Emailing MODULE-1

Module 1
Sex, Gender,
Sex, Gender and Culture
and Culture
Page
Basic Concepts of Sex, 3

Gender, and Culture
1.1. SEX CONCEPTS 5
1.1.1. Anatomy and 6
Physiology of Reproduction
and its Process
1.1.2. The Process of 9
Reproduction
1.1.3. Sexual Health and 12
17
Hygiene
1.1.4. Risky Behaviors of
Adolescence
1.2. GENDER CONCEPTS 21
1.2.1. Masculinity and 21
Femininity Across Cultures
1.2.2. Gender Roles and 29
Gender Division of Labor
1.2.3. Theories of Inequality 39
1.2.4. Stereotyping and 45
Discrimination
GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY.2020

President Ramon Magsaysay State University
GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 1|Page

Module 1
Sex, Gender,
and Culture

Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
College/Department
Course Code
Course Title
Place of the Course in
the Program
Semester & Academic First Semester AY 2020-2021
Year
MODULE 1
SEX, GENDER, AND CULTURE
Basic Concepts of Sex, Gender, and Culture

Introduction
The world is gendered - but what is gender? We know gender is fundamental
to the way in which we see ourselves and others, and how our communities and
institutions are organized, but why? Why do gender norms and stereotypes emerge?
What effects do they have on our lives? This module will introduce you to the major
concepts in sex and gender, including: anatomy and physiology of reproduction,
process of reproduction, sexual health and hygiene, risky behaviors of adolescence,
masculinity and femininity across cultures, gender roles and gender division of labor,
theories of inequality, stereotyping and discrimination. These concepts will help you
analyze how sex, gender, age, ethnicity, race, class, politics and social movements
intersect to influence your understanding of sex, gender, and culture.
Pre-Assessment Questions:
Try to answer the following questions:
1. The Fallopian tube refers to the passageway an egg travels through
when moving between the ovary and the uterus.
a. True
b. False
2. Which sex cell is produced in males?
a. egg
b. ovary
c. testis
d. sperm
3. What process involves an egg being discharged from an ovary?
a. fertilization
b. ovulation

c. negative feedback
d. freedom
4. What provides protection for the embryo during development?

a. umbilical cord
b. scrotum
c. amniotic sac
d. placenta
5. The female sex cell is the
a. sperm
b. egg
c. ovary
6. The release of an egg from an ovary is
a. ovulation
b. fertilization
c. menstruation
d. afterbirth
7. The male sex cell is the uterus
a. sperm
b. egg
c. testes
8. The female sex cell is the
a. egg
b. ovary
c. testis
d. sperm
9. The muscular passageway leading to the outside of the body in the
female reproductive system is the
a. uterus
b. vagina
c. cervix
d. fallopian tube
10. Sex organs develop rapidly during
a. infancy
b. childhood
c. puberty
d. adulthood

1.1. SEX CONCEPTS
Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females,

such as the genitalia and genetic differences. The differences between
male and female sexes are anatomical and physiological. “Sex” tends to
relate to biological differences.
When a baby begins to grow, the different parts of its body such as
the head, arms, legs and chest grow at different rates.
For about the first 12 years of its life goes through a phase of body
enlargement and mental development.
During this phase its reproductive organs develop at a slower rate.
At 12 years of age, body enlargement slows down and certain other
changes begin to appear. These changes prepare the body for sexual
reproduction. This phase is known as adolescence.
During this phase, certain parts of the body change in appearance
and the person also experiences new sensations such as extreme
happiness, sadness, anger, insecurity, and so on. All this is due to the
beginning of the secretion of hormones from the ovary and testis.
The age when this begins is called the age of sexual maturity
(puberty). It varies from person to person. It is marked by the growth of
thick hair in the armpits and pubic area. In males, facial hair begins to
grow.
The vocal cords become wide. Therefore, the voice begins to
deepen. The testes become active and begin to produce sperms. The
penis and scrotum become larger. In females, the menstrual cycle
begins and the breasts become enlarged.
These changes are slow and take place over six years or so. They
serve as signals identifiable by other individuals that sexual maturation
is taking place. From this period onwards, sexual reproduction becomes
a possibility as the body becomes capable of producing the specialized
germ cells that are needed for sexual reproduction. But childbearing and
lactation (milk secretion) need the female reproductive organs and
breasts to be fully developed.
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 Illustrate, identify and give the parts and functions of female and male
reproductive organs.
 Explain the process of human reproduction.
 Define and describe sexual health and hygiene.
 Enumerate risky behaviors and identify risk-taking activities

1.1.1. Anatomy and Physiology of Reproduction
Anatomy is the study of the structures of the human body, such

as the features of how the organs, tissues and body systems are
constructed. Physiology, on the other hand, is the study of the
coordinated functions of the organs, tissues and systems in the body.
In male and female anatomy, many bodily functions are similar.
The circulatory and digestive system, for example, function in much
the same ways in both male and female bodies. The biggest
differences between male and female anatomy are in the reproductive
system. The female sexual anatomy and its composite parts allow
women to become pregnant and bear children. While the reproductive
organs in the female anatomy perform their own specific functions,
they also work together as a highly complex, interrelated system.
Figure 1.1. Female Reproductive Organ
Source: everydayhealth.com
The female reproductive system includes the:
 Vagina – a muscular passage that connects the cervix with

the external genitals. It is the organ where the penis is
inserted during the intercourse for the discharge of
sperms. It is also the passage through which the fully
developed baby is born.
 Cervix – the lower part of the uterus that connects to the
vagina and consists of a ring of muscles.
 Uterus – a hollow, pear-shaped, elastic muscular structure

where the fertilized egg implants and fetus grows during
pregnancy. Its upper portion, into which the Fallopian
tubes enter, is broader. It opens into the vagina through

the cervix. A fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a bay
inside the uterus.
 Ovaries – These are 2 glands that produce eggs, as well
as the female hormones estrogen and progesterone.
At the time of birth, a female already has thousands
of immature ova in her ovaries. Many of these degenerate
during childhood. The ova start maturing when the female
reaches puberty.
Every 28 days, one of the ovaries releases an
ovum. When an ovum is released from the ovary, it is taken
up by a thin Fallopian tube (also called oviduct) through its
funnel-shaped opening. The ovum is passed down the
duct and into the uterus, which passes it out of the body
through the vagina.
 Fallopian tubes (also called oviduct) – 2 thin tubes that

connect the ovaries with the uterus. Each Fallopian tube
has a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary. It is lined by
cilia. The movement of the cilia helps conduct the ovum
down the Fallopian tube and into the uterus.
Watch this video https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-
physiology/pages/27-2-anatomy-and-physiology-of-the-female-
reproductive-system to observe ovulation and its initiation in response to
the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland. What specialized
structures help guide the oocyte from the ovary into the uterine tube?
Figure 1.2. Male Reproductive Organ
Source: vectorstock.com1855418
The male reproductive organ includes the:
 Testicles (or testes) – 2 oval-shaped organs that produce

and store millions of tiny sperm cells, as well as male
hormones, including testosterone. There are two oval

testes, each contained in a protective bag called scrotum
(or scrotal sac), lying outside the abdominal cavity.
 Epididymis – 2 coiled tubes that connect each testicle to
the vas deferens
 Scrotum (or scrotal sac) – a pouch of skin that hangs
outside the pelvis to hold and regulate the temperature of
the testicles. It can elongate and contract depending upon
the body temperature lower than normal body
temperature. This is necessary because sperm formation
occurs at a temperature lower than normal body
temperature. The testes produce sperms continuously
from the stage of puberty onwards.
 Vas Deferens – a muscular tube that transports sperm
from the testicles to the ejaculatory ducts. It runs interiorly
up to the urinary bladder, from where it leads downward
and is joined by a duct from the seminal vesicle.
 Seminal vesicles/gland and prostate gland – glands
that produce seminal fluid. It is an elongated sac at the
base of the urinary bladder. For each testis, there is one
vas deferens and one seminal vesicle are to store the
sperms that have come from the testis and to secrete
seminal fluid, or semen, in which the sperms float.
 Urethra – the tube that passes urine and semen out of the
body
 Penis – It is a muscular, tubular organ made up of loose
tissue with spaces in between. This is called erectile
tissue. On being stimulated, the erectile tissue fills with
blood, making the penis erect and firm, so that it may enter
the vagina of the female and discharge the sperms.
 Prostate Gland – The sperm ducts from both sides join
near the base of the urinary bladder, opening into a single
tube called urethra. This junction occurs inside the prostate
gland. The prostate gland adds its secretion to the seminal
fluid. The urethra leads to the outside of the body through
an organ called penis. It carries both urine and seminal
fluid.
Watch this video:

(https://medlineplus.gov/ency/anatomyvideos/000121.htm) to explore
the structures of the male reproductive system and the path of sperm,
which starts in the testes and ends as the sperm leave the penis
through the urethra. Where are sperm deposited after they leave
ejaculatory duct?

Exercise 1.1.1.
Draw the human anatomy of reproduction. Label each part and
give its functions.
1.1.2. The Process of Reproduction
Human reproduction is a complex and remarkable

process. Male and female reproductive system compliments one
another, and each is essential for reproduction.
Gamete Production
The process of reproduction in humans begins with
meiosis. In human meiosis, diploid cells with the usual 46
chromosomes divide into four haploid daughter cells, each
containing 23 chromosomes. Each of these daughter cells is
called a gamete. In males, this meiotic process is called
oogenesis, and the daughter cells are called ova. Males begin
spermatogenesis at puberty and continue throughout life. Healthy
young adult males produce hundreds of millions of sperm each
day. This number begins to decline by their mid-20s.
Unlike males, females begin to produce gametes before
they even are born. By the fifth month in womb, female fetuses
have begun oogenesis, but the process pauses after a phase
called prophase I, suspending the ova in the primary oocyte stage

until puberty. 99.9 % of a female’s ova remain in the primary
oocyte stage until they are eventually absorbed by the body.
Millions are absorbed by the time a fetus is born, and by puberty,
only 400,000 remain. For every ovulation, about 2,000 more ova
are absorbed.
Watch this video: youtube.com/watch?v=lH9loPdk_nQ

How do gametes produce?
Sexual Intercourse
The four stages of the human sexual response cycle occur
during partnered sex with people of any gender, as well as other
sexual stimulation activities. The first stage is excitement, the
beginning of arousal, in which blood flow increases and causes
engorgement in the genitals and nipples, accompanied by an
increase in heart rate, breathing rate, muscle tone and blood
pressure. Next is the plateau stage, which is brief, and which
involves an increase in arousal.
The third phase is orgasm, which involves waves of muscle
spasms and pleasure that last several seconds. During this
phase, the uterus has several contractions, and the penis has
contractions at its base, causing semen, the fluid containing
sperm, to ejaculate into the vagina. The last stage is resolution,
during which the body relaxes to its original state.
Fertilization
When semen is discharged in the vagina during sexual
intercourse, the sperms begin moving up the vagina and uterus,
finally reaching the Fallopian tubes. But only one sperm enters
the ovum. Most of the sperms die while climbing up the Fallopian
tubes. A sperm can remain alive in the Fallopian tube for about
12 hours. In this span of time, if it meets the ovum, it is likely to
enter the ovum. This is called fertilization.
Watch this video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5OvgQW6FG4 to see the
journey of sperms after sexual intercourse.
Implantation:
The fertilized egg (zygote) moves down the Fallopian tube
and continuously undergoes cell division. Thus it forms a hollow
ball of cells, called embryo. The embryo gets embedded in the
wall of the uterus, which is thick and has muscles, glands and a
large number of capillaries. This process is called implantation.
Watch this video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3zh22GTGsM to understand
more about implantation.
Pregnancy
GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 10 | P a g e

The developing embryo at first derives nourishment
directly from the mother’s blood flowing in the vessels limiting the
uterine wall. In about three weeks, its starts absorbing food and
oxygen through an organ called placenta. The placenta is a disc
like organ in the lining of the uterine wall.
It has numerous villi which are in direct contact with the
mother’s blood flowing in the uterine wall. These villi provide a
large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the embryo and for wastes produced by the embryo to
be passed into the mother’s blood. The embryo is connected to
the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord.
By eight weeks, the embryo starts showing human
features and is referred to as fetus. The total period of embryonic
development, from the time of fertilization of birth, is called
gestation period. It is around 280 days, or 9 months, in humans.
Watch this video to watch how fetus is developed week by week

from an embryo:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VktZZEeGdSs
Birth
The wall of the uterus develops a thick layer of muscles
during pregnancy. At the time of birth, the uterine muscles
contract rhythmically and powerfully, causing labor pains to the
mother. Finally, the baby is expelled by the contraction of the
uterine muscles. This is called birth or parturition.
Sexual Reproduction Model

Some reproduction does not require intercourse but is the
result of artificial insemination when a couple has fertility
problems or a single prospective parent or a same-sex couple
choose a sperm donor. Also, while male and female are simple
terms for the biological processes of reproduction in humans, this
language excludes the sexuality of transgender and intersex
people. For example, a cisgender man (a man whose gender
matches his birth sex) and a transgender man (a man who was
assigned female at birth) who has not undergone sex
reassignment surgery can have sexual intercourse with each
other, and the transgender man can become pregnant.

Exercise 1.1.2.
1. What evidence is there that humans are born with the urge to
reproduce?
2. Explain the process of human reproduction.
1.1.3. Sexual Health and Hygiene

WHO defines sexual health as a state of physical,
emotional, mental and social well-being in relation to sexuality; it
is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity.
Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to
sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of
having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion,
discrimination and violence. For sexual health to be attained and
maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected,
protected and fulfilled.
During a meeting held in Antigua, Guatemala in May 2000,
an expert group convened by the Pan American Health
Organization and WHO in collaboration with the World
Association for Sexology (WAS) compiled an overview of
sexual concerns and problems that should be addressed in
order to advance sexual health (PAHO/WHO 2000). Sexual
health concerns are life situations that can be addressed through
education about sexuality and society-wide actions in order to
promote the sexual health of individuals. The health sector has a
role to play in assessment, and in providing counselling and care.

Sexual Health Concerns
1. Sexual health concerns related to body integrity and to
sexual safety
 Need for health-promoting behaviors for early
identification of sexual problems (e.g. are regular
check-ups and health screening, breast and testicular
self-scans).
 Need for freedom from all forms of sexual coercion and
sexual violence (including rape, sexual abuse and
harassment).
 Need for freedom from body mutilations (e.g. female
genital mutilation).
 Need for freedom from contracting or transmitting STIs
(including HIV).
 Need for reduction of sexual consequences of physical
or mental disabilities.
 Need for reduction of impact on sexual life of medical
and surgical conditions or treatments.
2. Sexual health concerns related to eroticism
 Need for knowledge about the body, as related to
sexual response and pleasure.
 Need for recognition of the value of sexual pleasure
enjoyed throughout life in safe and responsible
manners within a values framework that is respectful of
the rights of others.
 Need for promotion of sexual relationships practiced in
safe and responsible manners.
 Need to foster the practice and enjoyment of
consensual, non-exploitative, honest, mutually
pleasurable relationships.
3. Sexual health concerns related to gender
 Need for gender equality.
 Need for freedom from all forms of discrimination based
on gender.
 Need for respect and acceptance of gender
differences.
4. Sexual health concerns related to sexual orientation
 Need for freedom from discrimination based on sexual
orientation.
 Need for freedom to express sexual orientation in safe
and responsible manners within the values framework
that is respectful of the rights of others.
5. Sexual health concerns related to emotional attachment
 Need for freedom from exploitative, coercive, violent or
manipulative relationships.
 Need for information regarding choices or family
options and lifestyles.

Need for skills, such as decision-making,
communication, assertiveness and negotiation, that
enhance personal relationships.
 Need for respectful and responsible expression of love
and divorce.
6. Sexual health concerns related to reproduction
 Need to make informed and responsible choices about
reproduction.
 Need to make responsible decisions and practices
regarding reproductive behavior regardless of age, sex
and marital status.
 Access to reproductive health care.
 Access to safe motherhood.
 Prevention of and care for infertility.
Sexual Health Problems
 Sexual health problems are the result of condition, either

in an individual, a relationship or a society, that require
specific action for their identification, prevention and
treatment.
 The expert working group of PAHO/WHO proposed a
syndromic approach to classification that makes problems
easier to identify by both health workers and the general
public, and easier to report for epidemiological
considerations.
 All of these sexual health problems can be identified by
primary health workers. Some can be addressed by
trained health workers at a primary level, but for others
referral to a specialist is necessary.
 Clinical syndromes that impair sexual functioning (sexual
dysfunction) such as sexual aversion, dysfunction sexual
arousal and vaginismus in females, and erectile
dysfunction and premature ejaculation in males.
 Clinical syndromes related to impairment of emotional
attachment or love (paraphilias) such as exhibitionism,
paedophilia, sadism and voyeurism.
 Clinical syndromes related to compulsive sexual behavior
such as compulsive sexual behavior in a relationship.
 Clinical syndromes involving gender identity conflict such
as adolescent gender dysphoria.
 Clinical syndromes related to violence and victimization
such as clinical syndromes after being sexually abused as
a child (including post-traumatic stress disorder); clinical
syndromes after being sexually harassed; clinical
syndromes after being violated or raped; clinical phobia
focused on sexuality; patterns of unsafe sexual behavior

placing self and/or others at risk for HIV infection or/and
other STIs.
 Clinical syndromes related to reproduction such as sterility,
infertility, unwanted pregnancy, abortion complications.
 Clinical syndromes related to reproduction such as genital
ulcers, urethral, vaginal or rectal discharge, lower
abdominal pain in women, asymptomatic STIs.
 Clinical syndromes related to other conditions such as
clinical syndromes secondary to disability or infirmity,
secondary to mental or physical illness, secondary to
medication.
Hygiene is a series of practices performed to

preserve health. According to the World Organization (WHO)
"Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain
health and prevent the spread of diseases." Personal
hygiene refers to maintaining the body's cleanliness.
Problems and Strategies

According to WHO reports, out of global burden of ill
health, reproductive and sexual ill-health accounts for 20% for
women and 14% for men.
 Family Planning
The program of family planning was initiated in 1951 to
achieve total reproductive health.
 Maternal Health
Early child bearing can have health risk for women and
their infants. A girl before 18 years of age is not matured with
respect to her reproductive system to bear a child. At least two
years’ gap is necessary before going for the second issue.
 Proper Medical Care
The WHO estimates that each year 358000 Women die
due to complications related to pregnancy and childbirth. 99%
of these deaths occur in poorest countries of the world. Most
of these deaths can be avoided with improving women’s
access to quality care from skilled medical professionals
before, during and after pregnancy and child birth.
 Awareness
Audio-visual and print media, government and non-
government agencies are creating awareness among people
about reproductive health. Parents, close relatives, friends
and teachers also have a major role in giving this information.
 Sex education
Sex education should be introduced and encouraged in
schools to provide right information about myths and
misconceptions about sex related issues.
 Access to reproductive and sexual healthy
Family planning counselling, pre-natal care, safe delivery,
post-natal care, appropriate treatment of infertility, prevention

of abortion, treatment of sexually transmitted diseases,
responsible parenthood, services against HIV/ AIDS, breast
cancer should be made available.
 Birth control devices
Fertile couples and people of active sex life should know
about available birth control devices.
 Prevention of sex abuse and sex related crime
These are social evils which can be controlled by proper
law and order as well as public awareness. This will build up
a reproductively healthy society.
 Misuse of Amniocentesis
Amniocentesis is a method of sex determination of fetus.
Chromosomal study of amniotic fluid cells can determine the
sex of the fetus and also to identify any abnormality in number
of chromosomes to detect any serious incurable congenital
defect so that the fetus may be aborted. But, this technique is
being used to kill normal female fetus. It is legally banned to
avoid female feticide.
Exercise 1.1.3.
Give the health concern/s in which the following personal care items addresses:
Item Addresses Health Concern
Soap
Cotton Underwear
Athletic Clothes/Shoes
Facewash
Face Powder
Deodorant
Comb

1.1.4. Risky Behaviors of Adolescence
Teens engaging in risky behavior is nothing new. Teens
have a reputation for being wild. Psychological and physiological
changes in the adolescent body and brain contribute to risk-taking
behavior.
Glorified by the media in numerous novels and films, teen
risky behavior is scary in real life.
The Top Five Risky Behavior

What exactly are risky behavior examples? There’s a wide
range of behavior patterns that can be classified as risky. In
general, however, risky behavior in teens can be broken down into
roughly five categories.
a. Behavior that may lead to violence or injury: This category
includes being in a fight, bullying or being bullied, carrying a
weapon, self-harm, and considering or attempting suicide.
b. Unsafe sexual behavior: This category includes having
intercourse before the age of 13, not using protection during
intercourse, not being tested for HIV or other sexually
transmitted diseases. It also includes drinking alcohol or using
drugs during or before intercourse.
c. Alcohol, substance, and tobacco use: This category
includes drinking alcohol in any amount, binge drinking, and
using prescription or illegal drugs, as well as smoking
cigarettes or using chewing tobacco.
d. Unsafe driving or riding: This category includes driving while
texting or e-mailing, driving after drinking or using drugs, or not
wearing a seatbelt. Furthermore, it includes riding in a car with
a driver who has been drinking or using drugs. It also includes
riding a bike after drinking or using drugs, and riding a bike
without a helmet.
e. Poor self-care: This category includes unhealthy eating, not
sleeping enough, inadequate physical activity, and excessive
social media and screen time.
Why adolescents take risks?
When it comes to risky behavior, adolescence is the perfect
storm. There are many reasons why teens are drawn to risk-taking
behaviors. In addition, peer pressure can be a factor. External
stresses can push teens toward these behaviors to let off steam.
Therefore, taking risks can be a misguided way for teens to strike
out on their own and feel independent.
But teen risk behaviors are also a result of physiological
changes that impact the brain and the nervous system. In an
essay on teen risk behaviors written for Slate magazine, Alan E.
Kazdin, former president of the American Psychological
Association, and Carlo Rotella, director of American studies at
Boston College, put it like this: “About the time of the onset of
puberty, changes in brain structure and function, hormones, and

neurotransmitters work together to increase the desire to seek out
rewarding experiences, especially the sensation afforded by novel
and risky behavior.”
Positive Risk-Taking: Finding Healthy Challenges

Risk-taking is not always a bad thing. In fact, a certain level
of safe, positive risk-taking is essential for teens to develop their
sense of self and gain self-esteem. Healthy risk-taking activities
include the following:
 Playing sports
 Outdoor adventures
 Performing on stage
 Volunteering in an unknown situation
 Reaching out to make new friends
Quiz:
1. Illustrate the female and male reproductive organs.
2. Label each parts and give its functions.
3. Explain the process of human reproduction.
4. Define and describe sexual health.
5. Enumerate risky behaviors and identify risk-taking activities

SUMMARY
 The term sex denotes biological characteristics and physiological

processes
 Sex is expressed along a continuum of female, male, and other
characteristics
 Sex matters in health.
 The male reproductive system consists of external organs. The testes
in the scrotum produce the male gamete, sperm, which is ejaculated in
seminal fluid by the penis.
 The female reproductive system primarily consists of internal organs.
The female gamete, ovum, is produced in the ovaries and is released
monthly to travel to the uterus via the Fallopian tubes.
 Fertilization can occur if the penis is inserted through the vulva into the
vagina and sperm is ejaculated towards the cervix. If an ovum is
currently in the uterus, it can then be fertilized by sperm that manage to
enter the cervix.
 Once fertilized, an ovum becomes a zygote and if all goes well,
develops into a fetus in the uterus.
 Natural birth occurs when the fetus is pushed from the vagina after nine
months in the uterus.

Suggested Readings:
Cairo Programme of Action of the United Nations International Conference on
Population and Development (ICPD), 1994, paragraph 7.2.
Dept of Child and Adolescent Health Development (2000), “Meeting an Urgent and
Unmet Need: Making Reproductive Health Services Available and Accessible
to Forcibly Displaced Young People.” Geneva, World Health Organization.
Marieb EN. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 2nd ed. Redwood City, CA: The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc;1992.
Resources:
Nat Neurosci. 2010 Jun; 13(6): 669–671.
Nature Communications, 13822 (2016).
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016 Apr 5; 113(14): 3755–3760.
Winchester Hospital (2007). Reproductive Anatomy anf
Physiologyhttps://www.winchesterhospital.org/health-library/article?id=100943
https://www.everydayhealth.com/sexual-health/female-reproductive-organs.aspx
https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/illustration-showing-male-reproductive-
system-145028440
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https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/27-1-anatomy-and-
physiology-of-the-male-reproductive-system
https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/27-2-anatomy-and-
physiology-of-the-female-reproductive-system
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/meiosis/
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thGradeScience.HIV.AIDS/Chapter%2013.pdf
http://www2.mbusd.org/staff/pware/notes/HumanReprodNotes.pdf
https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/lebo103.pdf
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https://www.biologydiscussion.com/essay/reproductive-health-in-human-problems-
and-strategies/5167
https://www.unhcr.org/3bb822174.pdf
https://www.newportacademy.com/resources/mental-health/truth-about-teens-risky-
behavior/
https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/reproduction-in-animals/sexual-reproduction/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-
gender-and-sexuality/
biologydiscussion.com/essay/human-reproductive-system-male-and-female-
reproductive-system-with-diagrams/1584
https://sciencing.com/stages-human-reproduction-8261768.html
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/essay/human-reproductive-system-male-and-
female-reproductive-system-with-diagrams/1584
https://sciencing.com/stages-human-reproduction-8261768.html
www.youtube.com/watch?v=lH9loPdk_nQ
https://sbccimplementationkits.org/gender/key-gender-concepts/
https://gender.jhpiego.org/analysistoolkit/gender-concepts-and-definitions/
https://www.who.int/sexual-and-reproductive-health/sexual-health-issues

1.2. GENDER CONCEPTS
1.2.1. Masculinity and Femininity Across Cultures

This dimension focuses on how extent to which a society stress
achievement or nurture. Masculinity is seen to be the trait which
emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender
roles. Femininity is seen to be the trait which stress caring and nurturing
behaviors, sexuality equality, environmental awareness, and more fluid
gender roles.
When you finish reading this lesson, you should be able to:
 Be able to define characteristics of masculinity and femininity.
 Understand how differences in norms of masculinity and
femininity result in differential outcomes for men and women
across the life span.
Discussion:
Hoftstede’s definitions:
“Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are

clearly distinct: Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused
on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender,
and concerned with the quality of life.”
“Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles

overlap: Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and
concerned with the quality of life.”

Table 1.1. Traits of Masculinity / Femininity
Low Masculine
High Masculine
(Feminine)
social norms ego oriented relationship oriented
money and things are quality of life and people
important are important
live in order to work work in order to live
politics and economic growth high environment protection
economics priority high priority
conflict solved through conflict solved through
force negotiation
religion most important in life less important in life
both men and women
only men can be priests
as priests
smaller gender wage
work larger gender wage gap
gap
fewer women in more women in
management management
preference for fewer
preference for higher pay
working hours
family and traditional family
flexible family structure
school structure
girls cry, boys don’t; boys both boys and girls cry;
fight, girls don’t neither fight
failing is a disaster failing a minor accident
Exercise 1.2.1.A
Identify if it is a masculine or feminine feature
Key Features Masculine Feminine
1. Importance of challenge and recognition at work
2. Importance of cooperation at work
3. Higher your job stress
4. Centrality of work in life
5. Lower job stress
6. Centrality of relationships in life
7. Values of mastery, ambition, independence
8. Values of well- being, service
9. Children taught to fight back
10. Children taught to avoid aggression
11. Importance of money and things
12. Importance of quality of life

Masculine & Feminine Cultures
Geert Hoftstede, a social psychologist, was one of the first people to define
cultures by gendered traits. His theory says that cultures can be categorized by gender
based on how they stress the balance between individual achievement and social
nurturing. Moreover, Hofstede says that people within societies often take on gender
roles that are prescribed by whether a society is masculine or feminine.
According to Hofstede, a masculine culture or masculine society is one that
stresses different expectations for men and women. In a masculine culture, men are
expected to be assertive, competitive, and focused on material success. Women are
expected to be nurturing and focused on people and quality of life. In contrast,
Hofstede says a feminine culture or feminine society is one where gender roles are
more fluid. Both men and women are expected to be nurturing and focused on people
and quality of life.
It's important to note that Hofstede's descriptions of these cultural types are
based on gender stereotypes. That doesn't mean that every woman is nurturing and
thinking about how to live a fulfilling life or that every man is out to make the most
money possible. It just means that those are the stereotypes. Even within so-called
masculine cultures, which stress the stereotypical gender roles, there are women who
are more focused on competition and achievement and men who are focused on
nurturing people. Of course, there are also people of both sexes that are focused on
both achievement and also enjoying time with the people around them.
Exercise 1.2.1.B
Identify each sentence as “masculine,” “relatively gender-neutral,” or “feminine.”
Which features of “masculine style” and/or “feminine style” are featured in each?
1. That jacket is kind of big on you, isn’t it?
2. Need some help with that?
3. I just love Colorado — it’s absolutely gorgeous!
4. Oh, shoot, I don’t know if you remember, but today is Mary’s birthday.
5. That guy’s a dick.
6. My Mom makes awesome lasagna!
7. Gotta run. Later, dude!
8. How was the concert last night?
9. I’m so sorry, I couldn’t quite hear you just then. What did you say?
10. You gotta be fuckin’ kiddin’ me!

Cultural Dimension Masculinity – Femininity
The cultural dimension Masculinity – Femininity says something about the
expected behavior of men and women in any given society.
To simplify it: in high scoring cultures, there seems to be relatively little role overlap;
men are supposed to provide for their families, be the head of the family and do
manly tasks like taking the garbage out.
While in more feminine societies, there is more role overlap; here it is OK if a woman
earns more than a man and the “stay at home dad” is more accepted than in masculine
societies.
So when it comes to culture and gender this would be the closest link to gender
differences and gender roles in society.
Take a look at the image below. This picture was taken during one of my trips to
the Middle-East. A sign like that would be impossible in a feminine country like
Sweden, for instance.
What are the Gender Differences Within one Culture?

In any country in the world, you will find so called Intra-cultural differences;
differences within one country, say the American East coast and the American West
coast. Or the differences between the North and the South of Spain.
Differences within one country are called Intra-cultural differences; example
a conversation between two American citizens who both grew up on the farms of
Georgia would be intracultural because they will essentially have the same
background and cultural orientations.
Differences between countries are called Inter-cultural differences; example
a conversation between a man who grew up in Nepal and a woman who grew up in
Micronesia would probably be an intercultural conversation because we could study
how the different cultural backgrounds of the two people affect their communication
strategies towards each other.
There are definitely differences in gender roles within one country. In other
words, American women will be less masculine than their male countrymen.
The same will be true for the most feminine country in the world, Sweden; also
there will the men be more masculine than the women.

Figure 1.3. Gender in the Language of Social Media
A clear example is the following “Word Cloud“ that illustrate the use of words in
Social Media of English speaking men and women.
What you can clearly see is that English-speaking men use more forceful language
than English-speaking women.
However, when you compare English-speaking women with Swedish women, you will
still see that there is a big significant difference is between those two countries/groups
when you look at the scores of these countries on this masculinity and femininity
dimension.
Examples of Masculinity Countries
 Japan (highest scoring country in the world!)

 USA (not surprisingly maybe)
 The UK
 Italy
 Nigeria
Examples of Feminine Countries
 The Netherlands
 Nordic Countries
 Iceland
 Chile
 Thailand

Individualism vs. Collectivism
The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which
societies are integrated into groups and their perceived obligations and dependence
on groups.
 Individualism indicates that there is a greater importance place on attaining

personal goals. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as Ï”.
 Collectivism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on the goals
and well-being of the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined
as “We”.
Our society has a set of ideas about how we expect men and women to dress,
behave, and present themselves.
Activity 1.2.1
Group yourselves. Ask a group, do the following:

Discuss among the group how being a feminine and masculine is defined by our
society using the variables below. Give 5 examples each.
Feminine Masculine
Roles (Tungkulin)
Characteristics
(Katangian)
Attitudes (Saloobin)

Behaviors (Kilos)
Expectations
(Inaasahan)
Values (Kaugalian)
Present output in class
Assessment:
Based on our discussions, give an example in each category below.
Individualism Collectivism
Features
Characteristics
Advantages and
Disadvantages

Summary
Masculine cultures possess the following characteristics:

 Clearly distinct gender roles;
Benevolence has little or no significance;
Men are expected to be tough and assertive with a concentration on material
achievements;
Much value is associated with mastery of people, nature, job, and the like;
Sense of humor, intelligence, affection, personality is considered preferred
characteristic traits of a boyfriend by the women;
Understanding, wealth, and health are considered desirable characteristic
traits of a husband by the women.
Feminine cultures possess the following characteristics:

 Overlapping of social gender roles;
 Men, as well as women, are expected to be tender, modest, with focus on the
quality of life;
 Emphasis on the non-materialistic angles of success;
 The preferred traits in boyfriends and husbands are the same.
Suggested Readings:
E.P. Peralta, N.J. Botor, T.M Laude., 2019.,A Course Module for Gender and
Society: A Human Ecological Approach.
References and Additional Resources:
https://www.cleverism.com/understanding-cultures-people-hofstede-dimensions/
https://culturematters.com/culture-and-gender-roles-in-society/
https://quizlet.com/65745540/key-features-of-masculine-and-feminine-cultures-flash-
cards/#_=_
Gender Roles in Society: Definition & Overview. (2015, December 23). Retrieved
from https://study.com/academy/lesson/gender-roles-in-society-definition-lesson-
quiz.html.
Source: https://socialcommunication.truman.edu/identities/gender/gender-exercises/

1.2.2. Gender Roles and Gender Division of Labor
Introduction:
Gender roles in society means how we’re expected to act, speak, dress, groom,
and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. For example, girls and women
are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite,
accommodating, and nurturing. Men are generally expected to be strong, aggressive,
and bold.
Intended Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this lesson, you should:

 Have a critical understanding about gender roles
 Have a critical understanding about the different roles in our society.
Quick Quiz
The following table includes 20 statements about gender roles and
responsibilities. Please mark an X in the box that most closely reflects your own
opinion (and not what you believe that society thinks), marking only one box per
question. Please read the order of options offered carefully. And remember, there are
no right or wrong answers. This is all about what you believe.

Discussion:
My father loves to watch old, black-and-white movies. You know the kind...the
woman is at home making a pot roast, and the husband returns from work briefcase
in hand. He kisses her and asks her what they are having for dinner, and she asks him
how his day was. A child comes into the kitchen to ask mommy when dinner will be
finished.
Old movies and television shows had a certain way of portraying the family,
particularly men and women. The man was the strong, breadwinner of the family, while
the wife lovingly took care of the children and household duties. And that wasn't just
what happened on TV.
Even life operated that way for many families. My father, for example, worked
hard at being the primary breadwinner of the family and expected my mother to take
care of me at home. These behaviors of men and women that are considered socially
appropriate are called gender roles.
Every society, ethnic group, and culture has gender role expectations, but they
can be very different from group to group. They can also change in the same society
over time. For example, pink used to be considered a masculine color in the U.S. while
blue was considered feminine.
Traditional Gender Roles

Traditional gender roles are those behaviors seen from men and women in
those old movies. While there are many differences today, these patterns of behavior

have left an indelible impact on society and our thoughts about men and women. Here
is a general recap of the typical views and expectations of men and women in the early
and mid-20th century.
As mentioned earlier, men were considered responsible for taking care of the
family financially. They took their jobs as sole providers very seriously. They also had
the responsibility for guiding the family. While they may listen to what their wives had
to say, they made the final decisions. Men did not do household duties or childcare.
They felt the need to be strong and refrained from showing too much emotion or
sharing too many personal feelings, especially with those outside of the family.
Women were expected to be in charge of running the household. Mothers did
the laundry, cooked the meals, and cleaned the rooms. They also took care of the
children, giving them the care and attention that was required.
The wealthier families might hire a nanny, and childcare became more widely
used in the later 20th century. But the women were often in charge of directing the
nannies and dropping off or picking up from daycare. Women were seen as more
emotional than men, more likely and more encouraged to open up about their feelings.
How Roles Are Learned

Gender roles are passed on through generations. From the age of three, children
are able to start becoming aware of the differences between girls and boys based on
the actions of the parents and the nature of their environment.
 Lucy may continually be dressed in pink, purple, and flowery outfits while her
brother, Jack, is given blue and gray ones.
 When Lucy is at kindergarten and picks up a truck to play with, her teacher may
say, 'That's for boys. I'll go get you a girl toy.'
As the children grow a few years, they start learning what behavior is appropriate and
expected.
 Lucy notices her mother cooks for the family, so she pretends to cook for her
dolls.
 Jack gets a toy lawn mower to use in the den, so he can be like his daddy.
The behavior is reinforced when the parents praise or reward their children for their
actions. They can also be punished and challenged to change, if it's considered
inappropriate.
 When Lucy pretends to cook, her mother may tell her, 'That's great Lucy, one
day you will be a great cook for your family.'
 Conversely, when Lucy takes a toy from Jack and he starts crying, his father
may tell him, 'Now, Jack, stop that. Boys don't cry.'
Children are also encouraged to serve different roles in their interactions with the
outside world. Boys are often encouraged to exert themselves in physical activity, and
girls are typically given more attention to how they look and present themselves.

Exercise 1.2.2.A
You must guess the gender of several people, basing on your judgment purely
on information supplied: occupation, relationship status, hobbies, tastes, and
interests.
1. Architect, thirty-two years old, married with two children. Likes skiing and
skating, spends occasional weekends in Vermont. Reads extensively about
UFO abductions and psychic phenomena.
2. College student, a twenty-three-year-old senior majoring in philosophy and
planning to go to law school. Gay, involved in an ongoing relationship. Is on
the college debate team, likes dancing and old movies, and works out at the
gym.
3. Sixty-eight-year-old elementary school English teacher, retired, married with
three children and five grandchildren. Likes gardening, Shakespeare, and
Broadway musicals. Favorite musical is Rent.
4. Fifty-one-year-old real estate agent, divorced with one child. Heterosexual,
actively dating but no steady relationship. Likes to travel; goes to Mexico or
the Caribbean every year. Favorite TV show is CSI: Miami.
5. High school basketball coach, age twenty-six. Married, no children. Played
basketball in high school and college, majored in physical education. Also likes
to play the piano and paint.
6. Eight years old and in the third grade. Wants to be an archaeologist. Takes
Spanish lessons on weekends. Favorite TV show is Fairly Odd parents.
7. College student, age twenty, majoring in chemistry. Plans to become a doctor.
Heterosexual, involved in an ongoing relationship. Favorite movie is The
Wedding Date.
8. Accountant, age thirty-four. Heterosexual, no steady relationship. Likes
hunting, fishing, and rock climbing. Likes science fiction movies.
9. Auto mechanic, age twenty-two. Heterosexual, no steady relationship. Was
on the track team in high school. Favorite movie is Gone with the Wind.
10. Eighteen-year-old college student, psychology major, plans to become a
psychologist. Gay, not sexually active. Doesn’t smoke or drink. Favorite TV
show is The Real World

Gender Division of Labor
This refers to how work is organized in a community, how it is divided among

women and men through gender soc0ialisation within the culture they live in.
Understanding how labor is organized by gender in a given community provides us
with an insight into how a community assigns tasks, responsibilities and activities.
Since our aim is to ensure equal opportunities for women and men, it is vital to pay
attention to gendered labor division. Gender division of labor identifies three main
gender roles assumed by women and men, to varying degrees. But what are gender
roles?
Gender roles: Society ascribes activities to men and women based on

perceived differences that are maintained through gender division of labor. These
roles are assigned early in life “through identification with specific characteristics
associated with being male or female.”
The three types of labor or gender roles as broken down by gender based
analysis are:

Exercise 1.2.2.B
Give an example of a role on each row how they help you or the community to
fight the CoVid 19
Productive Role Reproductive Role Community Role
Self-Evaluation:
a. From the roles you stated above, Are all gender involved in this role? YES
or NO and Why?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
b. Do you think is there a gender difference in every role? Why?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________
In many cultures across the world, women and girls assume all three roles,
which puts a great strain on their time. Men are rarely if ever involved in reproductive
roles. Women and girls are not paid for the work they do at the household and
community levels. Their productive work is also valued less than men’s, bringing them
less income and visibility.
A central aspect of gender relations within families is the division of labor over
domestic tasks. In what has come to be known as the “traditional Filipino family”, the
wife was a full-time homemaker, particularly when there were children living in the
family, and the husband was the breadwinner. As a full-time homemaker, the
wife/mother did virtually all of the housework

Gender Analysis
It is a systematic analytical process used to identify, understand, and describe

gender differences and the relevance of gender roles and power dynamics in a specific
context. In general, it is a basis of all tools of gender mainstreaming.
Gender analysis helps to understand the relationships between men and

women. Assessing the relationship makes it possible to determine men’s and women’s
constraints and opportunities within the farming system. The analysis answers the
following questions:
 Division of labor: who within the household carries out which agricultural tasks
(What do men and women do?)
 Who has access to and control over resources and services?
 How resources distribute and who makes the decisions (what decisions do
men and women make in the family/community)?
 What are the reasons behind these differences in gender?
Why gender analysis is done?
 To better understand the opportunities/problems in the community and plan

interventions which are beneficial to both women and men.
 To expose the barriers to women’s full participation and economic

development.
 To make decisions & implement the project/program that promotes gender

equity.
 It helps to find the best strategies and solutions to address the different needs
and dynamics of men and women living in poverty.
Gender analysis can be done using:
 Formal interviews and surveys, mapping
 Household interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs)
One of the approaches to conduct gender analysis is using household

interview. By conducting a household interview a lot of information
(qualitative/quantitative) can be obtained that can give better understanding about the
issue. For example, in semi structured interviews general questions or topics are
initially identified and become basis for more specific questions during the interview
allowing both the interviewer and the person being interviewed discuss on the issues.
The other approach is focus group discussion. In this case small groups (usually 5-10
people) are formed for an open discussion assisted by a facilitator/moderator. Unlike

individual interviews focus group discussion provides an added dimension of the
interactions among members.
Activity 1.2.2
Group Yourselves.
Activity Profile: Observe the members of your family and your community, put a
check in the box if the tasks given was performed dominantly by men or women.
Activities/ Who does the work?
Women Men
Household Tasks
 Cleaning
 Fetching Firewood
 Fetching water
 Preparing food
 Taken care of the children
 Washing the clothes
Productive Activities
 Cultivation and maintenance
 Harvesting
 Teaching
 Taking minutes in a meeting
 Designing a house
 Catering the food
Compare, tally, summarize and give some explanation about your answer.

Assessment:
Find a partner and fill in the information in the table below by putting a check.
Make a discussion with your partner and answer the evaluation.
Work/ Job Man (does Woman Man (does Women (does
this at (does this at this outside) this outside)
home) home)
Tailor
Cook
Driver
Washing the
clothes
Waiter
Househelp
(maid)
Washing
clothes
(laundry)
Evaluation: Write your answers to the following questions in the spaces below.
a. Why it is that household- related work is done by women and the

same work when done outside the house is performed by men?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
___________________________
b. Does being born as a boy or girl decide the type of work an individual
does when she/he grows up? Why?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
___________________________

Summary:
Gender roles are learned behaviours in a given society/community that condition
which activities, tasks and responsibilities are perceived as male and female.
Productive roles include all tasks which contribute to the income and economic
welfare of the household and community.
Reproductive activities are those activities carried out to reproduce and care for
the household.
Community roles are those activities undertaken at the community level to meet
the communities’ basic needs.
Gender analysis It is a systematic analytical process used to identify, understand,

and describe gender differences and the relevance of gender roles and power
dynamics in a specific context.
Suggested Readings:
References/ Additional Resources
http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/1740/2015_COL_Gender-Bias-
Quiz.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y
https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/savvy/teaching/resources/TRAILS/Gender
%20Identification%20Exercise.pdf
https://agriprofocus.com/upload/CASCAPE_Manual_Gender_Analysis_Tools_FINAL
1456840468.pdf

1.2.3. Theories of Inequality
Introduction:
Social inequality results from a society organized by hierarchies of class, race,

and gender that unequally distributes access to resources and rights.
It can manifest in a variety of ways, like income and wealth inequality, unequal
access to education and cultural resources, and differential treatment by the police
and judicial system, among others. Social inequality goes hand in hand with social
stratification.
By the end of this chapter you should:

 be aware of a wide range of sociological theories of inequality;
 have a critical understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each
approach;
Discussion
Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and

rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains
structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth,
opportunities, rewards, and punishments.
Racism, for example, is understood to be a phenomenon whereby access to

rights and resources is unfairly distributed across racial lines. In the context of the
United States, people of color typically experience racism, which benefits white people
by conferring on them white privilege, which allows them greater access to rights and
resources than other Americans.
There are two main ways to measure social inequality:
 Inequality of conditions
 Inequality of opportunities
Inequality of conditions refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth, and

material goods. Housing, for example, is inequality of conditions with the homeless
and those living in housing projects sitting at the bottom of the hierarchy while those
living in multi-million dollar mansions sit at the top.
Another example is at the level of whole communities, where some are poor,
unstable, and plagued by violence, while others are invested in by businesses and
government so that they thrive and provide safe, secure, and happy conditions for their
inhabitants.
Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of life chances

across individuals. This is reflected in measures such as level of education, health
status, and treatment by the criminal justice system.

For example, studies have shown that college and university professors are more
likely to ignore emails from women and people of color than they are to ignore those
from white men, which privileges the educational outcomes of white men by
channeling a biased amount of mentoring and educational resources to them.
Discrimination of an individual, community, and institutional levels is a major part

of the process of reproducing social inequalities of race, class, gender, and sexuality.
For example, women are systematically paid less than men for doing the same work.
Exercise 1.2.3.A
Think about the inequality of men and women in terms of conditions and opportunity.
Men Women
Inequality of
Conditions
Inequality of
Opportunity

Self-Evaluation
a. From your answer above, which is more difficult to think about their
inequality of conditions and opportunity? Why?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
____________________________________
Activity 1.2.3.
Group Yourselves. As a group answer the following.
Search the proposed “Same Sex Marriage” legislations in the Internet.

Examine all its provisions and answer the following:
a. Can these legislations, if passed, eliminate gender inequality in marital

laws? Give your reasons in the spaces provided.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
___________________________
b. Can these legislations, if passed, eliminate gender inequality present in

personal laws mentioned? Give your reasons in the spaces provided.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
___________________________
c. If you will be given a chance to become legislators, propose a sentence

to be included in this time “Same Sex Marriage” legislation? Write your
sentence below.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
___________________________
Present the output in the class.

2 Main Theories
There are two main views of social inequality within sociology. One view aligns with
the functionalist theory, and the other aligns with conflict theory.
1. Functionalist theorists
Functionalism views the society as a system that is created of different

parts. Each part has a specific function in the society.
Let us simplify this. In the society, there are social institutions such as
education, religion, family, economy and the political institution. Each institution
has a specific function that contributes to the society or else the system. If one
becomes dysfunctional, this not only affects that institution but also the very
social system as well. This is why some functionalists compare the society to
the human body.
Functionalists such as Talcott Parsons specifically emphasize the

importance of social order. In every society, it is important to maintain the status
quo so that the society can function effectively. When this social order is not
maintained, it results in a condition of conflict and disarray in the society. This
can occur due to the issues that arise within a particular institution or a number
of institutions. For example, in times of social revolutions, the social equilibrium
or social order is lost.
2. Conflict theorists,
The conflict theory highlights that various groups within the society have
different interests that can lead to conflict. There are many branches of conflict
theory of which Marxism holds a unique position. Marxism highlights the
significance of the economic factor. According to Karl Marx, conflicts in society
arise due to inequalities among different social classes.
Another interpretation of conflict theory stems from Max Weber, who

highlights that other than the economy, factors such as power and status are
also important. As you can see both functionalism and conflict theory presents
a point of view in approaching the society. However, there is a difference
between the two perspectives. This can be summarized as follows.

What is the Difference between Functionalism and Conflict Theory?
Table 1.2. Difference between Functionalism and Conflict Theory

FUNCTIONALISM THEORY CONFLICT THEORY
Definitions In functionalism, the society is Conflict theory comprehends
understood as a system the society through the social
consisting of different conflicts that arise due to the
subsections that have specific inequality that prevail among
functions. different social classes.
Characteristics The society is viewed as a The society is viewed as a

system that consists of struggle between different
different parts. classes due to inequality.
Approach: Uses a macro approach Also uses a macro approach.
Emphasis: Stresses cooperation. Stresses competition.
How It's Studied
Sociologically, social inequality can be studied as a social problem that

encompasses three dimensions: structural conditions, ideological supports, and
social reforms.
Structural conditions include things that can be objectively measured and that
contribute to social inequality. Sociologists study how things like educational
attainment, wealth, poverty, occupations, and power lead to social inequality between
individuals and groups of people.
Ideological supports include ideas and assumptions that support the social
inequality present in a society. Sociologists examine how things such as formal laws,
public policies, and dominant values both lead to social inequality, and help sustain it.
For example, consider this discussion of the role that words and the ideas attached to
them play in this process.
Social reforms are things such as organized resistance, protest groups, and
social movements. Sociologists study how these social reforms help shape or change
social inequality that exists in a society, as well as their origins, impact, and long-term
effects.
Assessment:
 Give a situation where functionalist and conflict theorist is present. Why?
 How a structural conditions leads to social inequality give an example and why?

Summary
Inequality of conditions refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth, and
material goods.
Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of life chances
across individuals.
Functionalism views the society as a system that is created of different
parts.
The conflict theory highlights that various groups within the society have
different interests that can lead to conflict.
Structural conditions include things that can be objectively measured and that
contribute to social inequality
Ideological supports include ideas and assumptions that support the social
inequality present in a society.
Social reforms are things such as organized resistance, protest groups, and
social movements.
Suggested Readings:
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-functionalism-and-vs-
conflict-theory/.,2015
Crossman, Ashley. (2020, August 28). The Sociology of Social Inequality. Retrieved
from https://www.thoughtco.com/sociology-of-social-inequality-3026287
Suggested Readings
Marieb EN. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 2nd ed. Redwood City, CA: The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc;1992.
Cairo Programme of Action of the United Nations International Conference on
Population and Development (ICPD), 1994, paragraph 7.2.
Dept of Child and Adolescent Health Development (2000), “Meeting an Urgent and
Unmet Need: Making Reproductive Health Services Available and Accessible
to Forcibly Displaced Young People.” Geneva, World Health Organisation.

1.2.4. Stereotyping & Discrimination
Introduction:
What happens when we have preconceived perceptions of people who are

different than we are? In this lesson, we'll talk about the related processes of
stereotyping and discrimination, including the differences between them and the
negative consequences of both.
Intended Learning Outcome:
By the end of this chapter you should:
 Differentiate stereotype, prejudice and discrimination and

 Understand the manifestations of stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination on
gender.
Discussion:
Differences and Society

What makes people different? Do we celebrate diversity? Or is it something that
can cause us discomfort? What kinds of things do we believe about groups of people
who are different from us? In this lesson, we'll talk about the related processes of
stereotyping and discrimination. We'll talk about how they are different and we'll also
discuss the consequences for groups who are subject to stereotyping and
discrimination. First, we should talk about some definitions.
Stereotyping
Stereotyping happens when we attribute a certain trait or characteristic to an
entire group of people. It's really a process of categorizing people in broad ways,
based on things that are not usually true.
 You've probably heard many common stereotypes, such as the kinds of foods
a certain group likes to eat, the way a certain group looks or speaks, or the fact
that certain groups of people are bad drivers.
 Stereotypes can be either positive or negative.
 Some positive stereotypes, for example, suggest that certain groups are simply
better at athletics than other groups.
 But the problem with stereotypes, both positive and negative, is that they make
us unable to see the individual differences within a group of people. We lump
everyone together as if they are all the same.
 Basically, a stereotype is an overly simplistic understanding of a group of
people. It's a widely held belief that is based on an incorrect perception of
people.

So why do people continue to stereotype? Psychologists believe that there are a
few reasons why. For one thing, as humans we encounter a lot of information in our
social world. We might try and simplify it so that we can process it. The incorrect
perceptions we have of people may result from this effort to try to understand our
world. It can also be the case that we expect certain things about different groups or
situations. So, stereotypes serve a function in that they confirm our expectations.
Stereotypes can be categorized as
 Explicit- meaning the person is aware that they have these thoughts towards
a group of people and they can say it out loud.
 Implicit- wherein a person does not know if they have these stereotypes since
it lies in their subconscious.
But stereotyping is also tied to prejudice, or “a particular attitude toward a certain

group of people”. You can think about stereotyping as a belief and prejudice as an
attitude. A belief might just be accepting that one particular thing is true. But an attitude
can be reflected in our behavior more deeply.
Stereotypes are dangerous because they can lead to prejudice. For example,
believing that a minority group is lazy is a stereotype and beginning to form attitudes
about this group based on this stereotype is a form of prejudice. It shapes our
perceptions of this group without any evidence. This can lead to discrimination, which
is our next point.
How do gender stereotypes affect people?
A stereotype is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or group —
even though it’s overly simplified and not always accurate. Stereotypes about gender
can cause unequal and unfair treatment because of a person’s gender. This is called
sexism.
There are four basic kinds of gender stereotypes:
• Personality traits — For example, women are often expected to be
accommodating and emotional, while men are usually expected to be self-confident
and aggressive.
• Domestic behaviors — For example, some people expect that women will
take care of the children, cook, and clean the home, while men take care of finances,
work on the car, and do the home repairs.
• Occupations — Some people are quick to assume that teachers and nurses
are women, and that pilots, doctors, and engineers are men.
• Physical appearance — For example, women are expected to be thin and
graceful, while men are expected to be tall and muscular. Men and women are also
expected to dress and groom in ways that are stereotypical to their gender (men
wearing pants and short hairstyles, women wearing dresses and make-up.
Hyperfemininity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed to
be feminine. Hyperfeminine folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to be feminine.
This may include being passive, naive, sexually inexperienced, soft, flirtatious,
graceful, nurturing, and accepting.

Hypermasculinity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed
to be masculine. Hypermasculine folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to be
masculine. They believe they’re supposed to compete with other men and dominate
feminine folks by being aggressive, worldly, sexually experienced, insensitive,
physically imposing, ambitious, and demanding.
These exaggerated gender stereotypes can make relationships between
people difficult. Hyperfeminine folks are more likely to endure physical and emotional
abuse from their partners. Hypermasculine folks are more likely to be physically and
emotionally abusive to their partners.
Extreme gender stereotypes are harmful because they don’t allow people to
fully express themselves and their emotions. For example, it’s harmful to masculine
folks to feel that they’re not allowed to cry or express sensitive emotions. And it’s
harmful to feminine folks to feel that they’re not allowed to be independent, smart or
assertive. Breaking down gender stereotypes allows everyone to be their best selves.
Exercise 1.2.4.A
Reflect about the following questions.
1. Give 10 stereotypes can you think about the following:
a. Filipino men
b. Filipino Women
c. Bisaya, Bicolano, Ilokano
d. Bakla, Tomboy, Transgender
e. Senior Citizens
2. Is it more negative or positive stereotypes?
Discrimination
While prejudice refers to biased thinking, discrimination consists of actions

against a group of people. Discrimination can be based on age, religion, health, and
other indicators; race-based laws against discrimination strive to address this set of
social problems.

Discrimination based on race or ethnicity can take many forms, from unfair
housing practices to biased hiring systems. Overt discrimination has long been part of
U.S. history. In the late nineteenth century, it was not uncommon for business owners
to hang signs that read, “Help Wanted: No Irish Need Apply.” And southern Jim Crow
laws, with their “Whites Only” signs, exemplified overt discrimination that is not
tolerated today.
However, we cannot erase discrimination from our culture just by enacting laws
to abolish it. Even if a magic pill managed to eradicate racism from each individual’s
psyche, society itself would maintain it. Sociologist Émile Durkheim calls racism a
social fact, meaning that it does not require the action of individuals to continue. The
reasons for this are complex and relate to the educational, criminal, economic, and
political systems that exist in our society.
For example, when a newspaper identifies by race individuals accused of a

crime, it may enhance stereotypes of a certain minority. Another example of racist
practices is racial steering, in which real estate agents direct prospective
homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race. Racist
attitudes and beliefs are often more insidious and harder to pin down than specific
racist practices.
Prejudice and discrimination can overlap and intersect in many ways. To

illustrate, here are four examples of how prejudice and discrimination can occur.
Unprejudiced non-discriminatory are open-minded, tolerant, and accepting individuals.
Unprejudiced discriminators might be those who unthinkingly practice sexism in their
workplace by not considering females for certain positions that have traditionally been
held by men. Prejudiced non-discriminatory are those who hold racist beliefs but don’t
act on them, such as a racist store owner who serves minority customers. Prejudiced
discriminators include those who actively make disparaging remarks about others or
who perpetuate hate crimes.
Discrimination also manifests in different ways. The scenarios above are

examples of individual discrimination, but other types exist. Institutional discrimination
occurs when a societal system has developed with embedded disenfranchisement of
a group, such as the U.S. military’s historical no acceptance of minority sexualities (the
“don’t ask, don’t tell” policy reflected this norm).
Institutional discrimination can also include the promotion of a group’s status,

such in the case of white privilege, which is the benefits people receive simply by
being part of the dominant group.
While most white people are willing to admit that nonwhite people live with a
set of disadvantages due to the color of their skin, very few are willing to acknowledge
the benefits they receive.
The most frequent types of discrimination

There are many types of discrimination. Although some may look similar, they have
their differences. Many types of discrimination often overlap when making a value
judgment towards a person or group of people.

1- Racism
It considers some human groups inferior to others because of their ethnic origin. The
most common case is racism against the black race, but it also extends to other races
such as indigenous, Asian, etc.
2- Discrimination by nationality or ethnic origin
More commonly called xenophobia, it is nothing more than the rejection or hostility
towards the foreigner by the simple fact of being it, beyond the race or the color of
skin.
This hostility often leads to generalized value judgments against a gentilicio such as:
"all Galicians are brutals", "all Colombians are drug traffickers", etc. This also applies
to ethnic groups, indigenous communities and / or indigenous peoples.
3- Discrimination based on sexual orientation
Homophobia is a term that explains the aversion to homosexuals, whether these men
or women, and ultimately also includes transsexuals, bisexuals, metrosexuals and
anyone who has attitudes or ways that, according to the discriminator, are not
according to their gender.
4 - Discrimination by gender
It is the rejection of a person for the simple fact of being a man or a woman, although
this attitude is mostly associated with the rejection of women as weak or inferior to
men.
This hostility arises mainly from the patriarchal and macho culture of most Western
societies that for centuries have placed women in a secondary and basically
reproductive role. It is one of the discriminations against which we fight tirelessly
around the world with very subtle but encouraging changes.
5- Discrimination against women at work
The woman has been discriminated against for the simple fact of being a woman for
centuries. But since the last decades, when the female sex began to leave their homes
to enter the formal labor camp, brought with it another type of discrimination more
particular.
In other words, the widespread exclusion of women was transferred to the labor
market, giving them lower-level positions than men or, in any case, the same positions
with lower wages. Women have fewer opportunities to get jobs, especially in middle
and high positions.
6- Maternity Discrimination
The main cause why some companies avoid hiring women and prefer to hold those
positions with men is because of the wonderful ability of women to bring life to the
world.

It is considered that this can lead to greater absenteeism and a decrease in work
capacity, resulting in a decrease in production. In addition, most countries have laws
that give leave to mothers after childbirth, leading to absenteeism that must be
covered, leading to higher wage costs.
7- Discrimination by age
They discriminate or stereotype the individual based on their age, whether they are
older adults, children or adolescents. In Western societies there is an exacerbated cult
of youth, despising or minimizing the old, without considering that the experience of
the years is an invaluable capital.
In most cases of discrimination against older adults, there is often a very common type
of discrimination, which is discrimination at work.
8- Discrimination in the workplace
Even in societies that regularly proclaim and practice equal opportunities, members of
discriminated groups are far from enjoying equal conditions in the workplace.
Within this scope many types of discrimination are practiced, making a sort of
representation on the scale of the general situation of society.
Discrimination on the basis of race, sex (see Discrimination against women at work)
and by age can be found: those over 50 are considered to be old and their chances of
finding a job are diminished. The current tendency is to hire young people who can be
"molded" to the taste and requirement of the companies.
However, there is also discrimination against young people who, having no

experience, are at a dead end: they ask for previous experience, but how to acquire it
if they do not hire them?
9- Wage Discrimination
Companies believe that one person should not win the same as another doing the
same job, because of his status as a woman, his race, etc. Although both have the
same physical or intellectual capacity to perform it and for this reason two people with
the same position can receive different salary.
10- Discrimination by physical appearance
Obese, albinos, people with marks or scars, tattoos or perforations on the skin, etc.
Are usually rejected a priori.
11- Discrimination due to disability or illness
The twentieth century brought with it a modern form of disease discrimination: HIV /
AIDS has relegated people suffering from this disease to a corner. At first it was by
disinformation and ignorance, then by simple mistrust.

People with other diseases such as Down syndrome, autism, Asperger syndrome,
cerebral palsy or physically disabled, continue to be marginalized.
12- Religious Discrimination
Throughout history has been seen how, in the name of some God, have been fought
the most bloody battles. This happens today with as much or more vigor as before,
where a person can be rejected and even stigmatized by his religious beliefs And the
customs that derive from them.
13- Ideological Discrimination
It is perhaps, along with religious discrimination, the most widespread and harmful
form of discrimination today. It has to do with the rejection of people or groups of
people by the mere fact of thinking differently, of having political positions or
philosophical convictions different or adverse to those of the other.
14- Linguistic discrimination
An individual or social group is rejected for its language, accent or dialect. It is common
for a foreigner to be mocked by his pronunciation.
In the workplace, an employer cannot base his decision not to hire a person for his
foreign accent, unless it interferes with the performance of his position.
15- Cultural Discrimination
It is often in conjunction with racial or ethnic discrimination caused by ethnocentrism.

Its most common expression is the rejection of indigenous communities, which
become Minority groups. Their dress, language and their ancestral practices that
cannot be understood or respected as part of their ancestral culture.
16- Economic discrimination
It differentiates between people by the amount of money or assets they possess. This
usually results in discrimination by social class.
17- Discrimination by social class
It marginalizes certain individuals from the benefits they could have within society.
Both economic and social discrimination comes from inequality in income or education
opportunities. The most degrading form of discrimination for these reasons is slavery.
18- Discrimination in school socialization
As school is the seedbed of the adults of the future, it is worrying that in recent times
education will not be able to contribute to overcoming inequalities or reducing the
social gap.

Discrimination in schools is increasing, something that has recently been called"
Bullying "And has to do with the physical or psychological abuse of which some boys
in the school are victim on the part of their peers by the fact of being "different" to what
the school society considers accepted, interesting or amusing.
19- Discrimination by laterality
It is the discrimination that exists between right-handed and left-handed. For centuries
the lefties have been seen with rarity and have been awarded demonic characteristics.
Activity 1.2.4
Watch the “Freedom Writers” a 2007 American drama film written by Richard
LaGravenese and write a simple summary and write down the different
discriminations in this movie.

Assessment
 Differentiate stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination. Provide five examples
of each.
 Look for TV or newspaper advertisements which you think are promoting

stereotypes, prejudice, or discrimination. Print this advertisement on a bond
paper. Write down an essay explaining why you think so and how to make
the advertisement more inclusive.
Suggested Readings:
E.P. Peralta, N.J. Botor, T.M Laude., 2019., A Course Module for Gender and
Stereotyping & Discrimination: Comparison, Dynamics & Effects. (2017, March 4).
Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/stereotyping-discrimination-
comparison-dynamics-effects.html.
Klonoff, E., and H. Landrine. 2000. “Is Skin Color a Marker for Racial Discrimination?
Explaining the Skin Color-Hypertension Relationship.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine.
23: 329–338.
The 18 Most Common Types of Discrimination retrieved from

https://www.lifepersona.com/the-18-most-common-types-of-discrimination

Appendix
QUICK QUIZ

Definition of Terms
 Abortion - is the ending of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an

embryo or fetus.
 Adolescence - the period following the onset of puberty during which a
young person develops from a child into an adult.
 Anatomy - is the study of the structures of the human body, such as the
features of how the organs, tissues and body systems are constructed
 Physiology - is the study of the coordinated functions of the organs,
tissues and systems in the body
 Asymptomatic - a condition or a person producing or showing no
symptoms.
 Chromosomes - is a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic
material of an organism.
 Cisgender - denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal
identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex.
 Exhibitionism - is the act of exposing in a public or semi-public context
those parts of one's body that are not normally exposed – for example,
the breasts, genitals.
 Fetus - an unborn offspring of a mammal, in particular an unborn human
baby more than eight weeks after conception.
 Haploid - is the term used when a cell has half the usual number of
chromosomes. A normal eukaryote organism is composed of diploid
cells, one set of chromosomes from each parent.
 Infertility - means not being able to become pregnant after a year of
trying.
 Meiosis - is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four
cells containing half the original amount of genetic information.
 Menstrual - is the hormonal process a woman's body goes through each
month to prepare for a possible pregnancy.
 Mutilation - s cutting off or causing injury to a body part of a person so
that the part of the body is permanently damaged, detached or
disfigured.
 Oocyte - a cell in an ovary which may undergo meiotic division to form
an ovum
 Oogenesis - the production or development of an ovum.
 Ova/Ovum - It is female gamete.
 Pedophilia - is a psychiatric disorder in which an adult or older
adolescent experiences a primary or exclusive sexual attraction to
prepubescent children.
 Phobia - an extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something
 Prophase - is the first phase of mitosis, the process that separates the
duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two
identical daughter cells.
 Puberty - is the time in life when a boy or girl becomes sexually mature.
It is a process that usually happens between ages 10 and 14 for girls
and ages 12 and 16 for boys.
 Sadism - the tendency to derive pleasure, especially sexual gratification,
from inflicting pain, suffering, or humiliation on others.

 Semen - the male reproductive fluid, containing spermatozoa in
suspension.
 Sperm – It is a male gamete. It has a head and a long tail, which helps
it swim towards the ovum (egg).
 Spermatogenesis - the production or development of mature
spermatozoa.
 Sterility - is the physiological inability to effect sexual reproduction in a
living thing, members of whose kind have been produced sexually.
 Transgender – are those people who have a gender identity or gender
expression that differs from their sex assigned at birth.
 Vaginismus - is involuntary contraction of muscles around the opening
of the vagina in women with no abnormalities in the genital organs.
 Voyeurism - the practice of gaining sexual pleasure from watching
others when they are naked or engaged in sexual activity.
 Zygote – fertilized ova/ovum
Exercise 1.2.1.B Explanation
That jacket is kind of big on you, isn’t it?
This is more feminine. Not only is there hedging (kind of), and a tag question (isn’t it?),
there is focus on you (2nd person pronoun). (Stereotypically, of course, women might
also care more about clothes and how they look.) We can’t say much about the
situation without more information, but it is certainly possible (given that this is already
quite “feminine” in feel) that this is an indirect negative comment, to indicate that “you”
shouldn’t be wearing the jacket, that it doesn’t look good.
Need some help with that?
Although this may seem relatively gender-neutral, it will be judged by many as more
masculine, particularly if it is spoken to a woman. The speaker does not use a
complete sentence, and expresses a great deal of confidence (he assumes he is able
to help, that he can solve the problem).
I just love Colorado — it’s absolutely gorgeous!
This is very feminine. A boy or man who speaks this way is most likely either proudly
claiming a non-traditional gender identity for himself, or is mocking someone else. The
speaker uses a 1st person pronoun (I) and a private verb (love) to express a private
feeling rather than a simple fact about the world, she uses hedging (just),
intensification (absolutely), a “flowery, feminine” descriptor (gorgeous), and
contrastive stress. Presumably, the exclamation point also indicates a strong
intonational contour. That’s seven feminine characteristics in seven words!
Oh, shoot, I don’t know if you remember, but today is Mary’s birthday.

This is fairly feminine as well. “Shoot” is a euphemistic version of “shit,” and much
weaker as an exclamation, and so more feminine in feel. “I don’t know if you
remember” contains an admission of ignorance as well as emphasis on I and you, and
the whole clause would be irrelevant if we don’t interpret it as being an indirect
comment. The speaker seems to be reminding you (or complaining) that you forgot
Mary’s birthday, but is avoiding expressing this in a negative or angry way. She
mitigates the threat of the speech act by showing (or pretending) that she just
remembered herself (“Oh!”), so you can’t be blamed too much for forgetting.
That guy’s a dick.
This is a masculine sentence: brief (no added hedges or intensifiers), direct, and
vulgar. Even if a milder noun had been chosen (jerk, say), it would still be quite
masculine. The statement expresses complete certainty, with no invitation to disagree
or discuss, and it’s not a statement of feeling or belief; it’s an observation about the
world. It doesn’t even sound emotional (no exclamation point). Women may say
sentences like this, but they know they sound more masculine when they do.
My Mom makes awesome lasagna!
This is fairly gender-neutral. “Awesome” is used for positive evaluation by young men
and women alike. There is an absence of specifically feminine features (no hedging
or indirectness, e.g.) but an equal absence of markers of masculinity (no vulgarity or
nonstandard uses, e.g.). The only emotion expressed is enthusiasm for food, which is
considered appropriate for either sex. (And both men and women are allowed to
appreciate their mammas.)
Gotta run. Later, dude!
This is masculine style. There are sentence fragments and informalities (gotta, dude).
There is some politeness here (offering the “explanation” that the speaker “has to”
leave, and assuring the other he’ll see him later), but not as much as we might expect
from a woman.
How was the concert last night?
This is fairly gender-neutral. It’s a direct question, but not one that requires the hearer
to express private or emotional thoughts.
I’m so sorry, I couldn’t quite hear you just then. What did you say?
This is very feminine. It features not only a direct and intensified apology (where none
is actually needed), but a further “explanation” (doubly hedged with “quite” and “just
then”) of why the following request has to be made. That’s a whole lot of politeness for
a simple request for repetition. (And note that asking someone to repeat their words
shows that the speaker really cares what the other has to say!) A man might use such
a style when speaking to someone with great power over him (his boss or his
professor), but it is hard to imagine a man saying this to another man he considers to
be his equal.

You gotta be fuckin’ kiddin’ me!
This is masculine style. Informal words, pronunciations, and grammar (with the
auxiliary have omitted). There is some emotion, but it appears to be frustration, which
is more socially acceptable from men than from women, and the only intensification is
taboo language. Although the focus is on me and you, this is confrontational and
argumentative, not cooperative and supportive.

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Module 1

Basic Concepts of Sex, 3

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY.2020

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 1|Page

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 2|Page

Basic Concepts of Sex, Gender, and Culture

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 3|Page

4. What provides protection for the embryo during development?

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 4|Page

Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females,

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 5|Page

Anatomy is the study of the structures of the human body, such

Figure 1.1. Female Reproductive Organ

The female reproductive system includes the:

 Vagina – a muscular passage that connects the cervix with

 Uterus – a hollow, pear-shaped, elastic muscular structure

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 6|Page

 Fallopian tubes (also called oviduct) – 2 thin tubes that

Figure 1.2. Male Reproductive Organ

 Testicles (or testes) – 2 oval-shaped organs that produce

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 7|Page

Watch this video:

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 8|Page

1.1.2. The Process of Reproduction

Human reproduction is a complex and remarkable

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 9|Page

Watch this video: youtube.com/watch?v=lH9loPdk_nQ

Watch this video:

Watch this video:

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 10 | P a g e

Watch this video to watch how fetus is developed week by week

Sexual Reproduction Model

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 11 | P a g e

1.1.3. Sexual Health and Hygiene

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Sexual Health Problems

 Sexual health problems are the result of condition, either

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Hygiene is a series of practices performed to

Problems and Strategies

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The Top Five Risky Behavior

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Positive Risk-Taking: Finding Healthy Challenges

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 18 | P a g e

 The term sex denotes biological characteristics and physiological

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1.2.1. Masculinity and Femininity Across Cultures

“Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are

“Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles

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What are the Gender Differences Within one Culture?

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 24 | P a g e

Examples of Masculinity Countries

 Japan (highest scoring country in the world!)

Examples of Feminine Countries

GENDER AND CONTEMPORARY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY 2020.MODULE 1 25 | P a g e

 Individualism indicates that there is a greater importance place on attaining

Group yourselves. Ask a group, do the following: