address of the Factory : ________________________ Sr. No. : ________

Name & Address of the Contractor : ________________________ Date : ________

Permittee
Location of Date & time Date & time
(the site supervisor) Plant/
the work to of issue of expiry
Name of the Designation Company Section
be done (Permit) (Permit)
person
Description/Nature of Equipment/tools/ hazardous
the work to be done. substances to be used (to be Probable Hazards
(to be filled in by the filled in by the permittee) (to be filled in by the Contractor’s site engineer)
permittee)
 Crane (No._______)  Fall of persons from  Suspended load?
height?
 Chain pulley block.  Falling objects/  Fire?
overhead work?
 Slings & other lifting tackles.  Fall below grade  Toxic/flammable
level? dust/fumes/vapour?
 Electrical equipment?  Electrical shock?  Exposure to hazardous
substances?
 Portable electrical tools?  Moving machinery?  Damage to underground
service, lines, etc.
 Scaffolding/work platform?  Ionising radiation? 
 Hazardous substances?  Eye injury (flying 
objects/arc)?
The following requirements/safety Special precautions to
Following safety measures/precautions
measures are necessary and have been be taken (if any),
to be taken during execution of the job
provided/ensured. please specify.
 Proper scaffolding/work platform with  All workmen use safety helmet at the site.
handrails.
 Means of access to work place at height  Workmen use safety belt & anchor it
(ladder, etc.). properly with fixed structure.
 Safety net (Catch Net)/Static lines to arrest  Use of proper safety goggles by the
fall of person. workmen.
 The crane is in good working condition &  Provision of shoring/bracings in deep
certified. excavation.

106
 The crane operator is competent & has  Guards on moving machines.
licence.
 Electrical equipment provided with proper  Static lines are provided and used by the
earthing. workmen at height.
 Power supply to hand tools through ELCB.  Cordoning off deep excavations/
hazardous area with warning signs.
 Hazardous area barricaded/protected.  Hand lamps to be used with safety guards.
 Condition/capacity of lifting tackles  Power supply to lighting through ELCB.
ensured.
 Specific work procedure is necessary and is  Specific work procedure shall be adhere to.
available.
 Hot work/vessel entry permit is necessary  Familiar with emergency procedure.
and obtained.
Signature (Contractor’s Site engineer) Signature (Contractor’s Site supervisor) Signature :
Name : Name : (Site engineer)
cc : Safety Dept./Contractor

18.2 Permit for Vessel Entry:
For the definition of ‘Confined space’ and other
details, see Part 7 of Chapter-16.
Safe entry in any confined space like pit, sump,
vessel, vat, tank, chamber, furnace, oven, pipe, flue,
gutter or isolated and unknown place needs work
permit system. The hazards of work are toxic or
flammable gas inside, asphyxiating atmosphere,
accidental inflow of chemical or starting of agitator
etc.
See Part 1.8 of Chapter-19 for formats of safety
permit and details wherein provision of Section 36
of the Factories Act is also mentioned.
More danger is foreseeable when any gas or
vapour - visible or invisible, having odour or not -
heavier than air (vapour density > 1) is suspected in
the confined space. Fatal cases have been reported.
No person should enter or allow another person to
enter such situation without going through the
following steps :
1. Report the need of such entry to higher officer
whose duty is to prepare and sign a necessary
work permit for such work.
2. Work permit will be prepared after observing
the situation from outside, allowing the vessel to
be cooled and giving full thought to all the safety
points to be incorporated.
3. If it is an underground pit, sump, chamber or
tank having no connections except a manhole at
the top, the manhole should be opened after
wearing a self breathing apparatus, free air
movement and venting should be allowed for
some time and then the gas test and the oxygen
level test should be carried out. Toxic gas should
be safely driven out by air purging and a
flammable gas by nitrogen purging. The worker
doing this job should be experienced and
wearing self breathing apparatus. Such work
should be carried out during day time with good
natural lighting. While replacing any flammable
gas or hydrocarbons, sources of ignition must
have been removed and non-flameproof electric
lighting/fitting de-energised. Only a flameproof
torch may be used. To avoid static electricity,
airline should be bonded with the metal of the
vessel.
4. After evacuating gases as above, again their level
(ppm in case of toxic gas and percentage in air-
LEL-in case of flammable mixture) should be
measured and brought down to a safe level. But
this is not sufficient. Oxygen content should also
be measured and it should be more than 18%,
otherwise specific instruction of SBA shall be
mentioned in the work permit.
5. If it is a vessel, tank, reactor, pipe or other space
having nozzles and connections, first top and
bottom, vent and drain/flush valves should be
opened to discharge lighter and heavier gases.
Inlet connections should be isolated, blinded or
removed from joint. By nitrogen purging inner
gases should be fully pushed out. Then the
vessel should be washed and drained by steam
and water if it is not incompatible. Then the
manhole and other top and bottom connections
should be removed making the top-bottom
nozzles fully open for better (cross) ventilation
and lighting. This ensures that neither heavier
nor lighter gases will remain inside and free
entry of air will keep the space breathable.
Otherwise positive air supply should be
provided. If it is not possible to open any joint
except manhole, the procedure stated in para 3
and 4 should be followed.
6. After ensuring ambient condition and isolation
or disconnection of inlet lines, opening
maximum nozzles possible (at least flush bottom
drain and top vent), removing or isolating any
common connection (e.g. header or common
vent or scrubber line) and measuring gas and
oxygen content to a safe level, electric
connections (e.g. driving motors for stirrer,
pump, blower, exhaust, vacuum or any ingress
or egress of material) shall be removed (by
removing fuses and indicated by a warning
notice and tagging) and the overall situation
shall be verified for safe entry.
7. Only after assessing the real need of entry and
verification as above, the work (vessel entry)
permit shall be signed and safety precautions
mentioned in it shall also be verbally explained

107
 to the permit holder and the worker who has to
enter inside. The issue of permit should be done
by a responsible and experienced person only.
8. If it is not possible to achieve safe working level
inside due to presence of toxic gas or less oxygen
content, the condition of self breathing apparatus
and a safety belt having its free end (life line) in
the hands of a capable person standing outside
to pull him out, and first-aid and
rescue/reviving apparatus in ready condition,
shall be clearly mentioned in the work permit
and explained to the workers and supervisor.
9. If work is to be carried out of replacement of any
pyrophoric catalyst under nitrogen blanketing or
of removal of any deposit, scale, sludge, waste or
lining inside, instructions stated in para 8 shall
be strictly observed.
10. Now after receiving the permit, it shall be fully
understood before execution. All conditions shall
be fulfilled including wearing SBA, safety belt
and necessary equipment. Environment shall be
cool for entry and safe working. Manual bell
may be carried to give signal of any emergency
situation and indication to pull the life line or
supplying any thing necessary.
11. Air line respirators are not safe because of the
possibility of detachment of air supplying pipe.
Canister gas masks are also not advisable. A self
breathing apparatus with low pressure alarm
seems to be the safe remedy.
12. After the work is over, the permit shall be signed
and returned to the person who issued it.
Experience or suggestion if any shall be
mentioned to make the future work more safe.
If the work cannot be completed in one shift or
within time limit mentioned in the permit, the
permit should be submitted for extension before
continuing the work.
No statutory format is available. A company
can devise a format best fitting to their nature of
jobs. Items to be included in such format are - Place
of work, work to be done, whether withdrawal from
service, isolation, cleaning and purging, testing,
conditions, expiry time and authorisation to work,
acceptance of certificate, completion of work,
extension is required, permission of extension,
cancellation of the permit and provision for
signature, date and time.
Isolation of pipelines and electric power should
be positive and effective. Mere closing of valve or
switch is not sufficient.
If a worker inside becomes unconscious or is in
trouble, entry for rescue shall be allowed with SBA,
safety belt and other persons standing outside to
pull the life line (with head up). If this is not done,
multiple fatalities are possible.
108
19 REPORTS OF SOME EXPERT
COMMITTEES
After the Bhopal disaster on 3-12-1984, various
expert committees were formed by the Central and
State Governments and their reports are also
published. Some such reports are : Government of
India’s Safety Policy and SAHARA Plan, Gujarat
Task Force Committee’s Report, and its Empowered
Committee’s report, Maharashtra Environmental
(Garg’s) Safety Committee’s Report, ILO
Committee’s report, World Bank and IFC guidelines
and Report of the Inter--ministerial Group,
Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals,
Ministry of Industry, Govt. of India. The details of
all these reports are beyond the scope of this
Chapter. It is recommended to study them to
consider experts’ findings and views on chemical
safety. All India Citizens’ Report published by the
Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi-
110019 is also worth considering. The abstracts of all
these reports are readily available in Reference No.
11 given at the end of this Chapter.
General recommendations of some such reports
are given below in brief.
19.1 Garg Committee’s Report (1985)
In addition to the specific recommendations, the
Committee suggested the following general
recommendations which should be implemented by
all the factories and the concerned agencies to avoid
major mishaps :
1. The operators should be adequately trained in
handling abnormal situations in plant operations
and refresher courses should be arranged for
them regularly.
2. Toxic gases in the factory environment should be
continuously monitored.
3. Safety devices and instruments in the plant
should be frequently inspected, tested and a
record kept.
4. Storage of intermediate products which are
hazardous in nature should be restricted to eight
hours requirements and before any plant shut
down all such intermediate products should be
consumed.
5. Risk analysis should be carried out in all the
plants where hazardous chemicals are handled
and measures for containment in case of such a
risk be identified.
6. All factories handling hazardous chemicals
should educate the neighbouring population (in
consultation with local authorities) about
measures to be taken in the unlikely event of
release of any such chemicals.
7. All the containers, plant equipment and 4. Pressurising with compressible fluid should be
pipelines be made unserviceable when disposed avoided for unloading.
of as scrap. 5. The tanker carrying hazardous/toxic chemicals
8. For transportation of hazardous chemicals, a should not be allowed to pass through city/town
safety code should be evolved by the competent if by-pass is available.
authority. 6. The godowns of transport agencies, for storage
9. New buildings and hutment should not be of hazardous/toxic chemicals, inside the city
allowed to come up near factories handling limits should not be allowed.
hazardous chemicals. 7. The transport agencies drivers carrying
hazardous/toxic chemicals should be educated
19.2 Report of the Gujarat Task and trained to tackle emergency situations on the
Force Committee (1985) road.
8. The manufacturers of hazardous/toxic chemicals
should prepare a list of materials incompatible
The Government of Gujarat constituted a “Task
with the chemicals produced by them and tell
Force” Committee under the chairmanship of Shri
the transporters not to carry them together.
J.J. Mehta of Bombay to oversee the safety measures
in various industries in Gujarat dealing with
(C) Safety of Surrounding Inhabitants :
hazardous/toxic materials, wide Industries, Mines
& Power Department Resolution No. APC-
1. Existing Industries : No new housing
1084/186(86)-G, dated 10-1-1985, Sachivalaya,
colonies/slums should be allowed within 2 km
Gandhinagar.
from the boundary wall of the units identified to
The Committee considered (1) Toxicity (2)
be having high disasters potential and 1 km from
Boiling Point (3) Fire & Explosive hazards (4)
the boundary wall of the units identified as
Reactivity and (5) Quantity of storage to identify
having low disasters potential. Local authorities
hazardous chemicals and made a list of 27 such
should act immediately to stop construction of
chemicals.
colonies within above boundary areas. The
hutment dwelling should be relocated in safe
Observations : Major observations made by the
areas.
“Task Force” are as follows :
2. New Industries : Govt. should not ask the new
industries (proposing to handle hazardous/toxic
(A) Identification of Potentially Hazardous Units :
chemical) to go to inaccessible locations and at
the same time the unit should be located at a safe
The major units handling and having
distance. The development of the area should be
substantial inventories of hazardous/toxic
properly planned and controlled and haphazard
chemicals are identified by this “Task Force” as A.
development of housing colonies, slums should
High disaster potential and B. Low disaster
not be allowed around the industrial units.
potential.
The units in category A can be studied in
G.I.D.C. can plan to develop chemical estate,
greater details by an experts committee which
with ‘Hazardous Zone’ (proposing to handle
should meet regularly, say once in two years to
hazardous/toxic chemicals) which could be located
discuss various technological developments in the
1-2 kms away from the main estate.
safety and share their experience. Agencies like
Gujarat Safety Council can organise such meetings.
(D) Medical/First-Aid Facilities :
The units in category B can regularly monitor
and review the safety aspects in such industries.
1. The industries should have trained medical
personnel to treat the workers.
(B) Transportation of Hazardous/Toxic Chemicals
2. Keep sufficient required antidotes, drugs etc. at
:
the factory hospital. The doctor should have the
knowledge about the chemical poisoning and the
1. Transportation of all acids, oleum, corrosive
kind of treatment required.
liquids and toxic chemicals should be brought
3. Sufficient number of emergency breathing
under statutory control. Transportation of such
equipment and cylinders should be available in
chemicals in poorly equipped, maintained
all the potentially hazardous industries.
carrier should not be allowed.
2. Tanker carrying acids and corrosive chemicals
(E) Fire Protection Arrangements and Provision :
be regularly inspected for their thickness.
3. All the tankers should have two valves at the
1. The Units should have protection system with
outlets. During transportation of filled tankers
fire hydrants and water monitor and plenty of
the valves should be blinded.
water.

109
2. A fire water line should be able to develop
10kg/cm2 pressure for fire fighting. The fire
water pump should be able to run with
emergency power. Diesel driven water pump
should also be installed for use in case of total
power failure. G.I.D.C. should ensure this for
their major estates.
3. All the major units should organise their own
fire brigades.
4. The fire fighting services with emergency
breathing equipment and cylinders should be
provided for combating fire hazard in toxic
atmosphere.
5. Fire stations of G.I.D.C./Municipal Corporation
etc. should have a few self contained breathing
apparatus.
(F) Safety Management :
Top management of major units should
actively participate in the safety management of
their units and the head of the safety department
should report to the top management directly.
Safety officers should be appointed in major
G.I.D.C. estates, having chemical industries.
(G) Disaster Plan :
The industries handling hazardous chemicals
should prepare their own disaster plan involving
the district administration, city fire service, medical
personnel, police department, the people in the
surrounding area etc. to avoid or minimise loss of
life.
(H) Miscellaneous :
1. Small customers (hazardous/toxic chemicals
buyer) should be educated by the major
producers regarding certain preliminary Dos
and Don’ts while handling the chemical.
2. The workers in the industries should be
educated and trained to control emergencies and
such programmes should be held at regular
intervals. People living in the surrounding area
should also be given certain preliminary
information to handle emergencies.
3. Regular preventive maintenance and safety
drilling should be carried out by the industries to
check the workability of equipment, instruments,
controls etc.
4. Pressure vessels should be regularly inspected
for their thickness so that failure of such vessels
due to corrosion, erosion etc. can be avoided.
5. Health hazard data should be collected.
6. Recycling of waste products should be carried
out to minimise the effects of pollution.
7. Automation and remote control system should
be followed to minimise manual handling.
110
8. The meteorological data regarding wind
velocity, direction etc. should be collected.
9. Easy finance should be made available to
hazardous units for providing safety measures.
19.3 An Extract of the Inspection
by three ILO Experts on
Inspection of 91 MAH
Factories
The guidelines circulated by the CLI, Bombay, in
Jan’91 are as under :
I. General Recommendations.
1. A written safety policy, signed by a factory
manager, should be framed and distributed to
workers or displayed.
2. In preparation of the emergency plans more
attention should be paid to an adequate
emergency organisation, emergency control
centre, external communication and phasing of
activation of the emergency plan.
3. Qualified plant personnel should be trained in
conducting HAZOP study and this technique
should be applied in identifying and controlling
the hazards involved in the plant process.
4. Material Safety Data Sheets of hazardous
chemicals handled in plants should be prepared
and the workers should be made aware of these.
5. Preventive maintenance of the pipelines, storage
and process vessels should be improved
especially by incorporation of the non-
destructive testing method. A regular schedule
should be drawn and complied with.
6. Separate Work Permit Systems should be framed
for cold work, hot work and vessel entry.
7. The piping and instrumentation (P&I) diagram
of the installations should be updated and
readily available.
8. The electrical fittings in the flammable
installations should comply with the prescribed
standards. The flame proof electrical equipment
should be maintained properly.
9. The pipelines should be painted in accordance
with the prescribed colour code.
10. Installations handling corrosive chemicals
should be provided with emergency showers
and eye fountains at appropriate locations.
11. Emergency fire fighting rehearsals should be
carried out regularly at least once in two months.
12. It has to be ensured that sufficient quantity of
water is available for fire fighting.
13. Standards and Codes used for design of the
installations should be available at the factory.
14. A map of surroundings with a radius of 5 km
around the factory should be drawn up.
15. On-site emergency plan drills should be carried
out regularly.
16. Responsibility of authorisation of a plant
modification should be assigned to a specified
group of personnel.
17. Written Safe Operating Procedures should be
available at the different units of an installation.
18. Adequate Personal Protective Equipment should
be available to attend plant maintenance and
emergency control work.
II. Specific Recommendations for Installations
A. LPG
1. Sight flow indicators made of glass used in LPG
discharge line should be guarded adequately to
prevent breakage due to external impact.
2. LPG spheres and bullets should be provided
with two level monitoring equipment
independent of each other.
3. The remote operated valve should be provided
in the outlet line of the LPG storage vessel and
should be located as close as possible to manual
outlet valve. These manual and remote operated
shutoff valves should be fire resistant for at least
2 hrs. The manual valve should be fitted to the
bottom nozzle.
4. One of the level monitoring instruments should
automatically close the remote controlled shutoff
valve, when the level of LPG has reached the
maximum allowable limit.
5. The flow under the LPG spheres or bullets
should be slopped in such a way that any liquid
spillage of LPG may be directed towards an
evaporation bed of gravel or a catchment pit and
should be at least 15 meters away to prevent
heating of storage vessel in the event of fire.
6. Any isolation valve fitted between a single
pressure relief valve and upper space of the
storage vessel should be locked open. Flammable
vapour audio-visual alarms set to 20% of the
lower explosive limit should be installed in the
storage area and close to the evaporation bed or
catchment pit.
7. The main cap of the vent line of LPG storage
vessels should be loose fitting so that it blows off
easily in case of pressure relief.
8. When any road tanker is being unloaded, the
engines of all the road tankers in the unloading
area should not be operated. Provision should be
installed to prevent inadvertent movement of the
tank trucks when connected for loading or
unloading.
9. The sprinkler system of LPG installations should
be quick acting.
10. Any manual operated shutoff valve in the
sprinkler system should not be close to the LPG
storage vessel.
11. The surface area of the platform at the top of
LPG storage vessel should be sufficient to avoid
scaffolding for maintenance work.
111
12. Section of a LPG carrying pipeline between two
block ends should be provided with a pressure
relief device such as pop-off valve.
13. Excess flow valve should be installed in the inlet
and outlet pipelines of the LPG bullets.
14. The areas around the LPG installation should be
classified in relation to use of flame-proof
equipment.
15. It should be ensured that all the earth
connections provided for prevention of
accumulation of electrostatic charge are
maintained in good condition.
See Part 16.9 & 17.7 also.
B. CHLORINE
1. The storage vessel should be provided with two
independent level monitoring devices. At least
one of these devices should be provided with
high and extra high level alarms and a trip
action; or the vessel may be provided with a load
cell which gives an alarm at a certain set weight.
In this case first high level alarm has to be
provided with a trip function.
2. The pressure relief valve on the top of the
chlorine storage vessel should be provided with
a bursting disc and an isolation valve. In
between the bursting disc and pressure relief
valve a pressure indicator and alarm should be
installed to give warning of failure of bursting
disc.
3. The isolation valve provided between vapour
space of the storage vessel and pressure relief
valve should be locked open. If two such relief
devices are provided it should be ensured that at
least one of the isolation valves is always locked
open.
4. Expansion vessels with a bursting disc should be
connected to the liquid chlorine pipelines
wherein liquid chlorine can be trapped between
two close valves.
5. The expansion vessels should be provided with
pressure relief valve venting to the neutralising
tower.
6. A pressure indicator alarm should be installed
on the expansion vessel.
7. A remote operating shutoff valve should be
provided in the chlorine transferring line as close
as possible to the storage vessel. This remote
operating shutoff valve should be closed to the
manually operated shutoff valve.
8. Excess flow vales should be installed in the
liquid outlet lines of the storage vessels. This
should be directly connected to the outlet
nozzles of the storage vessel.
9. Emergency kit and personnel protective
equipment should be available at a reasonable
distance from the chlorine storage. These should
be maintained in good condition and their
 location should be known to all the workers in
the chlorine storage area.
10. An automatically operated pressure control
valve should be installed on a storage vessel and
receiver to control the air pressure while
padding the liquid chlorine for transfer.
11. The dew point of the padding air should
maintained below -40 0C, to minimise moisture
content.
12. Chlorine toners should be stored securely in a
raised platform.
13. The overhead crane in the toner storage area
should be provided with a proper lift beam to
handle chlorine cylinders.
14. To contain the chlorine gas leaking from a toner
suitable provision should be made to exhaust it
through an alkaline scrubbing system.
15. All chlorine toners should be fitted with safety
caps.
16. Chlorine toner storage area should be provided
with a shed.
17. There should be separate areas for storage of
filled and empty chlorine toners and these
should be clearly marked.
18. A multipoint continuously monitoring chlorine
gas detection system should be installed in those
areas where chlorine gas can escape out of an
installation. This detection should be provided
with an alarm set at 3 ppm.
19. Emergency kit specially designed for checking
the chlorine leakage from a toner should be
available in the toner storage area.
20. Self contained Breathing Apparatus and Gas
Mask with canister should be available and
maintained in good condition. Their location
should be known to all the workers for use in
emergency.
See Part 16.7 & 17.5 also.
C. AMMONIA
1. A bund wall should be provided outside the
radius of a Horton sphere which should not be
less than one meter in height. This bund should
have minimum capacity to contain 20% of
ammonia content in the Horton sphere.
2. The bund should have impervious floor and
provision for low point drain pit discharging
flanged valve to remove any water collected.
This flanged outlet valve should normally be
kept closed.
3. A remote operated shutoff valve should be
provided in the bottom outlet as close as possible
to the storage sphere.
4. The isolation valves beneath the pressure relief
valves should be kept locked open or interlocked
in such a way that always at least one of the two
is in open position.
112
5. Venting of Ammonia through safety relief valve
should be at least 2 meter above the platform at
the top of the storage vessel. This vent line
should be provided with loose fitting rain caps.
6. In the Ammonia tank, truck and railway wagon
loading/unloading station, technical provision
should be installed to prevent trucks or rail
wagons from being driven away while hose is
connected. This could be a barrier which is
removed only after hose and/or the load arms
have been put back in its position.
7. The insulation of pipelines carrying Liquid
Ammonia should be maintained properly.
8. An excess flow valve should be installed in the
liquid Ammonia line of the Horton sphere. This
valve should be as close to the sphere as
possible.
9. A multipoint continuously Ammonia monitors
with alarm should be installed in the storage and
Ammonia handling areas.
See Part 16.8 & 17.6 also.
D. OLEUM
1. Oleum storage vessel should be provided with
level indicator with high level alarm.
2. The high level alarm should automatically
shutoff the valve in the filling line.
3. Oleum storage vessels should be provided with
an acid proof bund having a capacity of
containing 110% content of the biggest vessel in
the group.
4. It is to be ensured that manually operated
shutoff valves in the vent line connection to
scrubber are kept locked open.
5. A second standby pump for the operation of the
scrubber should be installed.
6. Provision should be installed to prevent
inadvertent movement of the road tanker while
it is connected for loading/unloading operation.
This can be done by using handbrake, wheel
blocks and removing ignition key from the
vehicle.
7. A schedule for preventive maintenance and
inspection of equipment, storage vessels and
pipelines handling Oleum should be drawn-up
and complied.
8. Oleum storage vessels should be properly
labelled to indicate its identity and capacity.
9. Pipelines carrying Oleum should be properly
supported.
10. The road tanker loading area should be provided
with an impervious acid proof slopping to a
catchment pit. The pit should have enough
capacity to contain the full leakage from the
tanker.
See Part 16.11 also.
E. CARBON DISULPHIDE
1. Carbon Disulphide storage vessels should be
fitted with two independent continuously level
monitoring instruments of which one should be
provided with high level alarm.
2. Properly designed rupture discs should be used
instead of asbestos plates for the Carbon
Disulphide manufacturing furnaces.
3. Safety seal outlet of the Carbon Disulphide
furnace should be extended above the roof level.
F. OXYGEN
1. Oxygen storage tank should be provided with a
pressure gauge with high pressure alarm.
2. A remote operated shutoff valve should be
installed in the Oxygen outlet line of the Oxygen
storage tank and should be as close as possible to
the tank.
3. A non-return valve should be installed near the
process pump discharge of the liquid Oxygen
inlet line.
113
G. ETHYLENE OXIDE
1. Ethylene Oxide storage vessels should be
provided with a second level monitoring
instrument which gives high level audio &
visual alarm.
2. The fire water tank should be provided with a
level indicator.
3. The process reactors in the Ethylene Oxide plant
should be provided with pressure relief valve
and the relief discharge should be vented safely.
4. Ethylene Oxide reaction vessel should be
provided with Oxygen detectors which gives
high audible and visual alarm at the level of
oxygen of 6%.
5. The bonding cables of static current equalisation
system between tank truck and Ethylene Oxide
storage vessels should be maintained properly.
See foregoing Part 16.10 also.
 Exercise

1 Write short notes :

Safe handling and storage of hazardous materials. TEB Guj., May 1997
Confined space entry. TEB Guj., April 1997
Precommissioning safety checks TEB Guj., April 1997
Pipe line colour coding. TEB Guj., April 1995,
April 1997
The DOW Fire and Explosion Index. TEB Guj., April 1996
Trips and Interlock systems. TEB Guj., April 1996
Respiratory protective equipment in chemical industries. TEB Guj., April 1996
Non destructive testing programme for chemical plants. TEB Guj., April 1996
Colour code for pipelines. TEB Guj., April 1996
Corrosion in chemical factories. TEB Guj., April 1996
Material Safety Data Sheet. TEB Guj., April 1995
Runaway reaction. TEB Guj., April 1995
Incompatible materials with examples. TEB Guj., April 1995
Safe work environment. TEB Guj., April 1995
Chemical dust and fumes causing occupational diseases. TEB Guj., May 1994
Importance of ventilation and lighting for safety in chemical plants. TEB Guj., May 1994
Causes and prevention of corrosion. TEB Guj., May 1994
Test checks for reliability of vessels. TEB Guj., May 1994
(1) LD50 (2) STEL (3) Explosive limits (4) Rupture Disc (5) Ammonia TEB Guj., July 1992
Torch (6) Scrubber.
Identification of hazards in chemical factories. TEB Guj., July 1992
2 Explain the following :
Safety measures required in storage and handling of following specific TEB Guj., May 1997
materials.
(1) Flammable (2) Explosive (3) Corrosive (4) Toxic.
3 Explain Rules regarding storage and handling of Gas cylinders. TEB Guj., May 1997
4 State different precautions required to be taken while welding in TEB Guj., May 1997
confined space.
5 Define flammable (explosive) limits. TEB Guj., April 1997
6 Explain the working principles of combustible gas indicator. TEB Guj., April 1997
7 What is TREM CARD and give the important information it carries. TEB Guj., April 1997
8 Describe MSDS and indicate any one statutory application where TEB Guj., April 1997
MSDS is asked for.
9 Define “Hazardous process” as per Factory Act and list 10 chemical TEB Guj., April 1997
covered under Schedule I.
10 Expand : TLV, OSHA, LEL, PVRV, HAZOP, ILO, STEL, API, PPM, TEB Guj., April 1997
NDT.
11 Frame a safe “maintenance procedure” for chemical industry. TEB Guj., April 1997
12 Prepare an instruction checklist for storage/loading/unloading/ TEB Guj., April 1997
transportation of hazardous chemicals.
13 Explain the role of preventive maintenance in safety and health. TEB Guj., April 1996
Describe your observations in practice.
14 Discuss the points to be included in the proforma of a ‘Confined space TEB Guj., April 1996
entry permit’, to be put in use in an industry.
15 Explain the term : (1) Preventive maintenance (2) STEL (3) Risk TEB Guj., April 1996
(4) Compatibility (5) BLEVE (6) Explosive limit (7) UN No.
16 Explain significance and use of Material Safety Data Sheet. Enumerate TEB Guj., April 1996
TEN important hazardous properties of material you should know.
17 Describe the precautions/controls which should be considered for a TEB Guj., April 1996
reactor carrying out a continuous exothermic reaction likely to
runaway.
18 Define “Confined Space”. Prepare a safe entry procedure for carrying TEB Guj., April 1996
out inspection (internal) and welding job in a reactor likely to contain
highly flammable and toxic vapours fumes.
19 Prepare important safety precautions to be observed in loading and TEB Guj., April 1996
transportation of a class-A flammable and toxic liquids.
20 Prepare a checklist for survey of a hazardous process being carried out TEB Guj., April 1996
in a chemical plant with reference to process safety under normal

114
 conditions and provision for abnormal conditions.
21 Define a “pressure plant” under Factories Act 1948. Describe in brief TEB Guj., April 1996
basic requirements and methods for protection of pressure vessels.
22 State whether following statements are true or false giving reasons : TEB Guj., April 1996
(1) Canister with face mask can be used inside a “confined space” for
protection against toxic vapours/fumes (2) Outlet valve of a dyke
around storage tanks should be kept closed (3) Explosimeter used for
measuring Hydrogen/air mixture reads 20%. This indicates that there
is 20% hydrogen in the sample. (4) Carbon monoxide and Hydrogen
cyanide are known as chemical as phyxiants.
23 Write the importance of Work Permit System to ensure safe TEB Guj., April 1995
maintenance activities. Mention the safety precaution to be observed
while working inside ‘confined space’.
24 Describe various types of corrosion and its effects on vessels/ TEB Guj., April 1995
equipment. Write protective measures including inspection
techniques.
25 Write in brief the basic elements for the calculation of DOW Index. TEB Guj., April 1995
26 Write DOT Classification of hazardous chemicals. Mention safety TEB Guj., April 1995
precautions to be observed during transportation of hazardous
chemicals by road including statutory requirements.
27 Describe the minimum instrumentation required on reactors for the TEB Guj., April 1995
safe operation of the same.
28 Draw a plan to keep control on health hazards related to chemical TEB Guj., April 1995
factory handling toxic and poisonous chemicals.
29 As a Safety Officer of a chemical plant, what plan of action would you TEB Guj., May 1994
draw to reduce the accidents ? State giving priorities to different
actions.
30 What are the main hazards of chemicals ? Explain giving example. TEB Guj., May 1994
31 What safe methods for storing and handling you will suggest for TEB Guj., May 1994
following chemicals :
(1) Benzene (2) Phosgene (3) Benzidine (4) Hydrochloric acid
(5) Hydrochloride.
32 Which are the main factors to be considered for preventing a reaction TEB Guj., May 1994
becoming runaway ? How will you control them ?
33 Discuss safety factors applied to pressure vessels. TEB Guj., May 1994
34 Write brief note on storage, handling and transportation of explosive TEB Guj., May 1994
materials.
35 Give colour code for pipe lines based on nature of fluid. What is Safety TEB Guj., May 1994
Index ?
36 What is the importance of instrumentation in chemical industry for TEB Guj., May 1994
safe plant operations ? Explain with block diagram the
instrumentation system for a pressure control of a liquid chemical.
37 State the necessity and importance of a work permit. What conditions TEB Guj., June 1991,
would you put up before work permit for repairs of a pipe line May 1994
carrying Carbon disulphide is issued ?
38 Short note : Difference between Hazard & Risk TEB Guj., May 1989
39 Describe safe design (with instrumentation) of a reaction vessel TEB Guj., June 1991
required to be heated and having exothermic reaction.
40 Discuss safe storage of highly flammable materials in different status, TEB Guj., June 1991
and precautions to be taken against fire/explosion.
41 Short Notes : (1) Material Safety Data Sheets (2) Incompatible TEB Guj., June 1991
chemicals (3) Rupture Disc (4) TLV (5) Water-sensitive chemicals (6)
LD50.
42 Short Notes : (1) Non-destructive Testing (2) Handling of a glass TEB Guj., June 1991
carboy (3) Repair of pipeline carrying hazardous material (4) Bund-
wall.
43 What are the main hazards of chemicals ? Explain giving examples. TEB Guj., June 1991
44 Write safe methods for storing and handling following chemicals : (1) TEB Guj., June 1991
Benzene (2) Phosgene (3) Benzidine (4) Hydrofluoric acid (5)
Dihydrochloride
45 Describe different modes of transport of chemicals. State TEB Guj., July 1992
precautionary measures required in transport of (1) Benzene (2)
Phosgene (3) Hydrogen or (4) Chlorine

115
46 Describe safe job method for welding from inside a large reaction TEB Guj., July 1992
vessel for making a benzene product.
47 State different hazardous properties of chemicals giving examples and TEB Guj., July 1992
safe way of their storage.
48 State different process parameters of a chemical reaction stating TEB Guj., July 1992
instrumentation required for safety of a chemical reaction.
49 (a) Explain the UN classification of Dangerous goods. TEB Guj., April 1997
(b) What is the importance of material safety data sheets in handling,
storage and processing of chemicals.
(c) Explain the important methods of controlling hazards of chemicals
while handling/processing them?
50 (a) What is safety audit ? What are the elements of safety audit system TEB Guj., April 1997
and objective of safety audit ?
(b) Explain in brief importance of Instrumentation and Process control
in chemical process plant?
51 (a) Explain/define the following term TEB Guj., April 1997
(1) LD50 (2) LC50 (3) Explosive Range (4) Toxicity (5) TLV- STEL
(6) MTRF (7) Mutagenesis (8) Chemical Asphyxiants
(9) IDLH (10) Biological Monitoring.
(b) Give storage and handling procedure for the following
(1) Benzene (2) Hydrochloric Acid (3) Concen. Nitric Acid (98 %) (4)
Carbon disulphide.
52 (a) Enumerate various methods of Hazard Identification, Analysis and TEB Guj., April 1997
Risk assessment at various stages of a chemical project.
(b) Describe important aspects of pressure vessel inspection and the
inspection of their protective devices.
53 (a) Explain the precautions to be taken while carrying out network TEB Guj., April 1997
inside a vessel containing Toxic and flammable devices.
(b) Describe the importance of a safe modification procedure in a
chemical process plant.
54 1.Discuss the importance of material safety data sheet in hazardous TEB Guj., June 1993
process factories. Enumerate the data to be supplied in brief.
OR
Identification of hazards in Chemical Factories will go a long way in
ensuring safety - Discuss.
2. Discuss the safety measures required to be taken in transfer of
chemicals by pipe line in chemical factories.
OR
Enumerate the importance of identification of pipe work and colour
coding in chemical factories.
3. Discuss the safety precautions to be taken in handling of chlorine in
factories.
OR
Enumerate basic steps for start-up of a plant after a period of
closure.
4. Which are the basic and relevant safety requirements for starting a
chemical plant ?
5. Identify the hazards of corrosion in chemical plant and technique of
handling corrosive substances.
OR
“Reactor Safety” is of fundamental importance in Chemical
Factories. Give basic considerations for safety of a reactor.
55 (a) Occupational hazards chemical factories. TEB Guj., June 1993
(b) Unit processes. (c) Incompatible chemicals.
56 Discuss health hazards in a Chlorine manufacturing factory. Give TEB Guj., June 1993
details of prevention measures for these hazards.
57 DOW fire and Explosion index. TEB Guj., April 1997
58 Enumerate various types of corrosion giving examples. TEB Guj., April 1997
59 Explain various five prevention and five protection measures required TEB Guj., April 1997
in a process plant handling/steering processing highly flammable
liquids /gases and toxic materials.
60 What is a HAZCHEM. code? TEB,Mah,1996
61 Specify the safety measures that are required to be taken during TEB,Mah,1986

116
 storage and handling of gas cylinders filled with following gases.
(a) Chlorine. (b) Phosgene. (c) Ammonia. (d) Acetylene.
62 How would you ensure safety before entry into a confined space. TEB,Mah,1986
Describe its requirements and a work permit system.
63 Give the importance of the following for safety in a chemical plant. TEB,Mah,1986
Support your answer with suitable examples.
(a) Placards. (b) Colour code. (c) House keeping.
64 (a) Describe the hazards in chemical plant maintenance and indicate TEB,Mah,1987
remedy.
(b) Write in brief the United Nations classification of hazardous
materials for transport.
65 write short note on : TEB,Mah,1987
(a) Pipe lines in chemical plants. (b) Instrument for safe operation.
(c) Inerting in chemical reactors and storage.
(d) Combustible gas indicator. (e) Pressure vessels.
66 (a) Indicate the types of corrosion observed in chemical industry. TEB,Mah,1987
(b) Write the different types of commercial chemical reaction.
67 Give importance of the following for safety in chemical industry : TEB,Mah,1987
(a) Gauging. (b) Inspection check list.
(c) Bounding and earthing of flammable chemical vessels and lines.
68 Describe in detail the permit to work systems in a chemical industry. TEB,Mah,1988
Give a scheme for the control of entry into a vessel or confined space.
69 Write short note on : TEB,Mah,1988
(a) Safety in chemical reaction. (b) Safe sampling and gauging.
(c) House keeping in chemical plants. (d) United Nations Number.
(e) Toxic release.
70 (a) Indicate the types of corrosion normally seen in chemical plants. TEB,Mah,1988
(b) How static electricity hazard can be eliminated while receiving a
flammable chemical into a storage tank.
71 (a) Prepare a suitable check list for periodic inspection of an TEB,Mah,1988
atmospheric type vertical cone-roof storage tank storing corrosive
chemical.
(b) Give importance of the following for safety in a chemical plant.
Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.
(1) Welding circuit connections.
(2) Flange guards for corrosive chemical lines. (3)
Instrumentation.
72 Write short note on- TEB,Mah,1990
(a) Rupture disks. (b) Flammable or Explosive limits.
(c) HAZCHEM Code. (d) Identification of a piping system.
(e) Explosimeter. (f) Run away reaction.
73 (a) State the importance of various tests that need to be carried out for TEB,Mah,1990
unfired pressure vessels. Indicate the applicability of such tests with
merits &demerits.
(b) Describe in detail the permit to work system in a chemical plant.
Give a scheme for the control of entry into a vessel that contained toxic
chemical.
74 (a) Describe the classification of dangerous substances as TEB,Mah,1990
recommended by the UN committee of experts.
(b) State the importance of the following for ensuring safety in a
chemical plant with suitable illustrations.
(a) House keeping. (b) Labelling of a container or a package. (c)
Placard.
75 Write short notes on- TEB,Mah,1992
(a) Vacuum breakers. (b) TREMCARD. (c) Flash point. (d) Safety
alarms.
(e) Identification of waste containers. (f) Safe sampling and gauging.
76 (a) Describe the classification of dangerous substances as TEB,Mah,1992
recommended by the UN committee of experts.
(b) State the reasons for corrosion seen in a chemical plant. What
preventive maintenance programme is needed to be taken?
77 (a) Explain why grounding and bounding are required for the vessels TEB,Mah,1992
containing flammable liquids. Show with a neat sketch how this is

117
 accomplished.
(b) State the requirements for labelling of a container of hazardous
substances.
78 Give the importance of the following for ensuring safety in a chemical TEB,Mah,1992
plant with suitable illustrations -
(a) Instrumentation. (b) Inspection check list. (c) Colour code.
79 Write short note on - TEB,Mah,1993
(a) Explosive limits. (b) Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosions.
(c) TREMCARD. (d) Toxic release. (e) Safety valves. (f) Bonding and
earthing.
80 Show schematically the procedure for calculating the DOW fire and TEB,Mah,1993
explosion index and the max. probable property damage. State in brief
the significance of such calculation.
81 (a) State the main types of storage of flammable liquids and gases. TEB,Mah,1993
What safety measures are taken for storage of such materials?
(b) State the importance of inspection of an unfired pressure vessel TEB,Mah,1994
bringing out some of the features which may be relieved by an
inspection. Describe the statutory requirements for testing of pressure
vessels in operation line.
(c) Explain how corrosion takes place in a chemical plant. State the
specific preventive measures that are required to be taken for the
control of corrosion.
82 (a) State the various types of “Colour Codes” that are used for TEB,Mah,1993
identification of pipelines carrying hazardous chemicals and steam.
(b) Give the system of labelling of a container of a chemical which is
non-flammable but extremely toxic.
83 What are the acute and chronic effects and the first aid measures for TEB,Mah,1993
acute effects of the following :-
(a) Cyanides (b) Chlorine (c) Carbon monoxide (d) Anhydrous
ammonia.
84 Write short note on- TEB,Mah,1994
(a) Flash point (b) Run away reaction (c) Confined vapour explosion
(CVEs) (d) Bursting disc (e) Spontaneous combustion (f) Safety
Survey.
85 (a) What factors are used in calculating the DOW fire and explosion TEB,Mah,1994
index? State in brief how these factors are determined?
(b) Describe in detail the classification of hazardous chemicals and the
labelling of the containers of such chemicals for transportation as
recommended by the UN committee of experts.
86 (a) What are the main causes of corrosion in a chemical plant? TEB,Mah,1994
Describe the preventive measures that are required to be taken for
control of corrosion.
(b) What are the health effects associated with the handling of
organophosphorous pesticides? Indicate the preventive measures that
should be taken for safe manipulation of these pesticide in a
formulating unit.
(c) Describe the hazards which may results from a rupture or a break
of the pipeline carrying ammonia and the general preventive measures
that are suggested.
87 Indicate the acute and chronic effect and the first aid measures for TEB,Mah,1994, 1996
acute effects of the following hazardous chemicals :-
(a) Chlorine (b) Sulphuric acid (c) Anhydrous ammonia (d) Carbon
disulphide.
88 Explain how DOW Fire and Explosion Index is calculated. What is the TEB,Mah,1995, 1996
significance of this index?
89 Write short note on - TEB,Mah,1995
(a) Earthing and bonding of flammable chemical vessels and pipe
lines.
(b) HAZCHEM Code (c) House keeping in chemical plants.
(d) Explosives limits (e) Threshold limit value (f) Rupture disc.
90 (a) Describe the UN Classification of dangerous substances. List out TEB,Mah,1995
the main safety measures to be taken for transportation of hazardous
substances by road.

118
 (b) What safety measures should be considered while planning bulk
storage of liquid corrosive chemicals?
91 (a) Give contents and elaborate utility of Material Safety Data Sheets. TEB,Mah,1995
What are the statutory provisions for MSDS?
(b) Why should unfired pressure vessels be inspected regularly? List
out the requirements for testing and inspection of pressure vessels
under the Factories Act and Rules.
92 Discuss the acute and chronic effects and the first aid measures for TEB,Mah,1995
acute effects of following :-
(a) Oleum (b) Anhydrous ammonia (c) Benzene (d) Carbon
disulphide.
93 (a) Justify the importance of preventive maintenance in a hazardous TEB,Mah,1996
chemical plant. What safety measures should be considered while
planning maintenance of such a plant?
(b) Occupier is required to prepare Material Safety Data Sheets
(M.S.D.S) for hazardous chemicals. What are the statutory provisions
and utility of M.S.D.S.? List out major contents of M.S.D.S.
(c) Write short note on -
(1) Colour code for pipelines (2) Flash point (3) Entry into a
confined space (4) Threshold Limit Value (TLV) (5) Toxic release
(6) Runaway reaction.
(d) Describe safety measure to be taken and safety procedure to be
followed when a person is required to enter into a confined vessel
which had contained toxic substance.
94 Describe in detail the safety measures to be taken for bulk storage of TEB,Mah,1996
liquid corrosive chemicals. Briefly mention the safety precaution to be
taken while filling the liquid corrosive chemical into a storage tank
from a road tanker.
95 Write short note on :- TEB,Mah,1993
(a) Hydrogenation (b) Halogenation (c) Nitration (d) Amination
(e) Oxidation (f) Polymerisation.
OR
How is corrosion defined? Write a detail note on dangers from
corrosion in the chemical process industry? What are the imp.
methods adopted to avoid dangers from corrosion in this industry?
96 Write short note on :- TEB,Mah,1993
(1) Safety sampling technique in a process industry.
(2) Gauging of combustible and flammable liquids.
(3) Routine schedule of maintenance and calibration of instruments.
(4) Inter lock system for process control.
(5) Trip system for process control.
(6) Boiling liquid expanding vapour type of explosives.
97 Write a detail note on specific checklists to be made available for TEB,Mah,1993
inspection of bulk storage of the following fixed installations -
(1) Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) storage. (2) Chlorine storage.
(3) Ammonia storage. (4) Ethylene oxide (EO) storage.
98 Write short note on :- TEB,Mah,1993
(a) Explosion occurred in Flexborough works of Nypro in the UK on
June 1st 1974. (b) General criteria for selection of plant sites for major
accidents hazards installations. (c) Dyke walls and bunds around bulk
storage of flammable liquids and corrosive substances. (d) Factor of
safety employed in the design of pressure vessels.
99 Discuss the various characteristics of unit operations and unit TEB,Mah,1994
processes in a chemical process industry.
100 Which are the additional safety devices and fittings normally provided TEB,Mah,1994
for pressure vessel in addition to those, which are statutorily required?
Why are they so provided?
101 What are the hazards caused by malfunctioning of instrumentation or TEB,Mah,1994
its total failure in a control system? Discuss the precautions to be taken
in this regard to minimise these.
102 How do various meteorological and topographical conditions TEB,Mah,1994
influence dispersion of a gas cloud? Discuss some of the main factors
of these conditions responsible in determining dispersion.

119
 103 Discuss the general principals involved in a safe layout of bulk storage
for flammable liquids, corrosive and compressed liquifiable or
dissolved gases under pressure.
Reference and Recommended Reading :
1. Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals
Safety Manual, International Technical
Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan.
2. Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health & Safety,
ILO, Geneva.
3. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, N.
Irving Sax , Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
4. Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology, Kirk
Othmer, John Wiley & Sons.
5. Condensed Chemical Dictionary, Hawley,
Galgotia Book Source, Delhi-1.
6. The Merck Index, Merk & Co. Rahway, NJ. USA.
7. Lange’s Handbook of Chemistry, Dean,
McGraw-Hill BC.
8. Chemical Engineers Handbook, Perry, McGraw-
Hill BC.
9. A Dictionary of Science, Uvarov & Chapman,
ELBS.
10. The Hazards of Work : How to Fight Them,
Patrick Kinnersly, Pluto Press, London.
11. Handbook of Chemical Safety, Gujarat State
Factory Inspectorate Gazetted Officers’
Association, Ahmedabad-1.
12. Chemical Safety Booklet, Gujarat State Factory
Inspectorate Gazetted Officers’ Association
,Ahmedabad-1.
13. Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory, G.D. Muir,
the Chemical Society, London.
14. Safety in working with chemicals, Michael
Green, Amos Turk, Macmillan Publishing Co.
15. Safety in Laboratories, Ciba-Geigy.
16. Chemical Hazards in the Workplace,
Measurement & Control, Gangadhar Choudhary,
American Chemical Society.
17. Organic Chemicals Manufacturing Hazards,
Goldfarb and others, Butterworth.
18. Carcinogens in Industry and Environment, James
Sontag, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.
19. Ullmann’s Encyclopaedia of Industrial
Chemistry (36 volumes), VCH
Verlagsgesellschaff, GmBH, D-6940, Weinhim,
Germany.
20. Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, L.
Bretherick, Butterworth.
21. Instrumentation, Kirk and Rimboli, D.B.
Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt. Ltd.
22. Industrial Instrumentation, Forest Tyson, D.B.
Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt. Ltd.
23. Handbook of Pesticides, Small Industry Research
Institute, 4/43, Roop Nagar, Delhi-7.
120
TEB,Mah,1994
24. Dust Explosions and Fires, K.N. Palmer,
Chapman and Hall, London.
25. A course in Industrial Chemistry (two parts),
M.V. Hegde and others, Orient Longman.
26. Petroleum Processing, V.P. Sukhanov, Mir
Publishers, Moscow.
27. Wasteless Chemical Processing, V.V. Kafarov,
Mir Publishers, Moscow.
28. Laboratory Manual of Organic Synthesis, M.N.
Khramkina, Mir Publishers, Moscow.
29. Examples and problems to the Course of Unit
Operations of Chemical Engineering, Pavlov and
others, Mir Publishers, Moscow.
30. Chemical Technology, Mukhlyonov and others,
Mir Publishers, Moscow.
31. Process Equipment Design, M.V. Joshi,
Macmillan.
32. Safety and Accident Prevention in Chemical
Operations, Fawcett and Wood, John Wiley and
Sons.
33. Safety in Chemical Industry (Seminar
Proceedings), Indian Chemical Manufacturers
Association, Mumbai - 23.
34. Transport of Dangerous Goods, United Nations,
New York.
35. Special Gases Catalogue, BOC Ltd., London.
36. Fire & Explosion Index Hazard Classification
Guide, 6th ed., May 1987. DOW Chemical
Company.
37. Methodologies for Risk and Safety Assessment
in Chemical Process Industries (A Manual),
Commonwealth Science Council, London.
38. Major Industrial Hazards, John Withers, Grower
Technical Press, Hants, England.
39. Process Safety Analysis - An Introduction, Bob
Skeleton, IChemE.
40. Risk Assessment in the Process Industries, Robin
& Robin, IChemE.
41. Major Hazard Control, ILO, Geneva.
42. Guidelines on Inspection of MAH Installations,
Jan’91. CLI, Bombay.
43. Safety in Storage, Handling & Transportation of
Hazardous Chemicals, NSC, Bombay.
44. Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, Frank
P. Lees, Butterworths.
45. Accident Facts, 1997, NSC, USA
46. Chemical Engineering, OP Gupta, Khanna
Publishers, Delhi.
47. Industrial Safety & Pollution Control Handbook,
NSC, Bombay. (1993).
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